pros and cons of dieting essay

24 Important Pros & Cons Of Dieting

“ Real food, I’ve found, is actually better than dieting.”

Angelina Jolie, Actress

Advantages & Disadvantages of Dieting

Many people in our society currently suffer from overweight or even obesity.

Many of them try different diets in order to lose weight.

However, many people are not successful with diets at all.

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In this article, the pros and cons of dieting are examined in detail.

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Advantages of dieting, dieting can make you feel better, you can lose weight, you will become more attractive, diets can improve your confidence, you may get better job opportunities, you can improve your fitness level in the long run, can improve your overall life expectancy, can also lead to healthier nutrition, you will become more aware of what you want to eat, diets can increase your level of perseverance, you can find like-minded people, dieting can improve your overall chances in life.

One key advantage of dieting is that it can make you feel much better.

Many people feel quite uncomfortable if they suffer from overweight or even obesity and urgently want to make a change.

Dieting can not only help people to change their physical appearance, but it can also improve the overall quality of life of people since they will feel much better and motivated in general to achieve things in life.

For sure, another main reason why people start a diet is to lose weight.

In fact, overweight is not only quite harmful from a health perspective, it can also prevent you from achieving your goals in life.

Thus, dieting can be a great way if you really want to bring yourself to the next level and want to start to improve yourself.

Another benefit of dieting is that it can also help to make you more attractive.

Let’s be honest.

Not many people want to have a partner who suffers from serious overweight .

It is simply not attractive at all to most of us.

Hence, if you want to increase the chances to find a partner, dieting can also help you in this regard since you will look much better and looks matter for dating quite a lot.

Since you will look much better after you successfully finished your diet, chances are that you will also feel much more confident due to that.

Since confidence is a key driver for success in various parts of our life, you can also significantly increase your chances in life if you complete a diet and work on yourself on a continuous basis.

As we have noticed before, looks matter!

This is not only true for finding a partner, looks also matter in the corporate world. If you look at who gets promoted in your corporation, you will soon realize that most of those people care about their weight.

Hence, this should also give you an indication that looks are also important in the corporate sector and if you want to climb the career ladder, you may want to start a diet if you are currently overweight.

Dieting can not only improve your overall health level and your career opportunities, it can also help you to improve your overall fitness.

If you currently suffer from obesity, chances are that your fitness level will be rather poor and that you will have significant difficulties to manage your household.

If this is the case, you may want to start a diet so that you can lose weight and also improve your fitness level.

In turn, you will feel much better and the tasks that seemed to be challenging in the past will become much easier.

Dieting can also significantly improve your life expectancy .

In fact, overweight is quite unhealthy for us and can lead to serious diseases in the long run.

Therefore, if you want to increase your chances for a long and happy life, you may want to start a diet if you currently suffer from serious overweight.

Another upside of dieting is that you will also learn a lot about nutrition.

In fact, dieting is not only about losing weight, but it is also about proper nutrition.

Many people will only be able to lose weight and to stay lean and fit if they eat in a healthy manner.

Hence, if you plan to start a diet in the near future, make sure that you combine it with learning about proper nutrition so that you really benefit from significant positive long-term effects.

Dieting can also help you regarding what you want to eat in the future.

If you start a diet, you will often also cook for yourself and you will gain plenty of knowledge regarding which foods are healthy for you and which are not.

In turn, chances are that you will also be able to refuse from consuming unhealthy foods in the future.

Sure, finishing diets can be quite hard.

Quite often, you may feel like you just want to quit and get your favorite fast food.

However, if you really finish your diet in a successful manner, this will give you quite a lot of mental strength since you will realize that you can actually achieve things.

In turn, also your overall level of perseverance will increase quite a lot, which is crucial for success in various parts of your life.

In fact, many people give up in life way too soon and learning perseverance is an important skill to push through difficult periods of your life.

Thanks to our latest technologies, you will also be able to find many like-minded people on the internet through social media groups or forums.

By using those channels, you can connect to other people and the chances that you successfully finish your diet may become much higher since you will have emotional support through those groups and people may encourage you to stay on track.

Over time, you may also find really good friends since many people in those groups will have similar goals like you and also want to change their lives.

In general, dieting can improve your chances in all parts of your life.

As we have seen before, dieting can improve your fitness, your health, your chances of finding a partner and can also be helpful to succeed in the corporate world.

Therefore, if you really want to achieve your goals in life, dieting can definitely help you in this regard if you currently suffer from overweight or even from obesity.

Disadvantages of Diets

Finishing a diet can be hard, you may no longer be able to eat your favorite food, may imply a feeling of hunger, diets can lead to a temporary drop in physical fitness, may lower your mental capabilities, dieting may lead to depression, can lead to a shortage of important nutrients, dieting is not advisable if you are pregnant, may lead to social isolation, some people take it too far, may discourage you in case you fail, dieting can stress our nerves.

Apart from the numerous advantages of dieting, there are still some issues with this concept.

For instance, one disadvantage of dieting is that it can be quite hard.

Many people will just give up over time since they just don’t have the mental strength to really push through difficult periods.

Hence, if you start a diet, make sure that you really keep the faith in yourself and that you finish your diet.

People who start diets often have a quite hard time since they will no longer be able to eat their favorite foods.

In fact, it can be quite annoying if you are dieting right now, but are always confronted with delicious foods at numerous street corners.

Hence, diets can also be a great challenge and may also greatly lower the quality of life of people during this period.

Many people also feel hungry during their diets.

In fact, this is quite logical since if you eat less, your body will get less food and your stomach will tell you sooner or later that it is not satisfied with the amount of food you eat.

A strong feeling of hunger can be quite annoying and may distract the focus from the things you want to achieve during this period of your life.

Another downside of dieting is that it may also harm your physical fitness level.

Sure, in the long run, you will be much fitter if you are able to lose weight.

Yet, in the short run, your fitness level may even drop since your body will not have sufficient calories to work in an optimal manner.

Dieting can also be harmful from a mental perspective.

In fact, our brain needs plenty of food in order to work properly.

However, if you limit your calory intake, chances are that also your brain may no longer work in an optimal manner, which can lead to several problems in your daily life during your dieting period.

Some people may even develop serious depression tendencies from dieting.

This can be due to the fact that people are no longer able to enjoy their favorite foods and also suffer from a temporary loss of energy.

In turn, people may become quite unmotivated and their brain may tell them that everything is hopeless.

Hence, make sure to remind yourself that this dieting period will be over soon and that you will feel much better afterward in order to avoid this sort of depressive state.

Dieting can also lead to a temporary shortage of important nutrients.

Especially if you don’t inform yourself regarding how proper dieting really looks like, chances are that your diet will not provide you with sufficient nutrients.

In turn, your body and your brain may greatly suffer and you may even give up in the long run.

Also in case you are pregnant, dieting may not be advisable for you during this period since being pregnant can be a challenge for your body and your unborn needs sufficient nutrients to stay healthy.

Diets may even lead to social isolation .

Since people are no longer allowed to consume their favorite foods, they may no longer go out too often.

Moreover, if your peer group consists of many people that are overweight, those people may not understand your motives for dieting and may not be happy about your diet at all.

In turn, you may even lose some friends if you urgently want to lose weight.

While losing weight an be a good thing if you currently suffer from overweight, too much of it may even hurt you instead.

There are people out there who simply take it too far and may even end up with eating disorders and anorexia.

Thus, make sure that you don’t exaggerate regarding your dieting efforts in order to avoid unpleasant health consequences.

Some people who fail to complete their diets may feel even worse than before they started their diet.

People often feel discouraged and like losers.

However, if you don’t complete your diet, don’t worry too much about it! Just try it again.

Sooner or later, you will make it if you don’t give up and work hard on yourself!

Since your body doesn’t get enough food and you will feel exhausted, chances are that also your overall mental state will be rather fragile.

In fact, dieting can be quite stressful for many people and you may also annoy your partner quite a lot during the dieting period.

Top 10 Dieting Pros & Cons – Summary List

Should you go on a diet.

Dieting can make quite a lot of sense in case you currently suffer from serious overweight or even obesity.

However, make sure that you inform yourself properly before you start your diet in order to be able to deal with all the problems that may appear later on.

https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/meal-plans

https://www.webmd.com/diet/ss/slideshow-best-diet-tips-ever

https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/healthy-weight/12-tips-to-help-you-lose-weight/

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IELTS Essay, Topic: Reasons for and against dieting

• IELTS Essays - Band 6

Dieting can change a person’s life for the better or ruins one’s health completely. What’s your opinion?

Dieting seems to be of our life in this modern society, especially for those who are health conscious. Different people choose different type of dieting methods, trying to achieve what they believe to be good for either their health or physical appearance. In general, most of the people who diet are focusing on controlling their weight.

