capstone paper introduction

CAPSTONE PROJECT: Parts of a Capstone Project

• Parts of a Capstone Project
• Voice in the Capstone Project
• Analysis of Qualitative Data

What a Table of Contents Could Contain

I      Introduction        A     Statement Of Problem/Opportunity (Research Question)        B     Background, Context, And Significance Of Study        C     Project Researcher Identification II     Literature Review        A     Subheadings (Themes Discovered In Review)        B     Notice Of Gaps In Knowledge III    Methods        A     Subjects/Participants        B     Data Collection Approaches/Strategies              1     Advantage Of Strategy              2     Limitation Of Strategy              3     Potential Risk              4     Ethical Issues About Collection Upon The Subjects/Participants        C     Data Analysis Approaches And/Or Software (NOT The Results Themselves, Just How You Are Going To Analyze The Data – Coding Method, Analysis Of Interviews/Recordings, Mathematics And Stats Analysis) IV     Results, Findings, Interpretation, And Discussion V      Recommendations, Application, And Conclusion VI     Reference Pages

What Goes Into Each Section

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How to Write a Capstone Paper

March 21, 2024

Embarking on the journey to write a capstone paper can be a pinnacle achievement for students nearing the end of their academic programs. This comprehensive project showcases your cumulative knowledge and skills and prepares you for future scholarly or professional pursuits. In this guide, we will navigate the essential steps and strategies to craft a compelling capstone paper, from selecting a topic to formatting and citations. We aim to equip you with the knowledge to produce a well-researched and thoughtfully written paper that meets the highest standards of academic excellence.

What is a Capstone Paper?

A capstone paper is a multifaceted assignment that serves as a culminating academic and intellectual experience for students. Unlike a standard research paper, a capstone paper involves identifying a unique problem, issue, or question in your field and conducting thorough research to address it. This process includes synthesizing theory and practice, applying critical thinking, and engaging in extensive analysis to contribute meaningful insights to the subject area. Understanding the purpose and scope of a capstone paper is crucial as you embark on this academic endeavor.

A capstone paper demands high dedication and intellectual rigor, as it requires you to explore a specific topic comprehensively and reflect on its broader implications within your field. The structure and content of a capstone paper vary significantly by discipline. Still, its core aim remains constant: to push you to think critically, conduct independent research, and articulate your findings coherently and persuasively. This comprehensive project encourages you to identify and tackle complex problems, propose innovative solutions, and contribute new perspectives or findings to your study area. Through this process, a capstone paper facilitates the transition from student to scholar, providing a platform to refine and demonstrate your research, analytical, and writing skills in preparation for future academic or professional pursuits.

Choosing a Topic and Formulating a Research Question

Selecting an engaging and viable topic is the first step in writing a capstone paper. Your topic should spark your interest and have sufficient depth and complexity to warrant extensive research. Begin by exploring current trends, issues, and gaps in your field. Once you’ve identified a potential area, narrow your focus to a specific research question. This question should be clear, concise, and answerable within the scope of your capstone project.

After determining your broad area of interest, delve deeper into the literature to refine your topic further. Engage with recent studies, expert opinions, and theoretical frameworks to understand the nuances of your chosen field. This preliminary research will help you identify a gap or a unique perspective that your capstone paper could explore. Consider discussing your ideas with faculty members, mentors, or peers to get feedback and additional insights.

Your research question should reflect a gap in the existing literature and align with your academic and professional interests, motivating you to write a capstone paper and pursue the research diligently. It’s also essential to consider the feasibility of your research question – can it be researched within the time and resources available to you? Once you have a solid research question, it becomes the foundation upon which your entire capstone paper is built, guiding your research, analysis, and conclusions.

Conducting Initial Research and Gathering Resources

Initial research is pivotal for grounding your capstone paper in a strong knowledge base. Start by gathering scholarly articles, books, and credible online resources related to your topic. This phase is about building a foundation, understanding the current discourse, and identifying where your research can contribute new insights. Organize your findings systematically to facilitate easy access and reference throughout the writing process.

Utilize academic databases such as Google Scholar to locate peer-reviewed articles that provide depth and authority to your research. Online and physical libraries are invaluable for accessing books and journals that may not be freely available online. Additionally, consider exploring specialized databases related to your field for more targeted resources. Keeping detailed notes on your sources, including authors, titles, publication dates, and key findings, will help you cite these sources accurately and synthesize the existing literature with your original research. To manage this wealth of information, software tools can be incredibly useful for organizing your references and creating a personal library of research materials. This initial phase of research is crucial for framing your project, ensuring that you’re not duplicating existing work, and setting a direction for your capstone paper that is both innovative and grounded in academic rigor.

Creating an Outline

An outline is your roadmap, providing a structured framework for your capstone paper. It should include:

• Introduction: Introduce your study’s topic, research question, and significance.
• Background Information: Offer context and key concepts related to your research.
• Methodology: Describe your research design and approach to data collection and analysis.
• Findings: Present the data or insights gathered through your research.
• Analysis and Discussion: Interpret your findings, discussing their implications and how they contribute to the field.
• Conclusions and Recommendations: Summarize your research and suggest practical or theoretical implications.

Your outline serves as a blueprint, ensuring your capstone paper is coherent, logically organized, and comprehensive. Start with a broad overview in the introduction, setting the stage for your research by highlighting its importance and the gap it seeks to fill. The background section should delve deeper into the literature, providing a solid academic foundation and justifying your research question.

To write a capstone paper, in the methodology section, detail your data collection and analysis strategies, offering transparency and allowing readers to gauge the reliability of your findings. This section should be precise, explaining the choices you made and how they align with your research objectives.

Plan to present your results clearly and systematically when outlining the findings section. Depending on your research, this may include quantitative data, qualitative insights, or a combination of both. Charts, graphs, and tables can effectively illustrate your points.

In the analysis and discussion segment, you interpret your data, drawing connections between your findings and existing knowledge. Discuss the significance of your results and how they impact the understanding of your research question.

Finally, your conclusions and recommendations should wrap up your research and propose directions for future study or practical applications of your findings. This section reinforces the value of your work and its contribution to the field.

By carefully structuring your outline, you ensure each section flows into the next, creating a cohesive and persuasive capstone paper that addresses your research question thoroughly and convincingly.

Writing the Introduction and Background Information

Begin your introduction with a compelling statement or question that captures the reader’s attention, drawing them into the importance of your research topic. Clearly state your research question and briefly outline the objectives of your study, making it clear why this research is both necessary and timely. Highlight any unique aspects of your study and its potential contributions to the field.

The background information should build on the groundwork laid by your introduction, delving deeper into the existing literature and theoretical frameworks relevant to your topic. This section is where you map out the academic terrain, showing how your research fits within and responds to ongoing debates or gaps in the field. It should provide a comprehensive overview of the key studies and theories that have shaped your research area, offering insights into the evolution of thought and identifying where your work will make its mark.

The introduction and background sections should inform and intrigue, creating a narrative that makes your capstone paper a compelling addition to the scholarly conversation. This is your opportunity to argue the value of your research and to persuade your readers that what follows is worth their attention.

Developing a Clear and Concise Methodology

The methodology section should detail the procedures and techniques for gathering and analyzing data. Be precise and transparent in your description to write a capstone paper, allowing readers to understand how you arrived at your findings.

In developing your methodology, start by outlining the research design, whether it be experimental, correlational, qualitative, quantitative, or a mixed-methods approach. Clarify your rationale for choosing this design, linking it to the research question and objectives. Describe the setting and context of your study, the population and sample selection, and the criteria for inclusion or exclusion. It’s essential to detail the data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or archival research, and justify these choices based on their suitability for addressing your research questions.

Moreover, explain the procedures for data collection in a step-by-step manner, ensuring that your study can be replicated. This includes discussing instruments or tools employed, such as questionnaires or software, and their validity and reliability.

Analyzing and Interpreting Your Findings

In analyzing and interpreting your findings, it’s crucial to approach your data with a critical eye, evaluating its implications within the context of your research question and the wider body of academic literature. Begin by summarizing the key results, then examine what these results mean in relation to your study’s objectives. Use your analytical framework to dissect the data, identifying how it supports, contradicts, or expands upon existing theories and research.

Quantitative studies may involve statistical analysis, highlighting significant correlations or differences and discussing their relevance. For qualitative research, thematic analysis or narrative interpretations will be key, focusing on how the themes you’ve identified contribute to understanding the research problem.

Drawing Conclusions and Making Recommendations

Drawing conclusions and making recommendations are critical aspects of any research project, and they play a pivotal role in the final stages of your capstone paper. To effectively conclude your paper, it is essential to summarize your findings and discuss their broader implications concisely. By doing so, you can offer your readers a clear understanding of the significance of your research and how it contributes to the existing body of knowledge in your field.

In addition to summarizing your findings, reflecting on the methodologies and approaches used in your study is crucial. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your research design and data analysis methods. Address any unexpected challenges or limitations encountered during the research process, as this transparency can help guide future researchers in similar endeavors.

Formatting and Citations

Formatting and citations are essential to academic writing, demonstrating your commitment to scholarly integrity and precision. Choosing the correct academic style guide, whether it’s APA, MLA, Chicago, or any other specified by your program, is crucial to write a capstone paper and maintaining consistency and uniformity throughout your paper. By following the prescribed guidelines, you ensure that your document is visually cohesive and provides proper credit to your consulted sources.

Accurate and complete citations are paramount in academia. Each citation should include all necessary information for readers to locate the source you referenced. This typically includes the author(s)’ names, publication date, title, and publication information. Double-check your citations against the guidelines of your chosen style, and pay close attention to the punctuation, formatting, and capitalization rules to ensure correctness.

Writing a capstone paper is a significant academic endeavor that requires dedication, thorough research, and critical analysis. By following this guide, you’ll be well-equipped to produce a paper that fulfills academic requirements and contributes valuable insights to your field. Remember, a successful capstone paper is the result of strategic planning, meticulous research, and thoughtful writing. Embrace this opportunity to showcase your academic prowess and make a meaningful contribution to your discipline.

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• Capstone Resources
• Literature Searches

Parts of a Scientific & Scholarly Paper

Introduction.

• Tracking and Citing References
• Books on Effective Writing
• Where to Publish?
• Examples of Projects
• Resources by Topic Area

Different sections are needed in different types of scientific papers (lab reports, literature reviews, systematic reviews, methods papers, research papers, etc.). Projects that overlap with the social sciences or humanities may have different requirements. Generally, however, you'll need to include:

INTRODUCTION (Background)

METHODS SECTION (Materials and Methods)

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Capstone & Thesis Research

Before you begin your research project, steps in doing a capstone paper or project, graduate thesis and dissertation general guidelines, find theses and dissertations, academic writing and research video, watch and learn with webster u. library online presentations, the research cycle.

• Thinking about your Project
• Selecting and Focusing Your Research Topic
• Start Searching
• Literature Review This link opens in a new window
• Doing Primary Research
• Presentation Skills This link opens in a new window
• Specific Graduate Programs
• Writing and Citing
• Mendeley Citation Manager This link opens in a new window

Need help? Ask a librarian or chat

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Make sure you understand what is required. Read your assignment carefully and talk with your instructor if you need clarification. Think about how much time and other resources you have and need to complete all parts of the research assignment within the course timetable.

Select a topic area. See the " Selecting and focusing your research topic " tab at left for suggestions on choosing a topic, narrowing your focus, and developing a thesis statement or research question.

Do a literature review. The " Literature Review " tab will link you to helpful resources for planning a search and organizing your results. The "Start Searching" tab gives some examples for using article databases effectively.

Doing primary research (for those students required to do so). Check the " Doing primary research " tab for resources on creating surveys, finding tests, designing studies, etc.

Present your results. The " Writing & Citing " tab brings together resources for writing the paper, citing your sources, and avoiding plagiarism. The " Presentation skills " tab will help you create effective visual aids and deliver a professional presentation.

Here you will find everything you need to know about the purpose of a dissertation or thesis and the steps to complete and submit your work.

The Guidelines were created by the Webster University Office of Academic Affairs and approved by Webster University Graduate Council. The most recent version of the Guidelines is the 2023 revision.

• Theses and Dissertation Guidelines
• Does the library have theses in the collection?
• Does the library keep graduate capstone (a.k.a. 6000) papers?
• How do I find a thesis or dissertation?

Academic writing and research: Top tips to transform your paper

• Academic Writing & Research: Top Tips to Transform Your Paper (Recorded on Apr. 3, 2019; 37 minutes) New to writing and research or just want to up your game? Join us! Learn simple and effective tips from Writing Center and Library staff to make your writing more polished and to find and integrate others’ ideas and research to strengthen your thesis and argument. Click here to watch specific parts of this video.