However, some have resorted to losing weight by taking their diet to the extreme, not eating at all for days. Others will make themselves vomit after each meal. Many others will go for dieting medication and beverages that help them to lose their appetite. These unhealthy will cause internal damage in the long run.

In my opinion, dieting for better health is more important than solely for looking attractive. Individuals who wish to control their weight should seek professional if they are unable to reduce their weight after switching over to a healthy diet for a period of time. Losing weight and losing your health at the same time does not benefit any individual.

This essay needs some work. The first body paragraph explains the reason people have for dieting, whereas it should explain what are the advantages or the dangers of it. The second body paragraph explains how to diet, whereas it should present arguments for or against dieting. Therefore, the task is only partially covered here.

On the bright side, the sentences are well-structured and the vocabulary is sufficient, the usage of linking words is fluent and the spelling and grammar are mostly fine (see comments underlined in blue). Overall, this looks like a Band 6 essay.

Click here to see more IELTS essays of band 6

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Pros and Cons You Should Know Before Trying That New Diet

It seems like a new food villain crops up every day. One day processed foods are bad for you, the next it’s sugar, then salt, then red meat.

Eliminating seemingly harmful foods is at the core of many popular diets, like veganism or the paleo diet. But is that really necessary ?

“Dietitians usually warn people against diets that exclude certain food groups unless there are medical reasons to avoid them,” says Francesca Simonella, R.D., a clinical dietitian at Harborview Medical Center. “It’s good to think of foods as a variety of options that are all good.”

Nonetheless, there are health benefits to certain ways of eating versus others. If you’re considering trying a new diet—or simply want to change your eating habits—it can be hard to figure out what is right for you. We asked Simonella what about some of the pros and cons of popular diets to help you make an informed decision.

The fine print: All animal products—even things like honey and eggs—are off limits.

The pros: Since vegans don’t eat meat, milk or eggs, they consume less saturated fat —though there may be benefits (or, at least, not much harm) to consuming small amounts of saturated fat, new research shows . Veganism may help lower blood pressure and prevent diabetes development .

The cons: Protein intake can be an issue for vegans, Simonella says. Since vegans don’t eat many conventional sources of protein (like red meat), they should make sure they’re getting enough from other foods, such as soy. It’s also important for vegans to take a vitamin B12 supplement, a nutrient only found naturally in animal products. “It’s not necessarily a problem if vegans consult with dietitians,” Simonella says.

Vegetarian and Pescatarian Diets

The fine print: Vegetarians forego all meat, while pescatarians eat fish, but not read meat or poultry.

The pros: Like veganism, a vegetarian diet can lower someone’s risk for chronic disease. If you’re vegetarian, you likely eat more fruits and vegetables and benefit from all the fiber, vitamins and minerals they contain. Pescatarians may also have a higher intake of healthy fats from fish and lower intake of saturated fat in meats like beef and chicken.

The cons: Vegetarians and pescatarians should make sure they’re getting enough protein, iron, zinc, calcium and vitamin B12. In the past, doctors used to think vegetarian diets were lacking in these nutrients, but that can be avoided by sufficient meal planning, Simonella says.

The Paleo Diet

The fine print: Followers of this diet emulate the dietary pattern of our ancestors by emphasizing fresh foods and avoiding processed foods. Legumes, dairy and grains are excluded.

The pros: A paleo diet can promote the intake of healthy fats, vitamins and minerals, and a recent study  showed that it may have short-term cardiovascular benefits (though this point is contested ).

The cons: What exactly paleo means can differ from person to person, Simonella says, which makes the diet difficult for researchers to define and study for potential health benefits. Also, the exclusion of legumes, dairy and grains means people may not get enough fiber, calcium and vitamin D.

Mediterranean Diet

The fine print: This diet follows the traditions of some Mediterranean countries by focusing on olive oil, vegetables, fruits, nuts and seeds, beans, whole grains and some dairy products.

The pros: The diet is low in saturated fat and involves a lot of fresh foods, since it requires cooking your own meals. Many studies have shown it can help prevent everything from diabetes  to cardiovascular disease  to cognitive decline .

The cons: Having to buy fresh ingredients for meals can get expensive and cooking regularly is time-consuming. Plus, the diet can put too much emphasis on oils and other things that should be consumed in moderation—like wine. “It’s possible to have too much of a good thing,” Simonella says.

The Raw Food Diet

The fine print: This diet encourages the consumption of raw fruits, vegetables and dairy products along with avoidance of processed and cooked foods.

The pros: There are some nutrients in plants, such as vitamins B and C, that can’t withstand high temperatures during cooking, Simonella says. Eating raw fruits and vegetables helps preserve more of their nutritional value.

The cons: Cooking increases the availability of some antioxidants that are thought to promote longevity, Simonella says. Additionally, cooking destroys harmful bacteria that can make you sick. Simonella urges people with weakened immune systems to avoid unpasteurized dairy products and juices.

The Whole30

The fine print: For 30 days, people are encouraged to cut out grains, dairy, legumes, alcohol and added sugars and sweeteners from their diet.

The pros: Eating whole foods with few ingredients is generally a good thing, Simonella says. The diet also doesn’t focus on calorie intake the way many fad diets do.

The cons: The diet supposedly helps you identify foods that may bother you—a kind of self-administered elimination diet. However, since a doctor isn’t helping you determine what to eliminate and for how long, the diet’s schedule isn’t scientific. By completely cutting out grains, dairy and beans, people are missing out on important nutrients, and unless they have an allergy or sensitivity to any of these food items there is no medical reason to eliminate them completely. “It promotes a black-and-white approach to nutrition,” Simonella cautions.

Juice Cleanses

The fine print: A juice cleanse is a short-term, liquid-only diet. Proponents say it helps clear the body of toxins. Practices vary, but typically the goal is to replace at least two meals a day with smoothies, juices or soups.

The pros: It could encourage people to eat more fruits and vegetables—albeit in liquid form, Simonella says.

The cons: Liquefied fruits and vegetables don’t contain the fiber whole ones do, so people might have a hard time feeling full. The premise of the diet is faulty, too, Simonella says. Since our bodies automatically clear out toxins via our liver and kidneys, there is no need to “detox,” as long as these organs are working normally. “There is little or no evidence that we need cleanse programs,” she says.

Intermittent Fasting

The fine print: The idea behind this diet is that alternating periods of eating and fasting can increase your body’s resistance to stressors and slow your metabolism.

The pros: People are encouraged to eat more fruits, vegetables and other health-promoting foods during eating periods, and reducing overall calorie intake could increase longevity , though the science behind this concept is a bit unclear . The diet may help with weight loss .

The cons: Our bodies adapt to periods of starvation and burn fewer calories, Simonella says—similar to the way a bear’s body slows down during hibernation. This contradicts the diet’s premise—so it may not work at all, she says. Additionally, while fasting has been shown to be beneficial in animal studies, its benefits to humans are negligible .

No matter how you eat, remember the choice is ultimately yours.

“The most important thing for me is to help people make their own choices,” Simonella says. “What I try to do is present evidence-based information without bias. Every diet has pros and cons—it is more about tailoring healthy eating to the individual.”

The Bottom Line

Simonella has a few additional tips before you try a new diet:

• Recognize that your social life could be impacted. Since social gatherings regularly involve food, it might prove difficult to find food that conforms to your diet when you go to a catered event or meet friends at a restaurant.  
• Consider time and money: Diets that require specific foods can be more expensive, as can prepackaged foods that adhere to certain diet tenets. On the other hand, preparing everything yourself can be time-consuming.  
• Eat for health, not appearance: Eating food that promotes your health and wellbeing is important, but stressing yourself out about eating a few extra calories over your daily allotment defeats the purpose. People who feel compelled to diet for weight loss are more likely to have an unhealthy relationship with food and may not achieve their goals.  
• Don’t deprive yourself, but don’t overindulge either. It’s important to find balance in how you eat so you aren’t alternating between periods of overeating or starving yourself.

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Pros and Cons for Healthy Food Choices

Eating healthy can help you sustain wellness, achieve longevity and prevent chronic diseases that are costly to treat. Despite public health promotion to eat healthy foods, only 23 percent of Americans consume the daily recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables, according to the 2010 Annual Status Report of the National Prevention, Health Promotion and Public Health Council. Healthy food choices abound in most cities, yet they can be hard to find in restaurants and may be perceived to be costlier than processed foods.