Watch  specific topics in this video

Visit our Library Training, Tutorials & Webinars  page to see tutorials that will sharpen your research skills and offer helpful guidance in doing a capstone, thesis or advanced research project. Recorded webinars may be watched at your convenience. Live webinars offer an interactive experience with Webster U. librarians present to answer your questions.

The Research Cycle is a circular process with the goal of identifying relevant and useful results.  The pieces of the process are:

• Define task: What is your assignment, problem or question?
• Identify options: What kinds of information do you need and where do you look?
• Select your sources: How do you search for them and which do you choose?
• Analyze content: What di you discover and what does it mean?
• Present findings: How do you organize and communicate what you have learned?

When you complete these steps you will need to evaluate your results.  Depending on your assignment you may need to refine or change your question and begin the process again.

 CMST 101: Introduction to Communications, Marian Lyles: Intro to Research. Seattle Central College Library.  Seattle Central College. 10 Feb. 2016. Web. 16 Jun 2016.

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Master's Capstone Writing: Master's Capstone Writing

Introduction.

Many—although not all—master’s students complete their program with a capstone course. These capstone courses look different depending on the program and program learning outcomes. However, there are some common characteristics in these capstone courses, one of which is that it usually requires intensive writing throughout the course. Students need to use all of the skills they have learned thus far in this culmination of their degree, often writing and developing one final capstone throughout the entire capstone course.

With this in mind, we have collected Writing Center resources that will be particularly useful for master’s students writing their capstone. We also have listed resources that will be helpful for students in particular programs. Additionally, if you are looking for help on something specific that you don’t see here, be sure to reach out and ask. Questions can be directed to Ask OASIS .

If you’re a master’s student and you’re not sure you are in the right place, note that master’s program capstones can be called by many different names—capstone project, master’s project, capstone, final project, scholarly project, case study, treatise, and research project—although the resources we’ve identified here should be useful for all master’s capstones, no matter what they are called.

Getting Started

You will most likely be writing, developing, and revising your capstone from week to week throughout the entire capstone course. Thorough preparation is essential to set a foundation for the writing you’ll be doing. To help you take notes, organize your thoughts, and research, use these resources:

• Our Goal Setting pages offer suggestions about how to set and achieve your writing goals as you work on longer projects, like the master’s capstone.
• Our Prewriting pages include tips for critical reading, taking notes, organizing ideas, and outlining.
• The Prewriting Techniques: Taking the First Steps recorded webinar will also give you examples of how to lay the foundation for your writing.
• Episode 34, Taking Care of Yourself with Mindful Writing , and the follow-up Episode 35 will help you learn how to fit writing your capstone in with the rest of your life via mindful writing.
• Watch the recorded webinar Walden Assignment Prompts: Learn the Requirements to ensure you fully understand the expectations for your capstone, which will be outlined in the grading rubric, prompt, and other information in your course. Even if the final rubric for your capstone is posted in the last week of the course’s resources, we suggest you download it now to ensure you’re fulfilling the final expectations for your capstone as you develop it each week.

Also note that you may be asked to write one of the following kinds of documents as part of your capstone.

• Presentations webpages
• Annotated Bibliographies webpages ;  Annotated Bibliographies recorded webinar
• Literature Reviews pages ; Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography Basics recorded webinar
• Executive Summaries webpages

Of course, don’t forget to use the Library for help researching too!

Writing your first draft may seem overwhelming, but many capstone courses break down the process across multiple weeks in the capstone course. Remember to take it one step at a time and know that you will have time to revise once you’ve written a first draft. To help you with your writing, use these resources:

Developing Your Capstone

• Our Drafting pages will help you with essential components of your capstone, like an introduction, conclusion, and thesis statement.
• Our Paragraphs pages will show you how to develop your ideas into academic paragraphs, and you can see even more examples in the recorded webinar Using the MEAL Plan to Write and Revise Academic Paragraphs .
• Episode 26 of our WriteCast podcast, Wrestling with Writer’s Block , will help you overcome any writer’s block you’re experiencing.
• Our Paper Review service offers you the opportunity to receive individualized feedback throughout the drafting process on your writing progress and goals.

Using Sources in Your Capstone

• Our Paraphrase pages and the recorded webinar Paraphrasing Source Information will help you paraphrase sources successfully, since paraphrasing evidence is often preferred in master’s capstones.
• Our Synthesis pages can help show you how to synthesize in your capstone, since at this point in your program you’ll also be expected to synthesize rather than summarize sources.
• Our Citing Sources Properly pages will ensure you are citing your sources, including just the right amount of citations throughout your writing.

Because you’ll be working on your capstone over multiple weeks, you’ll be expected and have ample opportunity to revise. Revision helps clarify and strengthen your writing, so you’ll be spending just as much if not more time revising than you spent writing your first draft. Use the following resources to help you with revision strategies:

• Use our Revising pages to make sure that you revise both at the paragraph level and for overall organization and clarity. This might be a longer paper than you’ve written in the past, so you have to be careful that it is organized clearly and effectively.
• The 5 Rs of Revision , WriteCast podcast episode 14, will help you learn about revision strategies.
• The Improving Your Writing: Strategies for Revising, Proofing, and Using Feedback recorded webinar will demonstrate revision strategies for you and give you tips on using instructor feedback to revise.

Proofreading and Editing

Once you’re near the end of your course, you’ll need to polish, proof, and edit your capstone to ensure you are not only following APA and grammar rules but also  don’t have any typos or unclear phrasing. Use the following resources and strategies to help you proof and edit your capstone:

• Our Proofreading pages outline a few proofing strategies, like reading aloud, printing a hardcopy, using spell checkers, etc.
• Speaking of spell checkers, try using Grammarly to catch typos and spelling errors.
• Use our Common Reference List Entries page , comparing each of your reference entries to the corresponding example so you can make adjustments.

Use our Citation Variations page , comparing each of your citations to the corresponding example so you can make adjustments.

Paper Review Appointments

Keep in mind that you don’t have to set out drafting and revising your master’s capstone project alone. We are here to support your writing progress and overall skill development. In fact, students who make three or more paper review appointments per term are statistically more likely to see progress in academic success. We encourage you to take advantage of this opportunity and to make multiple paper review appointments with our writing instructors. If you are interested, be sure to check our resources our paper review appointments and how to incorporate multiple appointments within your schedule . 

Program-Specific Capstone Tips

There are some other common tips and resources we can provide for master’s students’ capstones based on their program. If your program is in any of the following colleges, be sure to note these tips and resources too.

Capstones for College of Education and Human Sciences

Major assessments: For some students, portions of their capstone and capstone course may also be a major assessment. Our tips above apply in these cases too, but you may also find the recorded webinar Writing for the MAT, MSEd, EdD, & EdS Major Assessments helpful.

Capstones for College of Health Sciences and Public Policy

Literature reviews : Note that many programs in this college ask students to write a literature review . Sometimes these literature reviews focus more on summary or annotating sources than the synthesis -focused literature reviews we talk about in the Writing Center. In those cases, be sure to follow your instructor’s directions and preferences, as well as the expectations set in the capstone rubric.

Related Resource

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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AP Capstone Project: APA Format & Paper Organization

• APA Format & Paper Organization
• Quantitative Research
• How to Avoid Scientific Misconduct

Your Capstone Paper

Your capstone paper will fall into one of the following categories:

L iterature review :   A literature review is a critical summary of what the scientific literature says about your specific topic or question. This kind of paper demonstrates your familiarity with work in the field. If you chose to research a certain topic or concept in depth, you will most likely write a literature review.

Experimental Report:   If you conducted original research for your capstone or collected data based on observations , your paper will be an experimental report. You will still need to include a summary of the past and current research about your topic, but unlike a literature review, you will also include some analysis as well as your own data gathered from an experiment or observations. 

Everyone's capstone paper should contain the following elements: a title page, abstract, introduction, body, conclusion, and reference list.   Click on the link below to open and make a copy of the capstone paper template. If you have any questions, please come see Ms. Forfa (earlier is always better!)

Capstone Paper Editable Template

Other Helpful Resources:

• Help with In-Text Citations in APA Format
• APA Sample Paper This is useful, especially if you need help formatting your reference list!
• Citing & Referencing in APA Format
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• Last Updated: Apr 11, 2018 12:03 PM
• URL: https://shhs-southhadleyschools.libguides.com/apcapstone

Nursing Capstone Paper for BSN, MSN, and DNP Students

All students taking BSN, MSN, or DNP nursing education programs must complete a capstone paper at the end of their program as a partial requirement to attain a nursing degree. After completion, you will present the paper before a committee that will ask questions and rate you.

The evidenced-based paper proves that you are ready to put what you have learned into real-world healthcare settings. This is to say that, by the time you write a capstone paper, you will have developed and learned the essential skills needed to write it, such as time management, research design, knowledge of evidence-based practice, literature searches, writing, and critical thinking.

Even though the paper relies on what has been taught throughout school sessions, many students complain about it being challenging. This is true for those who did not master the required skills.

A nursing capstone paper needs adequate research, critical thinking, and good writing skills to demonstrate your knowledge and provide a solution to the raised healthcare problem. This is probably why you may have doubts about your skills.

So, if you have no idea where to start, this article will give you helpful insights into writing a good nursing capstone paper.

What is a Nursing Capstone Paper?

You are probably wondering what a capstone project is like in nursing school. Some call it a capstone or senior/final project, others a capstone. It is a culminating paper that promotes and advances career development for student nurses at different levels BSN (Bachelor of Science in Nursing), MSN (Master of Science in Nursing), Associate Degree in Nursing (ADN), and Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP).

A nursing capstone paper is a culminating academic research project written mainly by nursing students in their final or senior year of nursing studies. It entails the application of nursing theories and concepts in solving practical healthcare problems or issues.

It is an evidence-based practice (EBP) research paper that informs the methods used to deliver care and educate others in the community or selected population. It is meant to show the ability of a student to lead and practice at any level of clinical nursing practice.

Schools like West Govners University , Capella University, Liberty University, Devry, Duke University, Grand Canyon University, Regis University, Emory university, and other top nursing colleges and universities accept nursing capstone projects for one to graduate with nursing degrees. Therefore, understanding how to write a capstone proposal, choose a capstone project topic, and write one comes in handy. 

Purpose of Writing Nursing Capstone

Whatever specialization and program allow a capstone pathway, all nursing students must write a capstone paper that acts as a bridge to their nursing career. The paper is no different from the usual academic assignments. In most cases, a capstone paper can be a research paper, outcome-based evaluation, ethnographic study, case study, survey, and more.

A nursing capstone is a chance to demonstrate that you can solve real-world issues related to healthcare and healthcare systems. In most cases, you must address a practice problem that requires change, and you can only do this by demonstrating prowess in evidence-based practice.

There are limitless ideas that you can choose to focus your nursing capstone on. For instance, you can develop strategies to recruit student nurses in their final year to solve the nursing staffing issues currently rocking the global healthcare systems, focusing on the UK or USA. Likewise, you can develop strategies to improve patient satisfaction or new ways to reduce drug errors.

We have a comprehensive list of capstone project topics and ideas for your BSN, ADN, LPN, MSN, or DNP studies project.

A capstone project paper answers questions and deeply understands the project area. In addition, you will be required to conduct independent research and present a detailed analysis of the problem and potential solutions.

A good nursing capstone paper should integrate a few things, including:

• Outcomes and evaluation process
• Plan for sustainability
• Implement the appropriate area of practice
• Focus on the change impacting healthcare outcomes directly or indirectly
• Address the population's needs
• Have micro-, meso-, or macro-level systems

When designing a capstone project, ensure that the processes or the outcomes can be assessed to guide policy and practice. It should also be a foundation for future nursing practice scholarship.

Basic Structure for Nursing Capstone Paper

All nursing programs set their format for capstone paper, meaning that the format will vary depending on the program you are taking. However, since capstone paper is a formal evidence-based practice, there is a standard format structure they must all follow to impart a positive and impressive impression to the reader and assessor.

A title page, also known as a cover page, essentially aims to introduce the main topic to readers. Readers check the title first to see whether they will continue reading; if it doesn't interest them, they won't proceed any further. Therefore, you must carefully choose the words that will make the title. To come up with a good title, consider what you would search for in, for example, a PubMed journal. The title should be accurate, complete, and specific. Use the following to guide you:

• Use a few words, but not too few, to describe the message of your paper
• Don't use words like Studies on," "Investigations on," etc.
• Be specific
• Use keywords similar to those in the paper
• Don't use abbreviations or jargon
• Be careful with word order and syntax

You can write the title page in either APA or Harvard format. While Harvard is in Australia and the UK, APA is mostly preferred in nursing schools in the USA.

The abstract is a preview of your content. It is usually brief, containing between 200 and 250 words explaining the paper's aims and goals. In other words, it answers the paper's What, how, and why.

When writing an abstract, you should aim to be specific and selective and summarize each part of the paper in short sentences.

You can write the abstract after finalizing the paper so that you capture every important detail. These tips can guide you when writing the abstract:

• Use a well-developed paragraph
• Introduce the purpose, results, conclusions, and recommendations
• Ensure its easy to understand

Introduction

The introduction part of your capstone project should be captivating, engaging, and attractive to grab the readers' attention (markers or supervisors) off the bat. This means integrating a good hook sentence, which can be a shocking statistic, research facts, or a statement related to the topic you are exploring. For example, if you are looking at the impacts of covid-19 on the rising trends of childhood obesity, quote the figures indicating the percentage rise. Such epidemiological data breathes life into your introduction and makes your readers see the importance of your topic and further anticipate reading the entire capstone project paper.

After the hook, you should have a background statement where you lay bare the importance of your capstone project topic. Explain why you selected it, your interest in it, and why you prioritized the issue.

The introduction reveals your writing aim and provides sufficient background information to help readers understand and evaluate the paper. The background should also include information about the change agents or stakeholders.

The length of the introduction is capped at 10% of your capstone.

The introduction should have a thesis statement and an outline of the paper , and the thesis statement is the main idea of your paper.

Depending on what you selected for a capstone topic, you will need to introduce your PICOT question to your readers. It comprehensively helps them identify your capstone's scope and your approach to solving a given healthcare issue. You can then develop a nursing research question that guides the entire paper based on the PICOT statement or question.

Your introduction should also have a problem statement section, which can be a few lines where you describe the healthcare issue of interest and explain why it should be addressed. When exploring the problem, state the affected populations and your approach to solving it. This is followed by a statement of purpose where you highlight the aims and objectives of the capstone paper as you strive to address the identified problem. You should provide a rationale for the issue or problem you are addressing from the nursing point of view, using professional nursing literature sources and peer-reviewed nursing journals. You can use sources such as QSEN, CDC, NCHS, AHRQ, ANA, AHA, IOM, CMS, AMA, TJC, etc.

Keep in mind that an introduction is different from an abstract. Whereas an abstract summarizes your paper, an introduction shows its justification and what readers should expect. Use the following tips to write a better introduction for your nursing capstone:

• Be brief, clear, and organized
• Read some of the capstone samples for inspiration
• Always use present tense throughout the paper
• Ensure the information flows from the introduction throughout the paper

Literature Review

The literature review shows the summary of your findings. This is where you provide the theme of the articles and their common conclusions, not your own. It is a summary of the context of your problem. You have to show the connection between the reference material, your field area, and the topic of the capstone paper. All this information should be backed with relevant sources from reliable journals and articles.

The literature review shows readers that you:

• Are well informed, and you have expertise in that field
• Have found a gap in the literature, and the research will contribute to the conversation
• Can show the composition of the issues, and the trends surrounding your research

The review doesn't provide a comprehensive history of the topic in discussion but rather provides another research context so the reader can understand. When writing the drafts, you will come across new themes, forcing you to go back and do more research to understand and then incorporate them in the review.

When reviewing the literature, go for peer-reviewed journal articles published in the last five years. In some cases, your supervisor might direct you to search the scholarly sources, write an annotated bibliography, complete a literature search table where you summarize everything, and then proceed to write the literature review before moving to the following sections of your capstone. Remember, since a nursing capstone is an evidence-based paper, ensure that you use the strongest levels of evidence .

You can get articles from journals such as:

• American Journal of Critical Care
• American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy
• American Journal of Nursing
• Annals of Internal Medicine
• Health Affairs
• Critical Care Nurse
• BMC health services
• Critical care medicine
• Hospital topics
• Infection control and hospital epidemiology
• Intensive care medicine
• Journal of advanced nursing
• Journal of American medical association
• Journal of nursing management
• Medsurg nursing
• Nephrology nursing journal
• Journal of Clinical Nursing
• Nursing forum
• International Journal of Nursing Studies
• Nursing Standard
• British Journal of Cardiac Nursing
• Emergency Nurse
• The British Journal of Nursing
• Urologic nursing
• Journal of the American Medical Association
• Journal of Mental Health
• Journal of Wound Care
• Nursing Children and Young People
• British Journal of Community Nursing
• Australasian Emergency Nursing Journal
• Medical Journal of Australia
• The Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing
• The Australian Nursing Journal
• Australian Nursing & Midwifery Journal
• Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing
• Australian Journal of Primary Health
• Canadian Journal of Nursing Research

You can also find country-specific nursing journals to make your capstone more focused and evidence-based with appropriate evidence from your country. For instance, the OMICS Online website lists nursing journals in Canada .

Methods and Material

This section shows how you conducted your research. Nursing is a science that entails inquiry into different topics and subjects, and you will apply qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods research as you write the capstone paper.

In this section, you should discuss the materials you used to research for your capstone. For instance, if you are taking the qualitative approach path, detail your search strategy and complete the PRISMA diagram elaborating the search terms, keywords, inclusion and elimination criteria, and how you arrived at a specific number of articles.

If you are doing a quantitative study for your nursing capstone, you must detail how you collected data, the population, sampling strategies, and assumptions. As you do so, provide rationale and support your arguments with proper citations from scholarly nursing journals.

If you have used data analysis programs to analyze collected data, ensure that you explain that too. As well, focus on how you met ethical requirements before researching. Besides listing the methods used, also state their strengths and weaknesses.

You have to discuss why one form of data collection differs. This section aims to provide all the scientific methods used so that if another researcher wanted to conduct a similar study, they could produce similar results.

When writing methodology and research, you should:

• Use past tense
• Describe all equipment, method, chemical compound, or statistical analysis that are not standard.
• Write the subheading using the write formatting style

In this section, you will provide what the finding are. If an experiment was involved, show the results and analysis. Don't make any assumptions or conclusions at this point. Just illustrate the results using graphs, tables, and images. All the data provided should be able to answer all the questions and hypotheses introduced in the beginning. You should show the following:

• Representative data and avoid redundant data.
• Discussion of variables but only if they showed any effect
• Meaningful statistics
• Description of statistical analyses you used to run the data.
• Use the findings from the literature to support or refute your findings.

The discussion section analyzes what your results were. You must be critical and attentive in the discussion and show patterns in the findings.

Show what previous studies say about your research. Also, show the implications and significance of your study and whether it adds anything new to the nursing field.

Don't forget to show the finding's limitations and what can be done to make the research more reliable. Then, add that an additional investigation should be conducted. Make sure you use relevant sources from reputable journals, articles, etc.

This is the last part of the structure of the capstone paper, and it summarizes everything you have discussed from the beginning till the discussion part.

The conclusion also shows what knowledge you have gained from the capstone research and the most appropriate and promising problem-solving methods.

You should also provide future recommendations and real-life application suggestions.

After your conclusion, include your references in your capstone paper. You can then put everything else (diagrams, tables, figures, etc.) in the appendices section.

Steps for Writing a Capstone Paper for Nursing School

A capstone paper is a significant project in your academic life that will prepare you for your career.

It equips you with hands-on experience to tackle challenges and shape you into a well-rounded nursing graduate.

Because of this, you should know how to write a good capstone paper using the following steps:

Choose a Relevant Topic

Since a nursing capstone topic is essential, you must choose the right one. The topic should be interesting, relevant, explorative, specific, original, and meaningful.

You should be able to think of the topic right from the beginning of your nursing program. When choosing a topic, you should evaluate your interest, strengths, weaknesses, and specialty area. Also, consider the manageable topics and consult with your peers, professor, and supervisors.

If you have high GPAs, consider topics that fall under emergency or intensive care. If your grades aren't so excellent, consider essential topics. But no topic is a preserve of anyone.

You can ask for help from your professor, classmates, and other faculty members with similar experiences. Remember that the project's goal is to highlight all the knowledge and skills you obtained during the program.

Related Article:

• How to choose good nursing topics plus a list of nursing research topics .
• How to make a perfect abstract poster for a capstone project.
• Steps for writing a change project.

Come Up with a Picot Question and Statement

The word PICOT stands for patient, intervention, comparison, outcome, and time frame, and it represents a format for coming up with answerable research questions.

The process usually begins with a case scenario or a healthcare issue affecting patients, the healthcare system, or healthcare professionals then a thoughtful question elicits a response is phrased. Once you have this question, you can carefully think it through and determine what research will give you the best answer.

You must carefully consider what the picot question entails to answer the research question quickly. The question should be straightforward and focused on coming up with a credible and useful answer.

Write a Capstone Proposal

A capstone proposal is a document that outlines what your nursing project is about. In other words, it is the blueprint of your paper. Depending on your supervisor, it is sometimes a requirement in some nursing programs, so your capstone topic can be approved.

Every nursing capstone project starts with a proposal you submit to your instructor for review. The proposal is usually about 200 to 1000 words, and it must contain the following:

• The chosen topic, why you want to write about it
• Problem statement
• Purpose statement
• PICOT question or nursing research question
• Background experience about the topic
• Scope of information available and sources
• Information you are about to do and the methods you will use
• Required subject approvals
• Stakeholders
• Data collection tools
• Timeline of what you want to achieve
• Implementation and evaluation plan
• Budget for the project
• Sustainability plan
• Dissemination strategies

Some universities, such as Capella, have their nursing capstone proposal template. Since we have helped many students, you can ask our chat support team to assist you with the template or placing an order to get your capstone proposal written to the best quality. 

Outline Your Capstone Paper

Writing a capstone paper is challenging; because of this, you need to have an outline of the project.

You must begin writing the outline as soon as your proposal has been accepted. Creating an outline will also help you create the structure of your nursing project according to the given instruction.

Think of the outline as a roadmap for your nursing capstone paper.

Research, Identify and Organize Sources

Once you have developed your outline, start researching all the relevant scholarly sources to help you develop your research topic. These sources include books, journals, articles, and credible websites.

First, read widely to find a list of recommended literature from books. Then, use the online bibliography management tools to categorize, organize, and store all the references you have gathered.

Formulate a Thesis Statement

A thesis statement summarizes the main point of your capstone research paper and should tell the reader in transparent, persuasive, genuine, and direct language what your paper is about.

To write a good thesis statement, define your paper's point of view, and express it as a single idea. Remember that the thesis statement should resonate with the entire paper. The tips below can help you write a good thesis statement:

• Do more targeted research and use your research question when constructing the thesis.
• It should directly address the research question
• Support your stamen with relevant evidence

Have a Writing Schedule

Scheduling is essential when wiring a capstone paper since it is one of your voluminous projects.

First, you must develop a separate and integrated schedule dedicated to the main areas of your project, which are research and writing.

You can divide these into smaller depending on each part of the project and then continuously update the schedule since some tasks can be completed faster. Finally, download organizers on your phone or laptop to help keep track of your progress.

Write the first draft of the Capstone Paper

Once you have the thesis statement, start writing your nursing capstone paper. Ensure the thesis is narrow and specific because if it is broad enough, you won't be able to cover all the essential details of the paper.

There is no specific formula for writing the paper; you can begin at any point, just not the introduction.

Write the introduction last, after going through the deep matter of the issue.

Proofread and Edit

Your paper should be free from errors, and all information should be factual and up to the standards. Once you are through, reread each section of your paper.

Proofreading will reveal any mistakes that can ruin the quality of the capstone paper. Use the following tips to help in proofreading:

• Proofread backward as you read each paragraph line by line
• Place a pen or ruler under each sentence to help you focus on a manageable amount of text
• Know the type of mistakes you usually make in writing
• Focus on one error at a time
• Take a break before proofreading
• Read out aloud
• Ask a friend to proofread it for you

Submit and Wait for Feedback

Once you are sure your paper is error-free, submit it to your instructor and wait for feedback. This shouldn't take too long.

Your instructor must review your capstone paper from the beginning until the end to ensure it is up to the academic standards.

Improve it Based on Feedback

Your instructor will give you feedback after going through your paper.

You need to use this feedback to refine your paper.

Create a Capstone Poster or PPT for Your Defense

Presenting your paper will influence how the committee evaluates the whole project. Use the best software to transform the words on your research paper into a captivating capstone paper.

These tips can help with your presentation:

• Use the suitable nursing PowerPoint template to format to suit the chosen background color. If you have chosen a light background, use a dark colored text
• The titles should be similar to those in your paper
• Make sure you follow the 6-by-6 rule or 7-by-7 rule to ensure that there is not too much text on the slide
• Use relevant graphics for ultimate professionalism

Defend Your Capstone Paper

A capstone presentation is an opportunity to show your knowledge of the field of nursing study. You must defend your research before a project committee.