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Pro: Promotes Health

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Consuming healthy foods can improve your overall health. Healthy foods are whole, organically grown without pesticides, unprocessed and include fresh fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, grains and olive and vegetable oils. Healthy foods for people who eat animal products include moderate amounts of low-fat dairy and cold water, fatty fish, such as salmon and light tuna and low amounts of lean meat and poultry. These foods may promote health and increase your longevity. Healthy food choices include products that contain calcium for bone growth, antioxidants to slow down the aging process and healthy fats to maintain cellular and cardiovascular health.

Pro: Reduces Risk of Disease

Healthy foods reduce your risk of chronic diseases. Low glycemic foods, such as barley, grapefruits and chickpeas, help you control blood sugar levels and may reduce your risk of diabetes and complications, such as nerve damage. Healthy fats, such as monounsaturated fatty acids from olive oil and omega-3 fatty acids from walnuts and fish, may reduce your risk of cardiovascular disease.Fruits and vegetables contain an abundance of antioxidants, which may reduce your risk of cancer. Dairy and soy foods contain calcium, which can reduce your risk of osteoporosis.

Con: Not Always Easy to Find

Healthy food choices are not always easy to find, particularly at restaurants. Many fast food restaurants cook with trans fats, industrial processed hydrogenated vegetable oils that can increase your risk of heart disease. Many of the food choices on restaurant menus include foods with high amounts of calories, sodium and saturated fat. To eat healthy, order a salad with dressing on the side.

A common perception among people who do not shop at health food stores is that health foods are more expensive than similar products in mainstream grocery stores. The truth is that many gourmet brands of health foods are costly, yet there are less-expensive health food brands of products. Buying organic produce can be expensive, but can be less costly when grown locally. Eating healthier, sometimes costlier foods, may help you save more tomorrow on not having to pay for health care expenses from treating chronic diseases that may result from eating unhealthy foods. Research at Harvard School of Public Health published in the "Journal of the American College of Nutrition" in 2008 demonstrates that people who are introduced to healthy foods and subsidized 20 percent of the cost increased their consumption of healthy foods after the subsidy was removed.

• Public Health Council: 2010 Annual Status Report
• Harvard School of Public Health: Mediterranean Diet
• Linus Pauling Institute: Glycemic Index
• MayoClinic.com: Dietary Fats
• National Cancer Institute: Antioxidants and Cancer Prevention: Fact Sheet
• University of Maryland Medical Center: Calcium
• University of Maryland Medical Center: Trans Fats 101
• "Journal of the American College of Nutrition"; K.B. Michaels, et al.; Feb. 27, 2008

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Pros and Cons of Different Diets Essay

Intermittent fasting, reference list.

A ketogenic diet, which is commonly referred to as a keto diet, is a food regimen that contains very low quantities of carbohydrates but high amounts of fat. The formulation of a ketogenic diet entails cutting down the portions of carbohydrates and substituting them with fat. The reduction of carbohydrates shifts the body’s metabolism to a state known as ketosis, which is marked by high amounts of ketone bodies in the blood and urine. Consequently, the body uses up the ketone bodies for the generation of energy in a process that translates to increased efficiency in the burning of fats (O’Neill & Raggi, 2019).

The main advantage of a keto diet is that it causes substantial reductions in blood glucose and insulin levels, which is beneficial to people with diabetes. Another benefit related to this reduction is heightened sensitivity to insulin. Ketogenic diets also help in cutting down body weight, thereby reducing the risk of lifestyle diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes (Krishnan et al., 2019). Certain disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, polycystic ovarian syndrome, Alzheimer’s disease, cancers, and acne are managed more efficiently with ketogenic diets.

The shortcomings of a keto diet include the development of side effects such as queasiness, digestive problems, sleep disorders, increased hunger, and poor mental functioning (O’Neill & Raggi, 2019). These symptoms occur in the initial stages as the body adjusts to the diet. Ketogenic diets may upset the body’s fluid and electrolyte balance. Therefore, hydration should be optimal.

Intermittent fasting (IF) is a form of diet that involves alternating between periods of eating and fasting. However, it does not specify the types of food to be eaten but emphasizes the timing of meals. The most common eating pattern comprises fasting intervals of 16 hours or 24-hour fasts twice a week (De Cabo & Mattson, 2019).

The benefits of IF fasting include increased insulin sensitivity and low levels of the hormone, which enhance the accessibility of stored fats for energy production. Ultimately, these changes lead to weight loss. IF raises the concentrations of human growth hormone that is responsible for an increase in muscular tissue and a reduction in fat. Cellular repair processes occur at a faster rate during fasting, resulting in healthier cells through the automatic digestion of dysfunctional proteins. IF induces alterations in gene expression patterns that confer protection against disease (Mattson et al., 2017). Other advantages include improved brain and cardiovascular health as well as low rates of inflammation.

The main disadvantage of IF is that the weight loss benefits can easily be lost if food portions are not controlled during the eating periods. IF may be life-threatening to people who are underweight or have eating disorders. IF may also cause poor blood glucose control in women as well as irregularities in the menstrual cycle (Varady, 2016).

A zone diet is a food regimen that adheres to a set proportion of macronutrients: 30% protein, 40% carbohydrates, and 30% fat (Finelli et al., 2016). The carbohydrates in a zone diet should have a low glycemic index, meaning that glucose should be released into the blood in small quantities for long periods to extend satiety. The fat composition should be mostly monounsaturated fatty acids. A zone diet works by inducing the hormones to permit the body to enter a state of minimal or no inflammation.

The benefits of a zone diet include a rapid rate of weight loss. It decelerates the rate of aging and sustains good health in old age. The zone diet also enhances brain function and brings about fast thinking and improved performance. Large quantities of fruits and vegetables can be consumed.

The first disadvantage of the zone diet is that the purported benefits are not backed by scientific evidence (Naude et al., 2017). The diet does not elicit significant changes in blood glucose and cholesterol levels. The zone diet is time-consuming, costly, and impractical. Some restrictions imply a reduction of valuable vitamins from the diet.

De Cabo, R., & Mattson, M. P. (2019). Effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease. New England Journal of Medicine , 381 (26), 2541-2551. Web.

Finelli, C., Crispino, P., Gioia, S., La Sala, N., D’amico, L., La Grotta, M., Miro, O. and Colarusso, D. (2016). The improvement of large High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) particle levels, and presumably HDL metabolism, depend on effects of low-carbohydrate diet and weight loss. EXCLI Journal , 15 , 166-176. Web.

Krishnan, D., Mehndiratta, C., & Agrawal, T. (2019). Ketogenic diet as medical nutrition therapy. Journal of Social Health and Diabetes , 7 (02), 73-76. Web.

Mattson, M. P., Longo, V. D., & Harvie, M. (2017). Impact of intermittent fasting on health and disease processes. Ageing Research Reviews , 39 , 46-58. Web.

Naude, C. E., Schoonees, A., Senekal, M., Garner, P., Young, T., & Volmink, J. (2017). Reliable systematic review of low-carbohydrate diets shows similar weight-loss effects compared with balanced diets and no cardiovascular risk benefits: Response to methodological criticisms. SAMJ: South African Medical Journal , 107 (3), 170-170. Web.

O’Neill, B., & Raggi, P. (2019). The ketogenic diet: Pros and cons. Atherosclerosis , 292 , 119-126. Web.

Varady, K. A. (2016). Impact of intermittent fasting on glucose homeostasis. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care , 19 (4), 300-302. Web.

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Pros and Cons of Dieting

There have never been so many different diets around and yet we know that many people suffer from being overweight. If the media is to be believed the western world is suffering from the worst plague of all eating disorders – obesity. Most people – women at least – have tried dieting at some time in their lives. Sometimes they achieve their goal to lose weight; sometimes they don’t.  The main trouble is the weight usually goes back on once the diet is no longer followed.

This must tell us that what people have for their ‘normal’ food is not good for them, causing excessive weight gain that is bad for their health. And yet, even this is not the whole story. In some cases we have the kind of jobs that don’t allow us to have enough exercise to burn off those calories , but still make us too tired to do any kind of exercise after work is done for the day. Or in some cases we are too busy doing other essentials like housework and supervising children to hit the gym or go jogging.

This is where dieting comes in. Once that weight starts to become more noticeable we look around for ways to reduce it. But is dieting really the answer?  Here are some pros and cons of dieting.

• It does in some cases help to get the unhealthy weight off .
• It gives us a feeling of control because we are doing something to make us healthier.
• We learn more about healthy nutrition as we research which diet to go on.
• We become more aware of what we eat.
• Not all diets are healthy so we might miss out on the nutrition we really need.
• If dieting fails we can feel miserable or even depressed.
• Dieting sometimes makes us cranky because we feel hungry.
• Calories are ‘feel good’ foods so when we cut back we don’t feel as good.