When presenting the paper, you must show the essence of the chosen topic and discuss the research and the findings.

You should explain each section briefly and ensure you highlight all the important details. Remember that the committee will ask questions after the presentations, so be prepared to answer them.

Tips for Completing Your Nursing Paper on Time

Even though it may seem there is a lot of time to write the paper, you must consider all the other things going on in your life.

Effective time management is essential when doing a capstone paper, especially if you want to avoid a last-minute rush. Bear in mind that a capstone project is one of the requirements for completing your nursing program.

So, you complete a solid capstone paper that will give you an edge as you transition to work.

Use the following tips to help you finish the paper on time and appeal to the markers.

Understand the Capstone Research question

You need to go through the research question and understand its objectives first.

This way, it will be easy to do your research, collect all the relevant information, and organize them when writing the paper.

Choose a Good Nursing Capstone Topic Early

Once you understand the research question, you should start choosing a topic immediately if your instructor did not provide one. Selecting a good topic for your paper is essentially but easy.

It is challenging and exhausting because it greatly impacts your capstone project. The project's primary goal is to show that you understand your field well.

Therefore, you should choose a topic with a good amount of research and one you are familiar with to save time. This will also ensure you don't get stuck trying to create content.

Research Faster with Keywords

Create relevant keywords from your research question. Then use keywords from your research question to quickly search search engines to identify articles, journals, essays, or published content.

Also, use Google Scholar, PubMed, CINAHL, Ovid, PsychINFO, Science Direct, and other nursing journal databases to get credible nursing sources for your research. Once you get them, bookmark and download them to make it easier to locate them when writing.

Use Online Tools to Create a Brief Outline

You can create an outline faster when you use online tools. List all the critical sections in your outline so you can do it faster and seamlessly when it is time to write.

You can also download online tools to proofread and edit your work to save time. Some of the online tools that can save you time include:

• Hemingway editor
• Turnitin to check for plagiarism

Embrace Digital Tools for Researchers

You must stay abreast of everything goings on in your field of study. Several AI-powered digital tools can help save a lot of reading time.

These sites will recommend personalized articles and journals based on chosen topics and your study area. Some tools can help you plan and manage your time wisely.

Choose a Good Environment to Write

Before you begin writing, find a conducive place to concentrate on your paper without distractions.

Choose a comfortable seat and table, and ensure the area has adequate lighting, so you don't strain yourself.

Write Quickly

Now that everything is in place, start writing your nursing capstone paper. Start with the most straightforward sections fast if you want to write quickly and save time.

The methods section is one of the easiest, so start with it as you move to others. Leave the introduction and abstract last because they are always challenging and take great effort to craft.

Don't edit at this point; focus on writing as much as possible.

Say "No" to Distractions

This is a crucial time to focus on one of the essential parts of your nursing journey, so it's okay to say no to anything that might distract you. Use the following tips to help you stay focused:

• Turn off notifications
• Avoid friends or any bad company
• Avoid reading the message as soon as you wake up, as you prioritize other people.
• Inform loved ones that you need time to focus on your nursing capstone research paper so that they understand your silence.

Hasten Your Pace Through Multitasking

Work on different tasks without straining yourself too much. Multitasking can save you time and make meaningful progress when planned well.

For instance, you can write the methods sections while conducting your experiment. This will improve your time management skills and help you finish the task on time.

Set Realistic Deadlines

While multitasking can be a good idea, ensure you don't try to eat an entire cake in one bite.

Create smaller milestones as you try to achieve the bigger goal to prevent counter-productivity and early burnout.

Ensure that you complete the smaller tasks within the set timeline.

Start Working on High Priority Task First

Completing the high-priority task can effectively complete the capstone project on time.

In this case, your high-priority task will be to write the proposal early enough and then submit it for review. Another task I research requires time, energy, and concentration.

When you finish all these, you can tick them off and focus on another task. Knowing that you are done with part of the vast chunks of your paper will give you a sense of accomplishment ad motivate you to finish the others.

Take Breaks without Feeling Guilty

Even though your research is essential, you don't have to spend all your time working on the task.

Set aside a little time to rest and do something worthwhile, like a hobby or any other form of self-care. Research shows that taking breaks off work can boost productivity and help you manage time well.

It doesn't have to be a whole day; even 10 minutes can go a long way in helping boost your productivity. You can also spend this time with close friends and family, as it will bring out the best in you.

Final Remarks

A capstone paper is integral to your academic study, even though it might seem tedious and challenging. To write a good paper without difficulty, you must choose a topic that interests you. Besides, you also need to be patient and dedicated throughout the process.

Most students often find it challenging to write a good capstone project because it is demanding; it needs lots of time, knowledge, skills, and patience. Combine writing the nursing capstone and working or balancing it with life duties such as family and personal errands, and you get a recipe for burnout. However, with the above guide, you will be on the right track toward acing the capstone paper within a few weeks.

If you need verified capstone nursing writers to assist you with your capstone project at whatever level, you can always count on NurseMyGrade experts. They will work on your capstone paper while communicating with you and deliver a top-quality paper with no errors and plagiarism-free. Place an order today.

Related Reading: How to write a nursing resume.

Frequently Asked Questions

How hard is nursing capstone paper.

Not really. A nursing capstone paper forces you to go deeper into your understanding of what you have been learning all along, and it will push you to think critically about incorporating all the best nursing practices into your project.

You might get intimidated by the paper is length, but if you select a more manageable topic, it will just be a walk in the park.

What are the Goals for Nursing Capstone Paper?

Since a nursing capstone paper is essentially a bridge between the end of the nursing program and the beginning of your career, it will help you achieve the following:

• Demonstrate that you have gained knowledge in your field of study
• Put what you have learned throughout your program into practice
• Apply the research and all the experiential evidence gathered as a soliton to a medical problem
• Broadens your knowledge about what the real healthcare issues are in your community
• Identifying the right ideas and working on them will help you in enhancing your career development
• Discovering what your overall goals are in the nursing industry, especially what your specialization will be

What Are Some of the Ideas for Nursing Capstone Paper?

There are countless capstone ideas for you, but the main objective should be to choose one based on your experience and learning.

General capstone ideas

 If you don't want anything complicated, choose general capstone ideas such as:

• How inclusion and engagement of nurses can influence patient outcome
• Does the engagement of nurses in treating patients affect their mental health?
• Nurses and ethical practices
• Stress management for nurses
• Improving Nurse Organizations
• Coming up with affordable medical care for everyone

Topics in Health Promotion

Ideas in health promotions are those that can improve the welfare of the community. These topics include:

• Managing depression among healthcare workers to Improve Health Services
• Improving Awareness and Preventing Cyberbullying
• Promoting Awareness of How to Prevent HIV
• The increasing importance of vaccine Awareness
• How Smoking Affects Passive Smoke

Ideas for Mental Health

• How sexual abuse affects children and teens
• Ways to help deaf children facing depression
• How divorce affects children
• Ways to deal with mental health stigma
• How to help veterans manage PTSD?
• Does job loss worsen mental health issues?

Ideas on Women's Heath

• How can women deal with menopause the right way?
• How Smoking affects pregnant women and unborn babies
• Induced Births
• benefits and drawbacks of Breast Pumps
• How to Choose Whether a Woman Should Breastfeed
• Approaches of different birth controls among women

Your area of interest will determine the kind of project idea you choose. We have a comprehensive list of nursing capstone ideas and topics you can consider when confused about what to write your nursing project about. UTTYler has a platform where they publish all the MSN capstone projects completed by nursing students. It can also be an excellent place to get ideas for your capstone project.

Where Can You Find Inspiration for Your Project Idea?

After determining your areas of interest, start looking for suggestions from sources like:

• You reading materials
• Earlier papers you had written, such as essays, and reports
• Nursing publications such as peer-reviewed journals, journal articles, and blogs.
• Practice problems identified during your practicum or clinicals.
• Nursing issues in the news.
• Previously written capstone papers. You can find them online or your nursing school or university website.

How Do You Choose the Best Topic for Nursing Capstone Paper?

• Brainstorm on the areas that interest you by reflecting on the classes or topics that you enjoyed.
• Read widely to find out enough materials for your topic
• Consult with your supervisor about the chosen topic
• Read more on the topic now that you are sure about it

What Are the Common Mistakes to Avoid When Writing a Capstone Nursing Paper?

• Failure to follow the given format and structure
• Using long sentences and big vocabulary
• Not proofreading and editing your work

Is It Easy for Your Instructor to Not Approve Your Capstone Topic?

No. Since you have already gone through nursing schools and studied theories and practicum, you already have the foundation to help you choose a good topic. Just make sure you choose one that helps in solving healthcare issues.

How long does a nursing capstone course take?

The completion time, like the formats for capstone, differs depending on the program and institution. While some institutions complete the capstone in 4-5 weeks, others have the capstone spread through 9-10 weeks. Others also have arrangements where nursing students undertake 30 hours of an online class and 90 hours of applied project work in their advanced studies. Regardless of the programs, most students always follow the PICO Format for project proposal questions. Other nursing colleges and universities allow capstone projects to be accomplished as group work.

What should appear in a successful capstone project?

Even though different markers and supervisors focus on different aspects of the capstone, to score a good grade for your BSN, MSN, or DNP capstone project, ensure that it reflects the following:

• Problem identification that relates to the nursing practice is of interest or choice. You can write along the lines of administration, education, or policy.
• Theoretical research and literature review
• Use of peer-reviewed nursing journals
• Critical analysis and synthesis of the literature
• Reporting of research findings
• Using evidence-based practice guidelines to suggest changes or solutions
• Evidence-based recommendations
• Civil and professional collaboration
• Open communication
• Use of clinical reasoning cycle
• The subjects comply with the nursing code of ethics and research ethics.

Is a nursing capstone the same as a thesis?

No, a capstone can either be completed in a group or individually and often takes between 4 and 12 weeks. On the other hand, an individual's thesis project must be completed and takes 2-3 years to write. Graduate thesis courses take 1-2 semesters, so students are on track. When writing a capstone project in nursing, your focus will mostly be on current issues and nursing theories. On the other hand, a thesis entails thorough research, which entails using existing case studies and scholarly sources to argue and support your research. Dissemination of thesis papers occurs through publishing in reputable journals.

How Long is the Capstone Paper Presentation?

The capstone paper presentation, done before a committee, shouldn't take more than 45 minutes. During this time, you will demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of the topic in your study area. Members of the committee will also ask questions about the research you have done. 

Related: The process of writing a good nursing case study . 

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• Surviving & Thriving in Graduate School

All graduate programs at Lewis University are required to include a culminating capstone experience in the curriculum.  The most appropriate capstone experience for each program is determined by the faculty of that program. Doctoral capstone experiences generally include a dissertation requirement or a scholarly integrative project.  A Master’s Program Capstone is defined by the University as:

A capstone is a culminating experience of rigorous academic achievement: (a) integrating knowledge from one’s discipline(s); (b) applying specific knowledge; (c) demonstrating knowledge and expertise to the appropriate disciplinary community; and (d) illustrating readiness for transition into more advanced professional or academic pursuits. Capstones consist of program directed experiences, which may include a comprehensive examination, group or individual project, thesis, research/scholarly paper, internship/practicum, or other appropriate culminating academic experiences representative of one’s discipline(s).

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Capstone Project: Definition, Types, Structure, and Examples

by  Antony W

January 2, 2024

If you're reading this, chances are that you're in your final year of school and the words "capstone project" have come up somewhere in your first or second semester.

You're probably looking for a quick score on the topic - what it's about, a project template, or even a sample. If so, you're in the right place.

Before we get into it, you' need to know that you're in the hands of consummate capstone project experts.

Help for Assessment is composed of scholars at all levels of academic achievement including Masters and Ph.D., all inspired and motivated to help students like you achieve their academic goals. The expertise and experience we have spans years. Even better, this combined academic expertise is placed at your disposal. If your capstone research project is already giving you goosebumps, we will do it for you from scratch including the project proposal, research, write up, and final review before submission.

Remember, you can trust Help for Assessment to complete your capstone project successfully and earn you top grades. All you have to do is order the service here on our service page.

 In the meantime, let us explore the definition of the capstone project, types of projects for students, and a sample capstone project.

What Is a Capstone Project? 

A capstone project in college is a final independent project undertaken in a program of study designed to assess the skills, knowledge, and expertise acquired by the student.

As the name suggests, it is the capstone or crowning achievement of academic life and the last class taken before graduation. It gives you the final credits required to pass the course, which is why every student must take the project.