Eating a diet that does not change the foods we eat and like – at least not very much – is likely to be much more successful than going on a diet that is completely different from our normal food.

See Which Diet Plans People REALLY Like

For years people have been searching for the "perfect diet" like they were hunting the Holy Grail. But which diets actually work?

Consumer Report (CR) recently asked more than 9,000 readers to weigh in on the question. They ranked 13 weight loss plans and tools, assigning each diet a score out of 100 based on factors like initial weight loss, food variety, and maintenance, among others.

Consumer Reports found that do-it-yourself plans were more popular than commercial alternatives, possibly because of the lower cost and the better flexibility. But ratings aside, Consumer Reports points out that weight loss is possible on any of the plans, and satisfaction is based on more than just shedding pounds alone.

Weight Watchers is a commercial plan in which dieters monitor their food intake with "points."

CR Reader Score:  56

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   12 to 35 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  10 to 28 lbs

Pros:  Weight Watchers provides the flexibility to create your own diet plan and lets you eat whatever you want.

Cons:  The Weight Watchers points system can be annoying to keep track of each day , and their premade food products are a bit pricey.

SparkPeople is a diet tracking website with an additional online support community.

CR Reader Score:  60

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   10 to 25 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  5 to 21 lbs

Pros:  SparkPeople is free and readily-accessible, and enables you to easily track your weight loss journey. The site also has a user community that you can rely on for encouragement and shared tips.

Cons:  The premise is mainly a low-carb, high-protein diet , which isn't best for everyone, and there can be a wait to get advice or answers from physicians on the site when you need help.

Nutrisystem is a commercial plan with many easy-to-make meal choices.

CR Reader Score:  66

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   10 to 30 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  7 to 24 lbs

Pros:  Carbs are not off limits on the Nutrisystem plan, and the meals are simple and easy to make.

Cons:  Nutrisystem's food choices have been called "palatable," and eating them feels like sitting down to a TV dinner instead of a meal.

The South Beach Diet is a DIY plan that guarantees weight loss in the first two weeks.

CR Reader Score:  70

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   11 to 27 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  8 to 23 lbs

Pros:  One of the perks of the South Beach diet is the allowance of snacks and dessert , and the brand claims you can lose up to 13 pounds in the first two weeks.

Cons:  Many people say planning and preparing the meals can be time-consuming , and the first two weeks in which the most weight is typically lost can feel very restrictive.

Medifast is a commercial plan with no calorie or point counting.

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   20 to 43 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  14 to 40 lbs

Pros:  Dieters on Medifast are relieved of counting calories , carbs or points on this plan, and stay full from a diet of mostly protein and fiber.

Cons:  Medifast is a lot more rigorous than other diets , on which adults typically consume between 800 and 1,000 calories, which has associated health risks for some individuals.

Slim Fast is a DIY plan that is perfectly portioned.

CR Reader Score:  71

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  5 to 22 lbs

Pros:  Slim Fast is convenient with its many grab-and-go products, and the plan ensures that you get the right portions and calories throughout the day.

Cons:  Two out of your three meals have to be "meal replacements," like their meal bars or shakes, which can become boring and routine after a while.

The Paleo Diet is a DIY plan is perfect for carnivores.

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   10 to 32 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  6 to 20 lbs

Pros:  The mostly protein Paleo diet  is based on the premise that we could eliminate all the modern day health ailments if we reverted back to eating like our Paleolithic ancestors, namely, primarily meat and plants. This diet is also low in sodium.

Cons:  The Paleo diet does not approve most grains and dairy , so the diet lacks many of the nutrients, especially calcium, that our bodies need.

MyFitnessPal is a free app and website that tracks your calories and exercise.

CR Reader Score:  72

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  4 to 18 lbs

Pros:  MyFitnessPal works as a calorie counter and diet and exercise journal, making users accutely aware  and more conscious of what they put into their bodies.

Cons:  Some users wish MyFitnessPal had healthy and guilt-free recipes available for those who love to cook but are looking out for their waistlines.

Jenny Craig is a commercial plan that many celebs have had success with.

CR Reader Score:  74

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   15 to 34 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  10 to 30 lbs

Pros:  Jenny Craig is one of the easiest diets to follow , with straightforward instructions and prepackaged foods in reasonable portions delivered to your door.

Cons:  Those who love to cook are largely restricted from eating homemade meals , as they don't fall within the Jenny Craig-approved foods, which can also be expensive.

The Mediterranean Diet is a DIY plan that allows the good fats of foods like olives.

CR Reader Score:  76

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  7 to 25 lbs

Pros:  The Mediterranean diet offers dieters a wide variety of foods and flavors , and many find that the weight they lose on the plan stays off.

Cons:  The biggest problem with the Mediterranean diet is price, as the quality, often-imported foods and ingredients can cost more than other items at the grocery store.

A Low-Carb Diet (non-Atkins) is a DIY plan in which users reduce the caloric consumption of carbs.

CR Reader Score: 77

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   13 to 35 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  10 to 29 lbs

Pros:  Like those on Atkins, other low-carb dieters see quick weight loss , and many have seen lower blood pressure as well.

Cons:  People cutting carbs could potentially see a loss in muscle mass if they aren't careful, and some also lack sufficient nutrients, like fiber, in their diets.

The Glycemic Index Diet is a DIY plan focused on the consumption of more low-carb foods like whole grains, and fewer high-carb foods like white bread.

CR Reader Score:  80

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   11 to 29 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women): 10 to 27 lbs

Pros: On the Glycemic Index diet, also known as the GI diet, users cite feeling fuller than on many other diets. The diet also claims to cut the risk of heart disease and type 2 diabetes.

Cons:  The diet can be moderately difficult to follow, and other than carbs, the GI diet doesn't provide much guidanc e in the ways of fat, protein, or salt consumption.

The Atkins Diet is a DIY plan based on cutting carbs and finding more balanced nutrients from other sources.

CR Reader Score:  83

Typical Weight Loss (Men):   15 to 30 lbs

Typical Weight Loss (Women):  8 to 25 lbs

Pros:  Many people adhering to the Atkins diet see results quickly , and the brand makes low-carb snacks and other ready-made food products.

Cons:  The carb-eliminating diet can feel restricting , and some people on the diet find themselves gaining back some of the lost weight if/when they return to eating carbs.

Try these bizarre athlete-tested diets.

The 10 Strangest Diets In Sports History >

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Vegetarian Diet: An Overview through the Perspective of Quality of Life Domains

Shila minari hargreaves.

1 Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia (UnB), Campus Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, Brasilia, DF 70910-900, Brazil; rb.bnu@zpataner

António Raposo

2 CBIOS (Research Center for Biosciences and Health Technologies), Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Campo Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal

Ariana Saraiva

3 Department of Animal Pathology and Production, Bromatology and Food Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Trasmontaña s/n, 35413 Arucas, Spain; tp.kooltuo@32_anaira

Renata Puppin Zandonadi

Associated data.

The study did not report any data.

Vegetarianism has gained more visibility in recent years. Despite the well-described effects of a vegetarian diet on health, its influence on the quality of life of the individuals who follow it still needs to be properly investigated. Quality of life relates to a subjective perception of well-being and functionality, and encompasses four main life domains: physical, psychological, social, and environmental. The adoption of a vegetarian diet, despite being a dietary pattern, could potentially influence and be influenced by all of these domains, either positively or negatively. This review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features, and potential effects of vegetarianism in all quality of life domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet could have positive outcomes, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community), and lower environmental impact. Other factors, however, could have a negative impact on the quality of life of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products, especially when they go beyond one’s control. These include the environment, the social/cultural group in which a person is inserted, gender-based differences, economic aspects, and a limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet—beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it.

1. Introduction

Vegetarianism has its origins in 3200 BC, when ancient Egyptian civilizations started adopting vegetarian diets based on the belief that abstaining from meat consumption would facilitate reincarnation [ 1 ]. In India, another important cradle of vegetarianism, this practice was also associated with the fact that Hindus see cows as sacred and uphold nonviolence principles [ 2 ]. Later, Greek philosophers also adopted a vegetarian diet, with Pythagoras being a leading figure among them—indeed, for many centuries, vegetarianism was known as the “Pythagorean” diet [ 3 , 4 ]. In the Christian Era, vegetarianism lost its strength, gaining some visibility again only in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged the Church’s views that animals had no souls, and that their only purpose on Earth was to serve human beings [ 1 , 5 ].

Throughout history, the expansion of vegetarianism has been associated with religions that preach respect for all living beings and adopt nonviolence principles, such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism, the Hare Krishna movement, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. In addition, in the 20th and 21st centuries, science has observed several health benefits potentially associated with the reduction in meat consumption. Such benefits have strengthened the practice of vegetarianism around the world, and attracted more and more followers [ 4 ].