Since it is designed to assess knowledge and skills gained in a particular discipline, capstone projects vary from school to school and discipline to discipline.

Such a project might involve something as simple as research on a topic, an evaluation of a new technique or method, development of a health program, research into a historical figure or event, or even composing a skit or theatre presentation.

No matter what kind of project you choose to undertake, the result is the same. You get to showcase your understanding of the coursework material learned and display your readiness to enter the professional world to start your career. It is a rewarding experience if done right, but can mess up your final year and possibly your graduation if you manage to mess it up.

Do you know that a successful capstone project also helps to land you lucrative jobs? That’s right, capstone projects are one of the ways potential employers find out just how learned, resourceful, and talented you are. Think of it as a kind of thesis.

Capstone projects are also called culminating projects, experience, senior exhibition, or other similar names. The project is usually self-directed, and most students find it a challenge to even come up with the right capstone project topic. 

Capstone Project Vs. Thesis

A capstone project and a thesis are both very similar in that they represent a final effort from the student just before graduation.

They are done in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the course being undertaken. The comprehensive approach and assessment involved are very similar, and sometimes the structure and methodology might overlap.

Both also have to be reviewed and approved by the institution and will remain in the public domain after publishing.

However, there are some important differences.

• A thesis is purely academic while a capstone project focuses more on the practical preparation of the student for the real world/job market.
• A thesis is guided by a research question resulting in the addition of new knowledge to the field, while a capstone project is guided by the practical importance of the project to the field.
• A thesis involves academic research and analysis, while a capstone project can be anything including a dance or film.
• A thesis is expected to be original and authentic, while a capstone project will have more loose requirements. You can borrow another person’s capstone project ideas , so long as you demonstrate your own advancement in the field.
• A capstone project will usually only have a brief write-up or report, while a thesis generates a detailed, extensive writeup.
• The final presentation of a thesis, called a defense, is meant to prove and show that you have mastered the subject. You are supposed to be a mini-expert in the field. A capstone project presentation comes off as a kind of exhibition where you showcase your project without having to defend it.

Types of Capstone Projects

Capstone projects vary not just in the type of project, also in the level at which they are done.

There are projects for juniors and seniors in college as well as for postgraduate students.

Here are some examples of the forms of projects depending on the academic level.

• In-depth research projects.
• Developing the concept of a product, tool, or service.
• Expositions.
• Experiments.

Capstone projects can be conducted either individually or in a group.

However, the key thing is to make sure that the project proposal has been reviewed and approved by the instructor/panel/institution in charge before proceeding.

Senior Capstone Project

Senior projects are so called because they are done by high school students in their senior year.

Just like other projects, they represent a culmination of the coursework with an interdisciplinary application of knowledge and skills gained so far.

The project usually takes the better part of the final academic year and will have different parts to it, depending on the type of project chosen.

It will also require a presentation where the student(s) explain and describe the project to an audience, including their classmates.

Sample Capstone Project Outline

The write up for a project consists of several parts. However, even before starting the write-up, you need to do a few things:

• Come up with an idea for your project. What will be your subject matter, topic, or premise?
• Find sources for the project and review them beforehand to ensure that they will be of help to you.
• Come up with a step-by-step methodology for your project.

Using this information, you will then write a capstone project proposal for your project. It informs your instructor or review panel exactly what you intend to present so that they can approve or reject it.

Once approved, you can go on to the next stage. The final write-up has the following parts.

• A title page.
• Project outline.
• A description/abstract.
• Introduction
• Rationale/relevance/reason for doing the project.
• Objectives of the project.
• Procedures/methodology.
• Research and analysis.
• Evaluation of results and findings.
• Conclusion and future work/suggestions.
• Bibliography/works cited/reference list.

Note that the project is carried out in stages. Once approved, you will need to be submitting weekly or monthly status reports to your supervisor. After the project report is submitted, you will also have to make a presentation about the whole project.

This brief outline is only meant to be a rough guide. We have a much more detailed article detailing how you can do your capstone project, including a project template. 

Capstone Project Examples

Help for Assessment has extensive experience when it comes to capstone projects of all kinds.

Whether it’s a high school project, a college capstone, or a senior capstone project, you can trust us to carry it out successfully for you.

You can check out various project samples here . 

Get Help With Your Capstone Project

Capstone projects in every level of school are a make or break it deal. Given that they complete the graduation credits required, it makes sense to leave this important part of your coursework to experts.

We are proud to offer you a guide on how to write a capstone project here . If you need help, you can take advantage of our capstone project writing service at affordable, student-friendly rates with amazing discounts. 

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About the author 

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Guide to the ALM Capstone Project

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• Course Catalog
• Final Capstone Paper

While your final capstone can take other forms (e.g., digital media project or a policy paper for a local government), many students submit a standard research paper. The papers are formatted with eight main sections plus two optional parts (in parentheses):

• Summary /Abstract
• (Acknowledgements)
• Table of Contents
• Introduction
• Conclusions & Recommendations
• Literature Cited
• (Appendices).

Alternatively, with approval, you can use the format required by a competitive, peer-reviewed journal in your professional discipline; thereby, making your capstone project publication ready.

• Course Sequencing and Timeline
• Precapstone Tutorial
• Choosing a Topic
• Research Methods
• ENVR E-599 Past Capstone Titles and Examples
• Use of Human Subjects
• ENVR 599A Consulting for Sustainability Solutions Capstone
• Frequently Asked Questions

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• What Is a Capstone Project & How to Write It: Definition, Outline, Steps
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• Basics of Research Paper Writing
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What Is a Capstone Project & How to Write It: Definition, Outline, Steps

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A capstone project is a culminating academic project. It typically requires students to apply the skills they have gained during the course to a real-world problem. Capstone projects are common in undergraduate and graduate programs across a range of disciplines, including business, engineering, healthcare, and education.

Interesting fact, the first documented capstone project was completed in 1937 by Edgar F. Batten, who proposed to build an airport. It was considered a novel idea at that time, but it led to the development of Cleveland Municipal Airport. Today, they have come a long way, allowing students to showcase their creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. In this guide, we will define a capstone project and state its purpose in academics. We will also delve into its significance and provide an outline of how to do a capstone project. So, get ready for an exciting journey to become a capstone pro! Remember that you can always buy a capstone project from our academic gurus if you strive for maximum output.

What Is a Capstone Project: Definition

Capstone projects are vital in every school. Then, what is a capstone project ? Generally, it is research designed to showcase students’ knowledge, skills, and abilities in specific fields of study. This task is challenging and time-consuming, but once completed, it is rewarding. Capstone project is interdisciplinary in nature and can be completed in various formats, such as a written report, research paper , term paper , or presentation. It often involves independent research and analysis by an individual college or university student or group. For example, you could be asked to explore one topic or social problem that interests you, do extensive research about it, assess findings, and propose a solution. Based on the definition of capstone project, it is a culminating academic experience that typically takes place at the end of students' college education. Other basics include:

• Use of academic knowledge Students apply knowledge and skills they have acquired throughout their academic program to their papers.
• Collaboration with faculty members or industry professionals Students may work with faculty members or industry professionals to gain additional insight and guidance on their capstones.
• Presentation or defense Students may also be required to defend their capstone project in front of a panel of experts or live audience.
• Evaluation by committee A committee evaluates the student's paper to determine if they have met all academic requirements and project standards.

What Is the Capstone Project Purpose?

The main purpose of a capstone project is to assess your ability to integrate and apply knowledge acquired throughout your academic program. It gives you a chance to demonstrate mastery of a particular field of study, showcasing critical thinking, research, and communication skills. Capstone project serves several key goals:

• Demonstrate student’s learning abilities As an educational strategy, capstone project can be used to show if the learner has acquired knowledge gained over the entire course.
• Improve students’ self-perception and confidence Typically, capstone projects allow students to take on new responsibilities and show commitment all through. Completing them boosts their self-esteem, self-awareness, as well as confidence.
• Boost career aspirations Since capstone projects involve working on real-world problems, students gain practical experience and prepare them for their future careers.
• Foster motivation and engagement Creativity involved in senior capstone projects, especially since students select them based on their personal interests, can motivate them to learn, engaging others in that process.

Importance of Capstone Projects

The importance of capstone projects cannot be overstated. They supplement your academic journey, providing opportunities for you to demonstrate mastery of skills and knowledge, build real-world experience, and showcase your abilities to potential employers. Writing capstone paper can serve several important reasons, including:

• Preparing for future careers By working on real-world issues and engaging in independent capstone research project, you develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and presentation skills that are essential for successful careers.
• Encouraging innovation By providing you with an opportunity to tackle complex problems and come up with innovative solutions, capstone projects encourage creativity.
• Demonstrating mastery of a particular field By successfully completing a capstone project, you demonstrate mastery of a particular field, setting yourself apart from others in the academic program as well as enhancing your marketability in the job market.
• Building your CV Prospective employers want to know more than just your academic performance. What is the capstone project you undertook in school? Adding them to your CV will inform them of your additional skills you possess.
• Building a sense of accomplishment Completing capstone essays can be a significant accomplishment, giving you pride and satisfaction for your hard work.

Senior Capstone Project Structure

A capstone project structure plays a crucial role in helping you write a successful paper. It provides a clear, organized framework for the capstone project, helping you ensure that you include all necessary parts. It will also guide you in the right direction, helping you find the best approach to complete your paper. Before you begin writing a capstone project paper, it is important to carefully review all guidelines provided by your academic program to ensure that it meets all requirements and is structured clearly and effectively. Here is a general structure of senior capstone project:

• Abstract Brief summary of the capstone project, typically around 250-300 words. It provides a concise overview of background information, objectives, methodology, results, and conclusion. It is often the first section that readers view to better understand your study's purpose and findings.
• Introduction This section provides an overview of the paper and sets context for your study. It includes a background on the topic, a clear problem statement or issue being addressed, research questions, and objectives. It should also highlight how your paper will be structured.
• Literature Review It provides a comprehensive overview of relevant research on the topic, including an analysis of previous studies, gaps in literature, and theoretical framework that will guide your study. It is important to provide thorough and well-structured literature review to support your research questions.
• Methodology In this section, you outline research design types, data collection and analysis methods, and sampling procedures that will be used to address your research questions. It should also give detailed description of the research process, including rationale for methods chosen and procedures followed to ensure validity and reliability of data collected.
• Results Here you present your study findings, including statistical analyses, tables, graphs, and figures that illustrate the results. They should be presented in a well-organized manner, focusing on answering your research questions.
• Discussion This section provides an interpretation of results, connecting findings to literature and research questions, further discussing their implications. The discussion should give critical evaluation of results, considering the limitations for future research.
• Conclusion It summarizes the main study findings, providing recommendations for future research. This section should be a clear and concise summary of results, tying the findings to research questions and objectives.
• References This section provides a comprehensive list of all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to appropriate citation style (APA, MLA, etc.).
• Appendices If necessary, this section includes additional materials that support the main study findings, such as survey instruments, raw data, or transcripts of interviews.

Capstone Project Outline

A sample capstone project outline is a visual representation of the paper structure and organization. It acts as a roadmap for writing, helping ensure that the project stays on track. The purpose of the capstone project outline is to provide an overview of all main elements and order in which they will be presented. Here is a template example of an outline for a capstone project:

• Background of the topic
• Purpose of study
• Research questions
• Overview of paper structure
• Overview of relevant research
• Analysis of previous studies
• Gaps in literature
• Theoretical framework
• Research design
• Data collection and analysis methods
• Sampling procedures
• Rationale for methods chosen
• Procedures to ensure validity and reliability of data
• Presentation of study findings
• Statistical analyses
• Tables, graphs, and figures
• Focus on answering research questions
• Interpretation of results
• Connection of findings to literature and research questions
• Implications of findings
• Critical evaluation of results
• Study limitations
• Implications for future research
• Summary of main findings and conclusions
• Recommendations for future research
• Comprehensive list of all sources cited in paper
• Additional materials that support main study findings

How to Write a Capstone Project Paper?

A capstone project requires careful planning to show that you have a grasp of a particular discipline or subject. As such, it is important to understand the steps involved in the process and have a well-defined plan in place. The following subsections will guide you in writing a capstone project paper, from start to finish, giving you the roadmap to ensure a successful outcome. Each part is carefully detailed to help you understand what’s expected of you. Follow these steps to learn how to write a capstone paper:

1. Choose a Topic

Choosing a topic is an important step in writing a capstone project. It sets the foundation for your paper, determining how successful the final product will be. Always go for capstone project ideas that have not been extensively researched, allowing you to add new insights. Here are some steps to follow when choosing research topics :

• Identify area of interest Think about your interests, passions, and academic strengths. This will help you choose a topic that you are genuinely interested in or are well-suited to research.
• Consider the project scope Make sure the topic is manageable within a specified timeframe and resources available to you. In particular, it should be narrow enough to allow you to focus, but broad enough to provide enough material for a comprehensive analysis.
• Review the coursework Take a look at all courses you have taken so far and consider how they relate to your chosen topic. Remember the paper should be built on knowledge you have acquired throughout your academic journey.
• Consult your supervisor A capstone project advisor can provide valuable guidance and feedback on the topic. They can help you refine it, ensuring that it is relevant to the field of study.
• Research your topic Once you have a few potential topics, research each one to determine their feasibility, availability of resources, as well as scope of literature.
• Make a decision After you have conducted your research, choose one topic that you are most interested in and that you believe will be the most rewarding.

Choosing a topic that is relevant, manageable, and of personal interest to you will help you stay motivated throughout your capstone writing process.

2. Research Existing Literature

Conducting a thorough literature review is crucial in helping you understand the current state of knowledge on the topic, identifying gaps your capstone senior project can fill. Here's how to go about it:

• Start by brainstorming keywords or phrases related to the topic, using them to search databases, such as Google Scholar , JSTOR , and other relevant academic sources.
• Pay attention to relevant theories and studies as you research. This will help you get a sense of what has already been done, what questions remain unanswered, and what you can contribute to the field.
• Keep track of all sources, taking notes as you read. Organize them into categories, like creating an annotated bibliography that you can refer to later.
• Evaluate the quality of sources you found. Check if they are peer-reviewed or have been published in reputable academic journals.
• Synthesize the information you have gathered to identify themes or patterns. This will help you see the bigger picture and understand the research context.
• Use the synthesized information to refine the research question and hypothesis. Make sure that your research is original and adds to the existing body of knowledge.

By conducting a thorough literature review, you will write a capstone paper that is well-informed, grounded in latest research, and makes a meaningful contribution.

3. Define a Problem

Based on research, define the problem statement you aim to address in your capstone research paper. It should be well-defined and specific. The problem statement should be clear, concise, and align with the research question. It should also be justified, explaining why the problem is important, including how it relates to current literature. Here are some steps to follow when defining a problem for a capstone project:

• Review existing literature Conduct a thorough review of existing literature in your area of interest. This will help you identify any gaps in knowledge or areas that need further research.
• Identify the problem Based on literature review, identify a specific problem or issue that you would like to address. It should be relevant and of interest to you.
• Refine the problem Make it more specific and focused. Consider the project scope, available resources, and own abilities.
• Formulate a research question Based on the problem you have defined, formulate a research question that will guide your paper. It should be clear, concise, and answerable through research.
• Develop a hypothesis Develop a hypothesis that you will test through research. It should provide a potential answer to the research question.

Defining a problem is important because it provides focus and direction for research. A well-defined problem will ensure that your capstone project writing is of high quality.

4. Introduce Your Research Methods

This section should describe methods you will use to collect and analyze data, as well as the rationale behind your choice. They should be appropriate, accurate, and reliable for the capstone project. You should also explain any final capstone project limitations, including how you plan to address them. Here are some steps to follow when introducing graduate capstone research methods:

• Choose research methods that are appropriate for the research question and hypothesis. Consider the strengths and weaknesses of different methods, and select the ones that are most suitable.
• Provide a clear explanation of why you chose the methods you did. Explain how they will help you answer the research question and test your hypothesis.
• Give a detailed description of research methods, including how you will collect data and analyze it. Be specific about what steps you will take, tools you will use, and data you will collect.
• Consider any ethical issues that may arise from using those research methods. Explain how you will ensure that research is conducted in a responsible manner.
• Review previous research that has used similar methods, considering any lessons learned from that. Explain how you will apply these lessons to your own research.

Introducing research methods is important because it sets a foundation for your research. It will provide readers with a clear understanding of your methods, including rationale behind them.

5. Discuss Your Key Findings

This step involves presenting findings of the study and analyzing all data. When writing a capstone paper, provide a clear presentation of the results in addition to how they relate to the problem they aim to address. They should be presented in a logical, organized manner, and supported by evidence. In your capstone work, discuss their implications, including how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge. Here are some steps to follow when discussing key findings:

• Present results in a clear and concise manner. Use tables, graphs, and charts to help illustrate your findings.
• Interpret results based on your research question and hypothesis. Explain what the findings mean and why they are significant.
• Compare your results to those of previous research in similar fields. Explain how the results you got are similar or different from previous findings.
• Discuss research limitations and the strengths of methods used. Explain how they may impact the results.
• Discuss implications of the findings for your field of study or society as a whole. Explain how that research contributes to a broader understanding of the topic.
• Conclude your discussion of key findings by summarizing results and their significance. Highlight key takeaways while explaining why they are important.

6. Present a Capstone Project

In this final step, you should present your capstone project in a clear, organized manner, highlighting key findings and significance of research conducted. This should be a well-structured, well-written paper or oral presentation that showcases your knowledge of how to do a capstone project on a specific subject. Capstone in college or university should be written in an academic style, following the guidelines set by the institution. The paper should also include an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results section, discussion, and conclusion. For oral presentation, you may also be required to answer questions from the audience. So, it is important to be well-prepared and familiar with the paper content. It should effectively communicate your research findings to them. To make a successful presentation, here are a few suggestions:

• Plan your presentation carefully.
• Use visual aids, such as slides, charts, graphs, and images, to help you effectively communicate ideas or findings to the audience.
• Rehearse the presentation several times until you are confident and comfortable with its content and flow.
• Present only the most important information to avoid going into too much detail.
• Interact with the audience by asking questions or allowing for discussion.
• Be ready to answer questions from the audience, discussing your work in great detail.

Capstone Paper Format

A capstone project format can vary depending on the discipline or requirements set forth by your instructor or program. Most times, you may encounter the following common formats used in most capstone papers.

• APA paper format Mostly used in social sciences, education, and psychology. It contains a cover page, abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references, and appendices.
• MLA paper format Commonly used in humanities, such as literature and language. You must include in-text citations and the Works Cited page.
• Chicago format Often used in history, business, and other disciplines. It involves using either footnotes or in-text citations and a bibliography page.

Regardless of the chosen format, ensure that your capstone paper is well-organized, has proper grammar, and is easy to read.

Capstone Project Writing Tips

To ensure success in writing your capstone project, it is important to keep in mind some key practices. In this section, we will introduce you to common tips that can help you effectively plan, research, and write the paper. From choosing a suitable topic to proofreading the final draft, these tips on how to write a good capstone project will help you produce a successful paper that meets academic standards:

• Start early Give yourself enough time to research, write, and revise. Starting early will also give you enough time to address any obstacles that may arise when writing.
• Choose a suitable topic Pick a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study.
• Research thoroughly Gather as much information as possible from reliable sources. Conduct a comprehensive literature review to gain a deep understanding.
• Outline your ideas Organize ideas to create an outline for the capstone project. This will help you stay focused, ensuring the paper has a clear structure.
• Write clearly and concisely Use clear, concise language to communicate ideas. Avoid using technical jargon unless it is absolutely necessary.
• Cite your sources Properly cite all sources you use in the capstone project to avoid plagiarism. Follow the required citation style specified.
• Revise Take time to proofread the work. Check for grammatical, spelling, and punctuation errors. Also, ensure that ideas are presented well.
• Seek feedback Ask a friend, mentor, or academic advisor to review your capstone assignment and provide feedback. This will help you identify any mistakes.

Bottom Line on Capstone Project

In this guide, you have learned what’s a capstone project definition, its benefits in education, purpose, and structure. Before you embark on writing your paper, make sure you fully understand the meaning of a capstone project paper and what it entails. This means taking the time to carefully research a topic, identify a clear problem to address, and develop a research plan that will help you find answers. Remember that the final product should be well-written, well-organized, and effectively communicate your key research findings. Once you begin to write your capstone, keep in mind the following tips:

• Strictly follow the instructor’s guidelines.
• Only pick reliable sources for your capstone paper.
• Pay attention to the layout, format, and structure.
• Plan your time for completing the project wisely.
• Always seek feedback to ensure you are going the right way.

Feel free to check out our capstone project writing services and see how else we can assist you with this program! Our writers can always get you well-written texts before the deadline!

FAQ About Capstone Projects

1. what is a capstone project in college.

A capstone project in college is the final piece of stone needed to complete a degree program. It often involves significant research proposal, presentation, or practical application of skills and knowledge acquired during their program. By definition, it is a requirement for graduation and may be evaluated for grades or other forms of academic recognition.

2. What is capstone project significance?

Capstone projects are significant because:

• They provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate their mastery of a particular subject area.
• They allow students to apply knowledge and skills they have acquired throughout their college degree in a real-world setting.
• They provide students with a sense of completion and achievement, helping them demonstrate the value of their college performance to potential employers or other stakeholders.

3. How long should a capstone paper be?

The length of a capstone project paper varies depending on set guidelines by the academic institution or instructor. On average, they can be between 20-25 pages long, sometimes 35, including any supporting materials, such as appendices or references. However, check specific requirements from your institution as they can cap the number of pages.

4. What is the difference between a capstone project and a thesis?

A capstone project and thesis are both academic works, but they carry significant differences between them. A thesis is typically longer, and more in-depth than a capstone project. It is often required for graduate students and is based on original research. Its focus is narrower and more specialized. A capstone project is often required for undergraduate students, mostly based on research or practical application. It is more interdisciplinary in nature, involving solving world problems.

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Sample Capstone

Here’s a sample research paper from a past OHS student.  It’s longer than I expect for the Capstone (~15 page) but it should give you an idea of what I am looking for.  Ideally the abstract would be a little longer, the main body a little shorter.

Introduction:

“ Moscow – Post-Soviet Developments and Challenges” [1]

John O’Loughlin* and Vladimir Kolossov **

* University of Colorado , Boulder

** Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow

Russia has always been a highly centralized state, with the capital playing an exceptional economic, social, cultural and political role.   Paradoxically, the post-Soviet economic transition not only did not reduce this primacy, but on the contrary, considerably strengthen Moscow ’s hypertrophy.   During the 1990s, political events in the capital (attempted coups d’etat in 1991 and 1993, the struggle between ” reformers” and left-wingers) decided the destiny of all Russia , with most regions only observing with anxiety.   Though its ratio of Russia ’s total population is just less than 6%, the city contains more than half of all banking activity, more than one-fifth of retail trade, and one-third of wholesale trade.   Moscow has, to a large extent, monopolized the functions of a mediator between the country and the world economy and has become by far the most important national node of financial flows.   Even if the August 1998 financial crisis contributed to a certain improvement of the balance between the capital and the provinces, Moscow remains the major “exporter” of Russia ’s primary exports (oil, gas, timber, gold, etc.)    It is being transformed into a true global city (Gritsai 1996, 1997; Taylor 2000).

The average per capita income in Moscow is much higher than in any other of the 88 regions in Russia, and more than twice as high as the second-highest, St. Petersburg.    Moscow provides an example of post-Communist economic restructuring to the whole country and now contains the most sizeable new middle class.   The streetscape of the capital has considerably changed during the last decade.   In its downtown, contemporary offices are mushrooming, and historical buildings look fresh after recent renovation by private investors; at night, Moscow ’s main avenues are brightly illuminated by shining shop windows and advertising by global companies, provoking sharp envy from residents of many other Russian cities, which remain dark and suffer from municipal debts and power shortages.   Is Moscow really the dominant player in the Russian economy, determining the orientation and the rates of national restructuring? How stable is the Moscow ’s “miracle”?   What is the reverse side of the coin, the inequities and polarization that has become apparent in the past decade?   These questions are increasingly at the center of discussions among politicians and academic specialists.

The economic and social costs of Moscow ’s rapid changes since 1991 are already clear.   Moscow has definitely became a demographic “black hole”: mortality has exceeded fertility for a decade, the city’s population is getting older and the decrease is compensated only by labor migration from most of the former Soviet republics, from other Russian regions, and even from some third world countries.   Most migrants live in Moscow illegally.   These processes worsen the qualitative composition of population, create tensions in the labor and housing mark ets, and can potentially lead to ethnic and religious conflicts (see Vendina’s article in this issue).   Though the social territorial differentiation in Moscow has not yet reach ed the scale of U.S. or even West European cities, the growing social polarization has already seen the creation of “gated communities” and can condemn the great majority of Muscovites to live in neglected and forgotten housing ghettos.   Moreover, this polarization process risks perpetuating social contrasts in creating multi-standard systems of education and health care – separately for the richer and the poorer strata of society.        