Currently, the worldwide prevalence of vegetarianism is not uniform. Asia is the continent with the highest prevalence, with 19 percent of the population adopting this practice [ 6 ]. India, the single country with the highest prevalence in the world (almost 40 percent of the population), contributes to the results of the Asian continent [ 7 ]. The prevalence in Africa and the Middle East is about 16 percent; and in Central and South America, 8 percent. The lowest prevalence of vegetarianism is found in North America (about 6 percent of the population are vegetarians) and Europe, where vegetarianism is adopted by only 5 percent of the population.

Vegetarianism encompasses different types of diets, classified according to how restrictive they are. Generally, vegetarianism is understood as the exclusion of meat from one’s diet, but other less restrictive eating patterns can also be classified within the scope of vegetarianism. These include, for example, flexitarians, who consume meat sporadically, or even once a week; pescatarians, who avoid all meat, except fish and seafood; and ovolactovegetarians, who banish all types of meat but consume products of animal origin, such as eggs and dairy products. A strict vegetarian diet, on the other hand, excludes all foods of animal origin. Veganism is a broader concept, which involves the adoption of a strict vegetarian diet, as well as the exclusion of other consumer items made from animal products, or which rely on animal exploitation, such as cosmetics and clothing items [ 8 , 9 ]. For didactic purposes, a strict vegetarian diet is often referred to as a vegan diet.

Different motivations can lead to adopting a vegetarian diet [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Ethical concerns are the main reasons, building on the idea that animal slaughter for human consumption is morally inappropriate. Another important motivation is health and the potential beneficial effects of vegetarianism. Religions that encourage abstaining from meat consumption and concerns about the environmental impacts of meat production are also important motivators for adopting vegetarianism [ 7 , 9 ].

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), quality of life (QoL) is a subjective concept that comprehends physical, psychological, social, environmental, and spiritual aspects [ 14 , 15 ]. Changes in eating patterns can influence individuals’ QoL, both positively and negatively [ 16 ]. A systematic review study assessed the nutritional quality of vegetarian diets, and found—based on data from 12 surveys—higher nutritional quality levels among vegetarians than omnivores [ 17 ]. According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics [ 18 ], vegetarian diets are nutritionally adequate for all stages of life, as long as they are well planned. However, some precautions need to be taken to minimize the risk of nutritional deficiencies.

In view of the recent growth in the number of individuals adopting a vegetarian diet, as well as the wider interest in the topic in recent years, it is critical to understand the different effects of vegetarianism on one’s QoL. Therefore, this review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features and potential effects of vegetarianism considering all QoL domains.

2. Historical Background of Vegetarianism

Over most of their 24 million years of evolution, humans’ anthropoid ancestors were almost exclusively vegetarian, except for the occasional ingestion of insects and larvae. Anatomically, both humans and their ancestors present significant features that distance them from meat-eating animals, including, for example, wide flat teeth and more mobile jaws, which facilitate the chewing of grains and seeds, as opposed to sharp teeth and jaw movements on a vertical axis, which are characteristic of carnivores. In addition, carnivorous animals have shorter intestines, which enable the rapid elimination of toxins, unlike humans and other predominantly herbivorous animals, with long intestines that allow longer digestion, fermentation and absorption processes [ 19 , 20 ].

However, possibly due to other reasons linked to survival, self-defense and territorial protection, hominids began hunting other species, which led to the introduction of meat in the diet of Homo erectus , considered the first hunters. Humans’ ability to survive on different types of food was an essential factor in our evolution, which allowed our species, Homo sapiens sapiens , to adapt to the most diverse conditions and spread throughout the planet [ 19 , 20 ].

During the Paleolithic era, different food types were consumed, such as wild plants, seafood, reptiles, birds, and mammals. After the emergence of agricultural practices (about 13,000 years ago), there is no evidence that humans were essentially vegetarian, and the domestication of animals, including for consumption, became a routine activity by that time. However, it is speculated that many farmers lived primarily as vegetarians due to the wider availability of crops [ 19 ].

It is not known for certain when people started voluntarily abstaining from meat. However, the first reports date from 3200 BC in ancient Egypt, when the practice was motivated by religious factors, based on the belief that not consuming meat would facilitate reincarnation [ 1 ]. Another important region that is part of the history of vegetarianism is India, where the practice is also linked to religious issues. Hinduism has two basic principles among its foundations: ahimsa, or the principle of nonviolence (which includes violence against humans and other animals); and the recognition of the cow as a sacred animal [ 2 ].

Some of the philosophers of the pre-Christian era also contributed to the spread of vegetarianism. The practice was adopted at that time for health reasons as well as for religious, ecological, and philosophical reasons. It was believed that the act of killing another living being for food would have a brutal influence on one’s mind, negatively affecting one’s body and soul [ 3 ]. The supporters of vegetarianism included big names like Plato, Prophyry, Diogenes and Plutarch. The most prominent philosopher in this field was Pythagoras, who lived in the 6th century BC. Due to his influence, vegetarianism was known as the “Pythagorean” diet over many centuries, a name that lasted until the middle of the 19th century in Europe and the Mediterranean region [ 4 , 19 ].

In Ancient Greece, it was believed that animals could think and communicate, and that humans should be responsible for their lives. In addition, the Greeks believed that eating meat would be harmful to one’s health and mind [ 21 ]. Vegetarianism was also present during the Roman Empire, influenced by the Greek culture. However, with the rise of Christianity, abstaining from animal consumption lost its importance. Famous Christian thinkers such as Saint Thomas Aquinas and Saint Augustine sought to provide rational justifications for the exploitation and consumption of animals, spreading the idea that, unlike animals, human beings have souls and free will, and that animals are inferior beings, placed on Earth at the service of humans [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Only a few monks still maintained the practice, based on the belief that meat consumption would hinder their spiritual progress in some way because it was linked to impulsive behaviors [ 5 ].

In the 15th century, vegetarianism was advocated by Leonardo da Vinci, who believed that there was no distinction between the murder of humans and animals. However, it was only after the spread of Darwin’s theory of evolution that vegetarianism gained strength again in the late 18th century and early 19th century. Darwinism refuted the idea that human beings are fundamentally different from other animals—therefore, there were no plausible justifications for meat consumption [ 5 ]. At that time, the first vegetarian societies also began to emerge, and some Christian groups began to preach in favor of abstaining from meat based on the belief that animals should also be worthy of pity. It was only then that the term “vegetarianism” came to be used. Despite the general belief that it refers to “eating vegetables”, the term actually derives from “vegetus”, a Latin word that means “active” or “vigorous” [ 22 ]. An important name in the history of vegetarianism, in addition to the various vegetarian groups and societies that emerged in the 20th century, was Mahatma Gandhi, who contributed to its dissemination [ 19 ].

Albert Einstein believed that humanity’s evolution toward a vegetarian diet would be fundamental for the survival of life on Earth [ 21 ]. In Europe, the first International Vegetarian Union was founded in 1908, after other vegetarian societies had already emerged in several countries. From the 1960s onwards, a greater concern with food and health, associated with evidence of the potential benefits of a vegetarian diet for disease prevention, contributed to the spread of vegetarianism. Religious practices that preach respect for life and adopt nonviolence principles, such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism, the Hare Krishna movement, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church, were also fundamental to this growth. Therefore, the world has seen a significant rise and expansion of the practice since the mid-20th century [ 4 ].

In recent years, vegetarianism has gained more visibility and a greater number of followers. Rosenfeld [ 23 ] describes a great expansion in the scientific literature on the psychological and social effects of choosing a vegetarian diet. Some topics started to attract more attention, such as motivations; barriers to adopting such diets; differences between vegetarians and vegans; morality; and gender differences. New research lines have emerged to explore issues associated with personal identity and social and cultural experiences [ 23 ].

Adherence to a vegetarian diet goes beyond food. Vegetarianism can be considered a social identity, as it reflects the motivations, feelings, and attitudes of those who choose to adopt it [ 24 ]. The main motivations for choosing a vegetarian diet are related to ethical and health aspects. Animal welfare is the main motivator, followed by concerns with major environmental impacts caused by the production and consumption of food of animal origin. Regarding health, general well-being and weight maintenance are the factors that most motivate the adoption of vegetarianism [ 23 ]. In addition, religious aspects can lead individuals to adopt a vegetarian diet, and religions such as Hinduism, Adventism and Spiritism preach abstaining from meat. Other less frequent factors, such as aversion to the taste of meat, food intolerances and allergies, and the influence of other people (family members, for example) can also be considered motivators for adopting a vegetarian diet [ 4 , 7 , 9 , 21 ].