Moscow city authorities must solve other aggravations.   One of the most serious, requiring huge investments, is the housing problem, specifically the reconstruction of the physically obsolete and dilapidated part of the housing stock, four-story apartment blocs ( Khrushchoby ) built in the 1960s.   Moreover, the city lacks empty spaces for new developments and, thus, it is necessary to demolish old residential and industrial buildings or to shift industrial plants in order to intensify land uses.   Another urgent problem is rapid automobilization, related to the insufficient capacity of the roads’ network and of parking; constant traffic jams already render downtown Moscow inaccessible by car on workdays.   (See the paper in this issue by Bityukova and Argenbright on the pollution effects of the growth in car ownership).   Against this background, slow development of public transportation caused by inadequate investment seems to be especially pressing.   The city government does not possess the financial means to build highways such as the Third Ring and, at the same time, to invest in extending the Metro (subway) and other public transportation.   The city authorities under the leadership of Yuri Luzhkov (mayor since 1992) has pledged to continue to invest in prestigious projects to maintain Moscow ’s image and competitiveness as the Russian capital and a new global city.

Like any major city, Moscow has a complex structure that needs to be considered at different levels.   First, at the global and macro-regional (Central-East European) scale, Moscow ’s relations are dominantly economic as part of a world-city system (Taylor and Hoyler, 2000).   Second, at the national scale, Moscow is both the federal capital and a subject of the Russian Federation – here the emphasis is on its primacy and balancing of the differentiation that is becoming more apparent in the country.   Third, at the regional scale, Moscow ’s agglomeration over-reaches the capital’s city limits and issues about industrial re-location, regional transport, city-suburb relations, and the conversion of agricultural and forest zones to urban uses dominate.   Fourth, at the city scale, the optimal combination that allows the city to assume its functions, to be competitive at the international scene while still meeting the needs of its population is still to be found.   Finally, at the local (neighborhood) scale, Moscow is a relatively vast and heterogenous territorial unit, including 124 municipal districts ( rayoni ) (see Figure 1), which will soon become true local governments possessing not only their elected assemblies, but also their own budgets.   Geographical distributions of housing, jobs, services, green spaces, etc. across these rayoni are likely to become more contentious and prominent.                

To cope with the myriad of problems across a variety of scales, the city authorities need a long-term strategy.   Obviously, the privileged 1990s situation of the capital can change rapidly, as the turmoil that occurred after the financial crisis of August 1998 showed.   The Russian federal government refuses to cover even a small part of Moscow ’s expenses as the national capital. Some large companies (important taxpayers) have already moved their registered headquarters out from the city, and during the last two years city officials complain that the city budget is becoming very tight.    Discussions about Moscow ’s economic future can be summarized as the choice between different models of development that depend in turn on the model followed by Russia as a whole. If Russia remains a dominant exporter of fuel and other raw materials and her manufacturing industry and high-tech industries decline further, there will obviously be much less opportunity for Moscow to realize its potential for innovation and to select a new, more balanced model of development.   Simplifying, one can say that future of Moscow can be based on one of three options – a) traditional manufacturing; b) a service economy - mainly banking and trade, and c) science, information processing and high tech industry.   In other words, Moscow can develop as the capital of an open economy, thus continuing current trends, or as the center of national modernization.   Before the collapse of the Soviet Union , more than one million people in Moscow were engaged   in pure and applied research (one-quarter of all Soviet scholars). Though this unique human capital is now considerably weakened, the Russian capital still ranks second among European cities by the number of citations in academic journals and monographs, thanks mainly to the sciences.   To ensure a sustainable development, the city should promote these scientific innovation activities and extend them into high-tech manufacturing (Pchelintsev, 1999).    

The authors of this special issue offer no solutions for the problems that Moscow is now facing.   Rather, they analyze recent data showing the post-Soviet evolution of economic functions and social-territorial structures of the city from a perspective of its transformation into a global city.   Radical shifts in the economic structure of the capital changed (but did not diminish) its impact on the urban environment.   The theme of the changing sources of Moscow ’s environmental pollution (from stationary to automobiles) is developed in the paper by Viktoria Bityukova and Robert Argenbright .   Olga Vendina devotes her article to social geographical developments among Moscow ’s ethnic minorities and the related issue of growing ghettoization .   Elena Shomina, Vladimir Kolossov and Viktoria Shukhat analyze local community groups (non-governmental organizations) in Moscow as responses to changing neighborhood, especially housing conditions.   In the first paper in this special issue, Vladimir Kolossov , Olga Vendina and John O’Loughlin examine the evidence for Moscow ’s claim to world-city status and the geography of business developments in the city since the end of the Soviet Union .  

Soviet and Post-Soviet Research on Moscow .

Moscow attracted the attention of Soviet geographers who began to study the unique problems of the capital at the end of World War II.   Human geographers were especially interested in studying the interaction between the capital and its region, and its impact on surrounding territories of Central Russia .   They delimited Moscow ’s influence according to different criteria - the radius of daily and weekly cycles of activity, the number of second residences, etc.; the distribution of built-up areas, industry, services and recreational functions by sectors around the city by comparison to their environmental impact.   The fundamental volume on these themes – Moscow’s Capital Region- the Territories, Structures, and Environment - written by a large group from the Institute of Geography of the Soviet (now Russian) Academy of Sciences, include interesting chapters that serve as a bench mark for the post-Soviet developments (Lappo, Goltz and Treivish 1988).   Geographers gave much less attention to Moscow itself.   The social-territorial structure of the city was hardly examined – partly because of the lack of reliable statistical data for micro-districts.   The problems of Moscow ’s development were analyzed mainly by architects and urban planners, especially those serving at the Institute of Moscow ’s General Plan, whose reports are unavailable.

Some general works containing detailed information on urban life are available according to the respective periods. In particular, Yulian G. Saushkin , a patriarch of Soviet human geography and former chair of the Department of Human Geography of the USSR at Moscow State University, produced three books on Moscow (the last one appearing soon after his death with his former graduate student, Vera Glushkova) (Saushkin 1950, 1964, Saushkin and Glushkova 1983).   In the late 1970s–early 1980s, new geographical approaches to the study of the local urban environment, the conditions of life and the functional organization of the municipal economy were developed, in particular, in a laboratory of the Institute of Geography founded by Yuri Medvedkov (now at Ohio State University).   Contemporary quantitative methods (especially factorial ecology) were applied in the estimation of the quality of the urban environment (Barbash and Gutnov 1980; Barbash 1982) Examining patterns of distribution of residential areas and jobs, the number of requests to move into a specific area, its proximity to major transportation lines, the convenience of transport connections, the presence of city-wide services, the variety of employment opportunities, and the ecological situation was used as measures of attractiveness (Barbash 1984, Vasiliev and Privalova 1984).   In the 1990s, a similar approach was used by Sidorov (1992).

In the post-Soviet period, the transition to the mark et economy challenged geographers and other social scientists with new theoretical and policy problems: economic restructuring, the development of the privatized housing mark et, social polarization, unemployment, and old and new social pathologies all came to the forefront of research.   Despite publication of a number of innovative works, it is hardly possible to conclude that Russian human geographers met these challenges.   However, the works of Vera Glushkova should be mentioned.   She published a monograph devoted to the dynamics and the composition of Moscow’s population, the functions of the city and main branches of its economy, land-use and social problems (in particular, its religious geography)   (Glushkova 1997, 1999).   Glushkova also was one of the initiators and main authors of large, well- documented, illustrated volumes on history, geography and urbanism in Moscow (see, for instance, Kuzmin 2000, etc.). The second edition of the Encyclopaedia “ Moscow ” is especially worth of notice (Moskva, 1997).   Relevant geographical information on the development of Moscow is also contained in key historical publications (Vinogradov 1997, Gorinov 1996, 1997).  

            A series of works on urbanism and architecture richly illustrated by detailed maps of   the environment, roads, transportation, planning structure and functional zoning of the city appeared as a result of public discussions, the first steps in the discussion and adoption of the new General Plan of Moscow to 2020 (Arkhitectura... 1999, Moskva... 2000, Moskva..., 2001).   Comprehenisve studies on the history of architecture and urbanism in the capital also appeared during the first post-Soviet decade (Kudriavtsev, 1994).    Geographers participated   during the 1990s in several important works on the environment in Moscow .   In particular, Viktoria Bityukova wrote a thesis, where she studied both the “real” spatial distribution of polluters and their distribution by administrative-territorial units (Moskva... 1995; Bityukova 1996; Kuzmin 2000).   Some environmental maps can be found on the official web-site of the government of Moscow ( www.mos.ru ).

Geographical studies of Moscow were given further impetus by the improvement of official statistics, as well as by the 1995 decision of the capital’s government to introduce a new instructional discipline in the city’s and region’s high schools   – “knowledge of Moscow” ( “moskvovedenie” ).   This educational policy spurred the appearance of a series of textbooks (for example, Alekseev et al ., 1996, 1997 ).   Furthermore, the city government of Moscow initiated the publication of two monthly journals that contain the results of social studies of the city ( Simptom and Puls ).   The Committee on Telecommunications and Mass Media of the Government of Moscow yearly publishes about a dozen small books on current social problems, but unfortunately, only a very limited number of copies are printed and are not available in most libraries.   

Outside of Russia , in his key work, Timothy Colton (1995) analyzed the dynamics of the city’s boundaries, and its demographic, industrial and even political patterns in Moscow in the 20 th century. Many academic journals, including Post-Soviet Geography and Economy, regularly publish papers on the human geography of the Russian capital.   GeoJournal prepared a special issue on Moscow and St. Petersburg ( Gdaniec , 1997; Kolossov, 1997; Vendina, 1997).   In the field of social geography, Mozolin (1994) explained the intra-urban distribution of housing prices in terms of accessibility to the CBD and urban morphology.   Bater (1994) and Daniell and Struyk (1994) analyzed the development of the housing mark et in Moscow and, in particular, the results of privatization of housing, the implementation of municipal housing programs under new conditions, and the construction of new one-family cottages by “new Russians”. Kirsanova (1996) widely used the results of the polls about evaluations and preferences of different parts of Moscow by Muscovites and analyzed their relations with the gender, age, education, and the place of socialization of respondents and with the types of housing.   Vendina (1994, 1995, 1996, 1997), and Vendina and Kolossov (1996) related the transformations of functions and employment in different districts of Moscow in the post-socialist years with the pattern of housing prices on the secondary mark et, while Gritsai (1997) compared the first results of mark et transformations in Moscow, especially the development of business services, with the situation in some largest world metropolises.

Post-Soviet developments in Moscow of demographic and social indicators (natural population change, ethnic composition and the level of education, especially during the 1979-1989 intercensal period in the old administrative districts abolished in 1992), were examined by Rowland (1992). Differences between the inner and the outer zones of the city and the concentration of the educated people in the center and the south-west were also considered in the analysis of the    outcomes of the first democratic elections in the capital (Berezkin et al. , 1990 and Colton, 1995).   Bater, Degtyarev and Amelin (1995) and Kolossov (1996, 1997) showed that the voting behavior of Muscovites differs greatly from most other regions of the country and has stable territorial patterns, while the differences in electoral preferences between the west and south-west parts of the city with the remainder were defined and explained by O’Loughlin, Kolossov and Vendina, 1997.   More recently, Pavlovskaya and Hanson (2001) reported on the effects on family life of changes in the retail structure and privatization of services in a rayon in central Moscow and Argenbright (2000) paints an evocative picture of the changing nature of Moscow ’s public spaces, from controlled Soviet to the contemporary free-for-all.

A visitor to Soviet Moscow would hardly recognize its successor.   The center of Moscow increasingly looks like a Central European city, like Warsaw or Budapest , with expensive stores, gallerias, super mark ets, commercial offices, and a full array of retail services.   Meanwhile, the streetscapes of Moscow ’s outer zones are hardly changed from Soviet times.   As a small segment of the population of “new Russians” prosper in these times of frantic change, the majority of Moscovites struggle to make ends meet.   In a sample of 3,500 Moscovites in April 2000, we found that only 22.8 % agreed with the statement that “things are not so bad, and it is possible to live”, while the majority (55.3%) said that “life is difficult but it’s possible to endure”.   Another 13.3% said that “our condition makes it impossible to endure further.”   And, it is worth re-emphasizing that Moscow is much wealthier than the rest of the country and should not be considered as a typical Russian city or even a harbinger of things to come for other large cities of the former Soviet Union .

            The frenetic pace of commercial life in central Moscow and the associated rush to gentrification and re-development, quick money, criminal activity, banking and financial scandals, and great uncertainties has produced an “city on the make” ( Spector , 1997) .   What is most startling is the contrast of these world-city functions and consequences to the daily lives of most of the population.   The ‘dual city hypothesis” of Mollenkopf and Castells (1991), developed for New York City , seems increasingly apropos for Moscow .   Of course, dramatic polarization is a persistent feature of many major Third World capitals but its appearance in Moscow is undoubtedly the quickest.   Whether the growing gaps in Moscow   - between rich and poor, between the segments of the population who are tied to the incorporation into the global economy and those whose livelihood is connected to state services or to small-scale local enterprise, and between the older generation whose world is still colored by their Soviet-era experiences and the post-Soviet generation – will magnify as they have for the past decade or will be eased is an important research question, not only for Moscovites and Russians, but for all societies undergoing rapid social and economic change in these globalized times.   The papers in this special issue contribute to this research and offer a picture of the city after 10 years of post-Soviet change against which future developments can be compared.

Alekseev, Alexander I., ed. (1996) Moskvovedenie ( Moscow Studies). Moscow.: Ekopros .

Alekseev, Alexander I., Vera G. Glushkova and Galina Y. Lisenkova , eds. Geografia Moskvy i Moskovskoi oblasti (Geography of Moscow and of the Moscow Region). Moscow : Moskovskie Uchebniki , 1997.

Argenbright, Robert “Re making Moscow : New Places, New Selves." Geographical Review 89 (1): 1-22, January, 1999.

Arkhitektura , stroitelstvo , disain (Architecture, Construction Works and Design).   Special Issue on the General Plan of Moscow to 2020, 4  (14), 1999.

Barbash , Natalia B. “Spatial Relations Among Places with Complementary Functions Within the City of Moscow .” Soviet Geography: Review and Translation , 23 , 2: 77-94, February, 1982.

Barbash , Natalia B. “ Privlekatelnost Razlichnykh Chastei Gorodskoi Sredy Dlia Gorozhan (Na Osnove Dannykh Obmena Zhiliem )” (The Attractivity of Different Parts of the Urban Environment for Residents (on the Basis of Data on Residential Exchange)” Izvestia Akademii Nauk SSSR: Seriya Ggeograficheskaya 5: 81-91, 1984.

Barbash , Natalia B. and Aleksei E. Gutnov “Urban Planning Aspects of the Spatial Organization of Moscow : An Application of Factorial Ecology.” Soviet Geography: Review and Translation, 21, 9: 557-574, November, 1980.

Bater , James H. “Housing Developments in Moscow in the 1990s”.   Post-Soviet Geography, 35 , 6 : 309-328, June, 1994.

Bater , James H., Andrei A. Degtyarev , and Vladimir N. Amelin .   “Politics in Moscow : Local Issues, Areas and Governance.”   Political Geography, 14 , 8: 665-687, November, 1995.

Berezkin , Andrei V., Vladimir A. Kolossov, Marianna Pavlovskaya , Nicolai Petrov and Leonid Smirniagin . “The Geography of the 1989 Elections of People's Deputies of the USSR (Preliminary Results).” Soviet Geography , 30 , 8: 607-634, October 1989.        

Bityukova , Viktoria R. Sotsialno-ekologicheskie problemy razvitia gorodskikh territorii ( na primere Moskvy ) (Social-Environmental Problems of Urban Territories’ Development: the Case of Moscow) Doctoral thesis.   Moscow : Department of Geography, Moscow State University , 1996.

Colton, Timothy S.   Moscow : Governing the Socialist Metropolis. Cambridge , MA :   Harvard University Press, 1995.

Daniell , Jennifer and Ray Struyk , Housing Privatization in Moscow : Who Privatizes and Why .   Cambridge , MA : Blackwell Publishers, 1994.

Federov , Dmitri “Telecommunication Computer Networks in Moscow .” Geojournal , 42 ,4: 433-448, August 1997.

Gdaniec , C. “Reconstruction in Moscow ’s Historic Centre: Conservation, Planning and Finance Strategies- the Example of the Ostozhenka District.” Geojournal , 42 , 4: 365-376, August 1997.

Glushkova , Vera G. Moskva . Istoria i Geografia ( Moscow : History and Geography). Moscow : Mir Publishers, 1997.

Glushkova , Vera G. Sotsialnyi Portret Moskvy na Poroge XXI Veka (A Social Portrait of Moscow at the Eve of the XXI Century). Moscow : Mysl Publishers, 1999.   

Gorinov , Mikhail M., ed. Istoria Moskvy (History of Moscow ), vol. 1-4.   Moscow : AOL, 1996, 1997.

Gritsai , Olga “ Postindustrialnye Sdvigi v Moskve : Kontseptsia Mirovykh Gorodov i Perestroika Ekonomicheskoi Struktury ” (The Post-Industrial Shifts in Moscow : the Concept of the World City and Economic Restructuring). Izvestia RAN, Seria Geograficheskaya 5: 90-97, 1996.

Gritsai , Olga “Business Services and Restructuring of Urban Space in Moscow .” Geojournal , 42 , 4:349-363, August 1997.

Gritsai , Olga “ Moscow under Globalization and Transition: Paths of Economic Restructuring.” Urban Geography , 18 , 2: 155-165, 1997.

Kirsanova 1996

Kolossov, Vladimir “Political Polarization at the National and the Intra-Urban Levels:   The Role of Moscow in Russian Politics and Socio-Political Cleavages within the City,” GeoJournal , 42 , 4: 385-401, August, 1997.

Kolossov, Vladimir et Olga Vendina « Moscou, Retour a la Voie Mondiale. » Geographie et Culture, Metropolisation et Politique . Ed. Paul Claval and André-Louis Sanguin. Paris : L’Harmattan, 1997: 137-153

Kolossov, Vladimir, Olga Vendina, Nadezhda Borodulina , Elena Seredina , and Dmitri Fedorov “ Kontseptsia Informationnogo Goroda i Sozdanie Novoi Delovoi sredy v Moskve (The Concept of the Informational City and Formation of a New Business Environment in Moscow ).” Izvestia RAN, Seria Geograficheskaya , 5 : 141-156, 1998.

Kudriavtsev , Mikhail P., ed. Moskva – Tretii Rim: Istoriko-Gradostroitelnoye Issledovanie . ( Moscow – the Third Rome . A Historical-Urban Study). Moscow : SOL, 1994.

Kuzmin , Alexander V., ed. Gradostroitelstvo Moskvy . 90-e Gody XX Veka (Urbanism in Moscow . The 1990s). Moscow : Moskovskie Uchebniki i Kartolitografia , 2000.

Lappo , Georgi M., Golz , Grigori A., and Treivish , Andrei I. , eds. Mosckovskii Stolichnyi Region: Territorialnaya Struktura i Okuzhayushchaya Sreda ( Moscow Capital Region: the Territorial Structure and Environment). Moscow : Institute of Geography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR , 1988.

Mollenkopf , John and Manuel Castells . Dual City : Urban Restructuring in New York . New York : Russell Sage Foundation, 1991.

Moskva i mockvichi : v kakoi okruzhayushchei srede my zhivem ? ( Moscow and Moscovites : In What Environment Do We Live?) Moscow : Institute of the Moscow General Plan, 1995.

Moskva ( Encyclopaedia of Moscow ). Moscow : Rossiiskaya Entsiklopedia , 1997.

Moskva : Vzgliad v Tretie Tysyacheletie ( Novyi Generalnyi Plan Razvitia i Ego Realizatsia ) ( Moscow : A View into the Third Millenium : the New General Plan of Development and Its Realization). Arkhitektura i stroitelstvo Moskvy (Architecture and Construction Works in Moscow ), special issue, 5-6, 2001.  

Moskva 2000 ( Moskovskii spravochnik ). (Moscow 2000: A Moscow Reference Book). Moscow : Golden Be, 2000.

Mozolin , Mikhail. “The Geography of Housing Values in the Transformation to a Market Economy: A Case Study of Moscow .”   Urban Geography, 15 , 2 : 107-127, March 1994.

O’Loughlin, John, Vladimir Kolossov and Olga Vendina “The Electoral Geographies of a Polarizing City: Moscow , 1993-1995” Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38 , 10: 567-600, December 1997.

Pavlovskaya , Marianna and Susan Hanson. “Privatization of the Urban Fabric: Gender and Local Geographies of Transition in Downtown Moscow .” Urban Geography, 22 , 1: 4-28, January 2001.

Pchelintsev , Oleg S . “ Moskva i Strategicheskoe Izmerenie Rossiiskikh Reform” ( Moscow and the Strategic Dimension of Russian Reforms)” Moskva na Fone Rossii i Mira: Problemy i Protivorechia Otnoshenii Stolitsy v Kontekste Rynochnoi Transformatsii (Moscow Against the Background of Russia and the World: Problems and Contradictions of the Capital’s Relations on the Context of Reforms). Leonid Vardomsky and Vladimir Mironov , eds .   Moscow: Institute for International Economic and Political Studies and Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Science,   1999, pp. 13-31.

Rowland, Richard “Selected Urban Population Characteristics of Moscow .”   Post-Soviet Geography, 33 , 2 : 569-590, March 1992.

Saushkin , Yulian G. Moskva ( Moscow ). Moscow : Geografgiz , 1950.

Saushkin , Yulian G. Moskva . Geograficheskaya Kharakteristika ( Moscow : A Geographical Characteristic). Moscow : Geografgiz , 1964.

Saushkin , Yulian G., and Vera G. Glushkova   Moskva Sredi Gorodov Mira ( Moscow among the Cities of the World).   Moscow : Mysl Publishers, 1983.

Sidorov , Dmitri “Variations in Perceived Level of Prestige of Residential Areas in the Former USSR .” Urban Geography , 13 , 4 : 355-373, July-August, 1992.

Stadelbauer , Jörg .   “ Moskau . Post- sozialistische Megastadt im Transformationsprozess .”   Geographische Rundschau , 48, 2: 113-120, February 1996.

Spector , Michael. “ Moscow on the make.” New York Times Magazine , June 1, 1997 .

Taylor, Peter J. “ World Cities and Territorial States under Conditions of Contemporary Globalization.” Political Geography, 19 , 1: 5-32, January 2000.

Taylor, Peter J. and Mark Hoyler . “The Spatial Order of European Cities under Conditions of Contemporary Globalization.” Tidjschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie , 91 , 2: 176-189, May 2000

Vasiliev , Georgi L., and Olga L. Privalova “A Social-Geographical Evaluation of Differences within a City.” Soviet Geography: Review and Translations, 25 , 7:   488-496, September 1984.

Vendina, Olga  « Moscou:   En   Recherche   d'Equilibre   Entre   la Planification et Laisser-Faire » Planification et Stratégies de Développement dans les Capitales Européennes. Christian Vandermotten, ed. Bruxelles: Universite Libre de Bruxelles, 1994, pp. 273-285.

Vendina, Olga « Moscou: les Rôles de la Ville et sa Genèse», Géographie et Cultures ,   14 : 85-103, 1995.

Vendina, Olga “ Sotsialnaya Stratifikatsia v Moskve : Tsena Ekonomicheskikh Reform” (The Social Stratification in Moscow : the Cost of Economic Reform). Izvestia RAN ,   Seria Geograficheskaya , 5 : 98-113, 1996.

Vendina, Olga “Transformation Processes in Moscow and Intra-Urban Stratification of Population.” Geojournal   42 ,4:341 -347, August 1997.

Vendina, Olga and Vladimir Kolossov . “ Sotsialnaya Polarisatsia i Politicheskoe Povedenie Moskvichei ” (The Social Polarization and the Political Behavior of Moscovites ). Sociological Journal , 3 , 4: 164-176, 1996.

Vinogradov , Vladimir, ed. Moskva - 850 let. Istoria Moskvy   ( Moscow - 850 years. History of Moscow ). Moscow : Moskovskie uchebniki (2 vols ), 1996-1997.

* Yablokov , Aleksei V., ed. O Sostoyanii Okruzhayushchei Sredy g. Moskvy v 1992 g. Gosudarstvennyi Doklad (About the State of Environment in Moscow in 1992 - The State Report). Moscow : Government of Moscow , 1993.

Figure   SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1 Location of Rayoni in Moscow

[1] Acknowledgements: This special issue benefited from the collaborative work of many individuals.   In Boulder , Tom Dickinson prepared the final versions of all of the maps and Clionadh Raleigh helped with the bibliographic and grammatical elements of the project.   Altinay Kuchukeeva assisted with the research on the papers and Jim Bell, now at the U.S. State Department, was involved in the project in the early stages.   In Moscow , the project was assisted by xxxx , xxxxx , and xxx.   The project was funded by a grant to Professor O’Loughlin by the National Science Foundation and by grants to Professor Kolossov by …….

What is Moscow: Introduction, General Facts, and Brief History in Dates.

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