There are several types of vegetarian diets commonly described in the literature. The most consensual classification consists of four different types, namely: (1) flexitarian or semivegetarian diet, in which people consume meat sporadically (up to once a week) or exclude red meat, but consume white meat; (2) pesco-vegetarian or pescatarian diet, which excludes all meats, except fish and seafood; (3) ovolactovegetarian diet, which excludes all types of meat, but allows products of animal origin, such as dairy products and eggs; and (4) strict vegetarianism, which excludes all products of animal origin [ 8 , 25 ].

In addition to these categories, other diets can be considered subclassifications of vegetarianism, namely: (1) raw vegan diet, which is mostly based on food in its most natural (raw) state, with an emphasis on the choice of organic and self-grown products; (2) frugal or frugivorous diet, which is similar to the raw vegan diet, but with 70–80 percent of the diet being composed of fruits, with a small proportion of nuts, seeds and some vegetables; and (3) macrobiotic diets, which encompass various degrees of restriction but are primarily composed of whole grains, soybeans, algae and some vegetables [ 25 , 26 ].

3. Quality of Life

According to the WHO, QoL is a multifactorial concept that includes the following domains: physical (physical state), psychological (affective and cognitive state), social (interpersonal relationships and social roles in the lives of individuals) and environmental (quality of the environment in which individuals live). Conceptual, pragmatic and empirical dimensions, as well as spiritual and religious aspects, can also contribute to people’s QoL and their ability to perform certain activities, or “functionality”. Building on that, QoL is defined as “individuals’ perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns” [ 14 , 15 ].

The terms “quality of life” and “well-being” are often used to indicate how well an individual feels. There is, however, a problem of interpretation resulting from the subjectivity of these concepts, which may acquire a broader or more specific connotation depending on the context. QoL can be subdivided into: the quality of the environment in which one lives, involving the physical structure of the environment and people’s integration in the society in which they live; physical and mental health, encompassing a wide range of individual capacities; usefulness, which involves the feeling of “being useful”, contributing to the welfare of other people, society, and the environment; and the appreciation of life, which is associated with tangible (wealth, for example) and intangible (such as life satisfaction and happiness) aspects [ 27 ].

Although it is difficult to group all these qualities into a single concept, the best general indicator of QoL would be how happy you feel and how long you live. The concept of “well-being”, in turn, usually denotes QoL in a wider sense, as well as a positive subjective assessment of life, or an appreciation of life. However, sometimes the concepts of “well-being” and “quality of life” are used interchangeably [ 27 ].

The connection between vegetarianism and QoL may be analyzed through different perspectives [ 14 , 15 ]. In the context of vegetarianism, each QoL domain proposed by the WHO (physical, psychological, social, and environmental) may be influenced by the adoption of a vegetarian diet. The opposite may also be said, that is, specific aspects of each domain might influence one’s decision to adopt a vegetarian diet. Moreover, these influences could be either positive or negative. The possible connections between vegetarianism and QoL domains are illustrated in Figure 1 .

Connections between aspects of vegetarianism and quality of life domains. The arrows indicate the direction of the influence, that is, whether a given domain influences or is influenced by certain aspects of vegetarianism. The plus (+) and minus (−) symbols indicate positive and negative influences, respectively. NCD: noncommunicable diseases; VD: vegetarian diet.

3.1. Physical Domain

The physical domain refers to aspects as pain, discomfort, energy, fatigue, sleep, and rest. Aspects that positively contribute to a general feeling of physical well-being are therefore relevant for understanding QoL. These include better general health, lower rates of chronic and inflammatory diseases, and lifespan [ 28 ].

3.1.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Physical Domain

Positive influence.

Following a vegetarian diet may lead to better health outcomes and a lower risk of noncommunicable diseases, which could positively influence the QoL physical domain ( Figure 1 ). A nutritionally adequate diet is essential to achieving and maintaining good overall health. A systematic review published by Parker and Vadiveloo [ 17 ] compared the quality of vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets based on diet quality indexes. That review included 12 studies and showed that vegetarians have better diet quality results than omnivores. Furthermore, among vegetarians, vegans achieved the best results. Although different indexes were used in the studies, several common points allowed a combined analysis of the results. Higher consumption of fruits, green vegetables, whole grains, and vegetable sources of protein—and lower consumption of saturated fat and sodium—contributed to the best results found among vegetarians [ 17 ].

A cross-sectional study carried out with vegetarians in Brazil (n = 3319) observed that vegetarians have better diet quality markers than the general Brazilian population, according to parameters used in a national annual survey carried out by the Ministry of Health [ 29 , 30 ]. It was observed that a higher proportion of vegetarians had a more adequate daily consumption of fruits and vegetables [ 29 ] compared to the general Brazilian population (38.1 percent versus 23.1 percent), based on WHO recommendations (five servings a day) [ 31 ]. In addition, a lower regular weekly consumption of soft drinks and artificial juices was also observed among vegetarians (3.9 percent versus 14.4 percent). Of the different types of vegetarians, vegans showed the best results. It was also observed that vegetarians in Brazil follow the recommendations set out in the Dietary Guidelines for the Brazilian Population with regard to consuming more fresh foods and fewer processed and ultraprocessed foods [ 32 ].

Vegetarian diets, including strict vegetarianism (veganism), are considered healthy and nutritionally adequate, and can supply people’s nutritional needs at all life stages, as long as such diets are well planned [ 18 ]. Moreover, the benefits related to the prevention and better control of chronic diseases among vegetarians have already been described, and could also lead to positive outcomes in their QoL.

The role of intestinal microbiota in the regulation of several biological functions and in the prevention of chronic diseases is well known, as well as the fundamental role of the diet in the microbiota and intestinal health of individuals [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Excessive protein consumption could alter intestinal microbiota patterns by stimulating the proliferation of bacteria capable of fermenting amino acids. Such fermentation results in the production of molecules responsible for increased intestinal permeability, inflammation, and even cancer [ 36 ]. The consumption of vegetable sources of protein, on the other hand, is not associated with such adverse effects, possibly because they contain carbohydrates and fibers, which could mitigate the potentially deleterious effects observed in the intestine caused by the ingestion of proteins [ 36 ]. The intake of saturated fats, present mainly in animal foods, is another factor that contributes to an increase in systemic inflammation, possibly through the activation of Toll-like receptors (TLR), which, once activated, trigger a proinflammatory intestinal and systemic immune response [ 37 ]. The activation of TLRs and the subsequent inflammatory cascade result in an increased risk of metabolic disorders and chronic diseases, such as cancer, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular diseases [ 37 ].

Vegetarian diets usually have a higher content of carbohydrates and fibers, in addition to lower levels of proteins and fats—in particular saturated fats. Studies comparing the microbiota of vegetarians and nonvegetarians show that a plant-based diet can benefit the diversity and profile of the bacteria that make up the intestinal microbiota. In addition to differences observed in the microbiota, with a more favorable bacterial profile, a vegetarian diet (with high consumption of whole foods, fruits, and vegetables) leads to increased production of metabolites from the fermentation of prebiotics and phytochemicals by these bacteria, which also have a positive effect on the host’s health, both at intestinal and systemic levels, contributing to the prevention of chronic diseases [ 38 ].

Among chronic diseases, cardiovascular diseases account for 43.6 percent of deaths worldwide [ 39 ]. Positive results in the control of cardiovascular disease risk factors were observed in clinical trials that promoted lifestyle changes, including adopting vegetarian, vegan, and plant-based diets [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. A review of observational studies conducted in 2018 assessed cardiovascular risk factors in vegans. In most countries, vegetarian diets were associated with a lower intake of energy and saturated fat, and a better cardiovascular profile (lower body weight, LDL cholesterol levels, blood pressure, fasting glucose, and triglycerides) [ 44 ].

A 2019 review study conducted by the Diabetes and Nutrition Study Group (DNSG) of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) associated vegetarian eating patterns with a 28 percent reduction in the incidence of coronary heart disease, and a 22 percent drop in mortality from such conditions. That study gathered data from systematic reviews with meta-analyses correlating different dietary patterns and cardiometabolic outcomes in diabetic patients [ 45 ]. Following a balanced vegetarian diet can reduce systemic inflammation and the risk of diabetes, two factors that are closely linked to the onset and progression of cardiovascular disease [ 46 ].

The consumption of refined carbohydrates, saturated fats, processed meats, and sugary drinks increases the risk of type-2 diabetes, especially when combined with low consumption of dietary fibers. On the other hand, a low-calorie plant-based diet has a protective effect [ 47 ].

The prevalence of diabetes among vegetarians is 1.6 to 2 times lower than among omnivores [ 48 ]. In a 24-week controlled trial with diabetics, the individuals who followed a vegetarian diet showed greater weight loss (6.2 kg versus 3.2 kg, on average), better insulin sensitivity (30 percent versus 20 percent), greater reduction in visceral fat and medication use, in addition to a better hormonal profile (increased adiponectin and reduced leptin) and better levels of antioxidants, as compared to the ones following a standard diet for diabetes control [ 49 ].

Several factors contribute to the reduction in risks and a better control of diabetes. The first one is vegetarians’ better weight control. It is known that both obesity and the accumulation of visceral fat are linked to increased insulin resistance, which contributes to the onset of diabetes [ 47 ]. Vegetarians’ lower intake of saturated fats [ 17 ] also contributes to reducing the risk of diabetes. It has been shown that reducing the consumption of saturated fats or replacing them with unsaturated fats may contribute to improving insulin sensitivity [ 50 ]. Other factors, such as higher fiber intake [ 51 ], lower ferritin levels and lower intake of heme iron [ 52 ] among vegetarians are also related to better insulin resistance and lower risk of diabetes.

A vegetarian diet may also contribute to improving inflammation control. Foods of plant origin—when consumed in their most natural form—are rich in antioxidants, which can assist directly in the control of free radicals in the body (as in the case of antioxidant vitamins C and E), or even through several signaling pathways that modulate our immune response and the production of antioxidant compounds and enzymes, suppressing inflammatory responses [ 48 , 53 , 54 ]. Therefore, a plant-based diet that is rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, seeds, and nuts can help to control inflammatory processes.

A vegetarian diet may also bring benefits regarding cancer prevention. In addition to vegetarians’ better weight control results [ 55 ], which can be considered a protective factor against cancer [ 56 ], their higher consumption of dietary fibers could have protective effects due to the modulation of the intestinal microbiota. In addition, as previously described, excessive protein consumption can lead to an increased production of inflammatory metabolites by the intestinal microbiota [ 36 ], and the consumption of saturated fats (found mainly in foods of animal origin) is capable of activating Toll-like receptors in immune system cells. This stimulates the production of proinflammatory cytokines [ 37 ], and all these factors together can create a cancer-promoting environment.

In addition to the most common chronic diseases mentioned above, adopting a vegetarian diet can help to prevent and treat other inflammatory diseases. A healthier microbiota, higher consumption of antioxidants and lower consumption of potentially inflammatory compounds, in addition to better weight control, are important factors that positively contribute to the health of vegetarians. In fact, how long an individual has been following a vegetarian diet may have an important influence on their results—which depend on continuous exposure to this type of dietary pattern. In a study that evaluated only individuals who had been on a vegetarian diet for at least 15 years (n = 45), lower levels of oxidative stress markers were observed compared to omnivorous individuals (n = 30) [ 57 ].

Furthermore, promising results have already been achieved with the adoption of a vegetarian diet by individuals suffering from fibromyalgia, for example, including improvements in pain symptoms, QoL, sleep quality, and anxiety depression [ 58 ]. In autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and legumes—and low in animal foods—can help to control some of the symptoms [ 59 ]. A vegetarian diet could also be a beneficial tool to prevent other autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis [ 60 ], due to its role in the health of the intestinal microbiota [ 61 ].

Several factors related to lifestyle may influence the emergence of diseases and how long an individual can live. Habits such as regular physical activities, stress control, good personal relationships, and a balanced diet have a positive impact on longevity [ 62 ]. A more detailed analysis of the dietary patterns followed by the world’s longest-living populations, who live in regions known as Blue Zones, can help us understand important food-related aspects that might contribute to improving people’s health and life expectancy. The five regions considered Blue Zones are: Loma Linda (California—United States), Nicoya (Costa Rica), Sardinia (Italy) Ikaria (Greece), and Okinawa (Japan). In all of them, individuals adopt a predominantly plant-based diet, with sporadic meat consumption (on average five times a month, in small portions). On the other hand, the consumption of legumes is frequent in all of them, being part of their daily diet, in addition to vegetables, tubers, cereals, fruits, and other regional foods, including dairy products [ 63 ].

The increased consumption of fruits and vegetables—rich in phytochemicals—may contribute to longevity through several mechanisms. The control of low-grade inflammation provided by antioxidant protection can prevent cell structure damage, slowing down the aging process [ 64 ]. On the other hand, prioritizing the consumption of proteins from animal sources could have a negative impact on one’s life expectancy. The profile of the amino acids found in these foods, with a higher content of methionine and branched-chain amino acids, leads to greater stimulation of IGF-1 and mTOR, in addition to greater cell proliferation. This contributes to the cellular senescence process and, consequently, to aging [ 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ].

These potential health benefits of consuming a mostly or strictly plant-based diet can contribute to better physical health and well-being, resulting in better QoL. In fact, a cross-sectional study conducted with a total of 4628 individuals in the United Kingdom (with a wide range of diseases and conditions) showed that people who were ill had lower QoL scores than those feeling well. Post hoc comparisons indicated higher differences in the physical domain, especially among patients with musculoskeletal conditions (arthritis/arthroplasty, chronic pain), and those with cardiovascular disease awaiting a heart transplant [ 69 ]. Therefore, a diet that helps to prevent chronic and inflammatory diseases could also reduce the negative effects of these conditions on people’s QoL.

Negative Influence

Despite the potential health benefits from adopting a vegetarian diet, special attention should be given to the adequacy of iron, zinc, vitamins B12 and D, calcium, iodine, omega-3, and protein in adults [ 70 ], and especially in infants [ 71 ]. Low intake of such nutrients could lead to nutritional deficiencies and impair an individual’s health [ 70 , 72 ], with a negative impact on their QoL.

Vitamin B12 deficiency should be highlighted, as this nutrient can only be found in animal-origin foods. Vegetarians (especially vegans) have been shown to have lower levels of serum vitamin B12. In addition, increased homocysteine levels [ 73 , 74 , 75 ] are observed, a metabolite that is elevated due to deficiency of vitamin B12 (and other nutrients), and which is associated with increased inflammation. B12 deficiency and increased homocysteine can lead to neurological problems, anemia and developmental delay in children, in addition to increasing the risks of cardiovascular disease, dementia, osteoporosis and death [ 73 , 75 ]. For this reason, it is necessary to monitor and supplement vitamin B12 levels among this groups, and possibly encourage the intake of fortified foods.

Iron, an essential mineral used for hemoglobin formation and oxygen transport in the body, also needs to be carefully adjusted. Vegetarians have been shown to have lower serum ferritin levels, a protein responsible for storing iron in the body. Lower levels of iron could increase the risk of developing anemia [ 76 ], which might also be caused by vitamin B12 deficiency [ 75 ]. In this scenario, an inadequately planned vegetarian diet could negatively affect aspects related to “energy and fatigue” in the physical domain of QoL [ 28 ].

Bone health should also be addressed when considering the potential negative effects of a vegetarian diet. A systematic review published in 2019 showed that vegetarians and vegans had lower bone mineral density than omnivores, and vegans also had higher fracture rates. Such results were unlikely explained only by lower calcium intake, as bone health encompasses many complex mechanisms and depends on different nutrients [ 77 ]. A recent cross-sectional study also found lower bone health in vegans when compared to omnivores (measured using quantitative ultrasound—QUS) [ 78 ], which reinforces the need for proper diet planning and careful bone health monitoring among vegetarians.

3.1.2. Influence of the Physical Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Seeking health improvement is one of the reasons why people chose to adopt a vegetarian diet [ 7 ]. According to Hopwood et al. [ 79 ], health was the most common reason why nonvegetarians considered adhering to a vegetarian diet. Vegetarianism is currently being more widely studied, and a growing number of scientific papers about the topic have been published over the past few years [ 80 ]. Consequently, the topic has received more attention from the media, and more information is reaching the general population. As more people are informed about the health benefits of adopting a vegetarian diet, the need or desire to improve their health might serve as a trigger. A study conducted in Germany with 329 vegans showed that more than two-thirds of them (69.6 percent), despite having more than one motive for following the diet, included health and well-being among them [ 81 ].

In this sense, following a vegetarian diet is both the cause and consequence of the positive outcomes related to the physical domain. People who seek health improvement may be prone to adopting a vegetarian diet; and, once they do it, the physical benefits may serve as further motivation for maintaining their new diet.

3.2. Psychological Domain

The psychological domain is related to positive or negative feelings, self-esteem and body image/appearance, and thinking/learning/memory/concentration. Different aspects of vegetarianism can either influence or be influenced by psychological factors ( Figure 1 ) [ 28 ].

3.2.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Psychological Domain

Avoiding meat and other animal products can enhance positive feelings arising from the fact that person is adopting an attitude that confirms their beliefs. The positive psychological impact goes beyond the individual sphere, as it can also increase social connections with others adopting similar ideas and behaviors. According to Rosenfeld and Burrow [ 24 ], being a vegetarian goes beyond the choice of a dietary pattern, as it gives individuals a new social identity, which influences their way of thinking, behaving, and socializing. The adoption of a plant-based diet can have a positive effect on well-being and contentment, which could positively impact someone’s QoL [ 82 ].

The different motivations for adopting vegetarianism are also able to influence individuals psychologically. Those who adopt vegetarianism for ethical reasons tend to create more aversion to meat due to the association between its consumption and animal suffering. Such individuals also exclude more animal foods and tend to adopt stricter diets than those who become vegetarians for health or environmental reasons [ 23 ]. That does not necessarily implicate a negative outcome, though. As it has been shown by Cruwys et al. [ 83 ], vegetarians and vegans are more likely to report no barriers to diet adherence (25.2 percent of vegans and 15.6 percent of vegetarians) when compared to individuals following a gluten-free, paleo, or weight-loss diet. Indeed, both vegans and vegetarians had higher diet adherence when compared to the other groups, which might be connected to positive psychological effects related to the social identification within the vegetarian/vegan community.

Potentially negative outcomes of vegetarianism in the psychological domain could be related to mental health impairment. The data related to the effect of vegetarianism on mental health are conflicting. Adopting a vegetarian diet was positively associated with a better mood in a cross-sectional study with Seventh-day Adventists [ 84 ]. A study of South Asians living in the United States found that the likelihood of depression was 43 percent lower among vegetarians [ 85 ]. However, a contrary association has also been observed: in the United Kingdom, a positive association of depressive symptoms was found in men, even after adjusting for confounding factors such as nutritional deficiencies and sociodemographic data [ 86 ]. Similar results were found among adolescents in a study conducted in Turkey, in which higher levels of anxiety, as well as eating disorders, were observed. That study raises the possibility that a vegetarian diet might be adopted among young people as a way of limiting food intake, and that it might be related to preexisting eating disorders [ 87 ].

Discrepant results have already been observed in a study that evaluated mental health in representative population samples from Germany, Russia, and the United States, in addition to samples from students in China and Germany. An increase in anxiety and depression was observed only in the sample from China, but the result was considered mild since a vegetarian diet would explain only 1 percent of the variance in cases of depression and anxiety. In addition, the motivations that led Chinese students to adopt a vegetarian diet differed from those of the other groups studied, being more related to cultural and economic factors [ 88 ]. A study with Chinese elderly people also found a positive association between adopting a plant-based diet and depression compared to a meat-based diet. However, the correlation was observed only in men [ 89 ].

A French cohort’s cross-section study carried out a separate analysis by types of vegetarian diets, and identified a positive association between depressive symptoms and a fish diet and an ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet. However, no association was found with a vegan diet, which contradicts the idea that a stricter diet (excluding more or all animal products) would lead to more severe symptoms of depression [ 90 ]. The authors claim that differences in motivation (between vegans and other vegetarians) may have contributed to this group’s lack of association. In addition, the same study found a positive association between depressive symptoms and the exclusion of items from the diet, both for foods of animal and vegetable origin. That is, the more items excluded (not types of food, but number of products excluded), the greater the symptoms. Such a result could indicate that the higher levels of depression found in vegetarians in several studies could reflect an increase in risk related to diet restriction, and not necessarily to vegetarianism itself [ 90 ].

Another point that needs to be considered is that studies on depression in vegetarians are predominantly transversal, and therefore do not enable the determination of a cause-and-effect relationship. A study that evaluated mental disorders and adopting a vegetarian diet in the previous 12 months (through interviews with a population sample in Germany) also found a positive association between the two variables. However, the time difference between the beginning of both suggests that mental disorders preceded the change in diet, thus refuting the hypothesis that vegetarianism might cause mental disorders [ 91 ].

A systematic review study carried out by Medawar et al. [ 92 ] points out that, despite several health benefits related to adopting a vegetarian diet, its effect on mental health has yet to be properly studied. It is possible that nutritional deficiencies, such as lower levels of vitamin B12, contribute to worsening the nervous system’s health. On the other hand, a diet that favors a more balanced intestinal microbiota, such as a vegetarian diet, positively contributes to the maintenance of neurological functions due to its importance in modulating the gut-brain axis [ 92 ]. In a meta-analysis study published in 2016, it has also been observed that the consumption of fruits and vegetables is inversely associated with the risk of depression [ 93 ]. Vegetarians consume more fruits and vegetables than omnivorous individuals [ 17 ], and also tend to have better health markers and lower risk of other chronic diseases [ 94 ]. In view of this, the conflicting results on the relationship between vegetarianism and depression may reflect a lack of standardization with regard to diet quality and adequate intake (or supplementation) of nutrients in some of the studies, as well as the possibility already raised of reverse causality.

3.2.2. Influence of the Psychological Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

The main reason individuals decide to adopt a vegetarian diet is because of ethical/moral reasons [ 7 , 9 ], which is related to compassion and empathy towards the animals. Since some people feel that eating animal products is wrong, abstaining from their consumption could contribute to a better psychological state. Adopting a vegetarian diet can bring about positive feelings, such as altruism and a sense of purpose, while the pursuit of such guilt-free peace of mind could also positively influence one’s choice to adopt a vegetarian diet. A study conducted by Antonetti and Maklan [ 95 ] showed that experiencing either guilt or pride could change consumers’ behavior and their intention to purchase more sustainable products. Building on that, feeling guilty about eating animal products could lead to a behavioral change, and feeling proud of doing it could reinforce the maintenance of a vegetarian diet.

Moreover, some individuals adopt a vegetarian diet due to spiritual or religious reasons [ 7 ]. Spirituality is a concept related to people’s quest for the meaning in life and a connection to a higher or sacred power. On the other hand, religiousness is related to the degree in which an individual believes, follows, and practices a religion, which might influence how one chooses to live their lives [ 96 ]. An individual who follows a religion that preaches abstention from animal products might feel encouraged to adopt a vegetarian diet. Good adherence to the diet could, in this case, be a positive psychological reinforcement, as it would be in line with their own beliefs. As it has already been demonstrated, high levels of spirituality and religiosity are associated with better social, psychological, and environmental QoL outcomes [ 96 ].

Despite the positive outcomes related to the adoption of a vegetarian diet, some challenges can be found. For many, the barriers to adopting vegetarianism outweigh the possible benefits, and may prevent them from taking that step. Studies corroborate the evidence that attachment to the taste of meat constitutes an obstacle to adopting vegetarianism [ 97 , 98 ]. In addition, other barriers may be considered, such as the fear that a vegetarian diet could be nutritionally inadequate or monotonous, or that it may not favor satiety; the belief that preparing vegetarian meals is harder; difficulties in finding options when eating in restaurants; living with people who eat meat; and a lack of knowledge about meat-free eating [ 97 , 99 , 100 , 101 ]. Especially among men, meat is considered a “comfort food”, and its intake is associated with strength, muscle building, and masculinity. These beliefs represent a barrier to reducing meat consumption, as demonstrated by a study with soldiers from Norway who evaluated their perception of the implementation of the “Meatless Monday” program [ 97 ]. The program is a worldwide campaign, adopted in more than 40 countries, which aims to make people aware of the advantages of reducing meat consumption [ 102 ].

These results are in line with older studies conducted by Lea et al. [ 103 , 104 ]. Having a taste for meat was considered the main barrier for the adoption of a vegetarian diet, but other important factors have also been described, such as, for example, difficulties in changing one’s eating pattern; the fact that family and friends may still eat meat; little knowledge about the subject; and difficulties in finding vegetarian options when eating out [ 103 ].

Moreover, according to another study from Lea et al. [ 104 ], some of the factors that prevent or hinder the adoption of a plant-based dietary pattern are related to one’s family (family members or close people do not adopt this eating pattern); convenience (difficulty finding options or preparing food); health (fear of iron, protein and other nutrient deficiencies); cost and lack of options for eating out; and lack of information about vegetarianism. The low prevalence of adopting a plant-based diet among the participants demonstrates that several factors discourage its adoption—even though it is a more flexible dietary pattern than a vegetarian diet.

All these barriers interconnect with the social domain, as they are influenced by the social context in which an individual is inserted. Nevertheless, the negative psychological effects refer to how individuals react to these fears or barriers, which might negatively affect their choice of adopting a vegetarian diet. As described by Schmitt et al. [ 105 ], the perception of discrimination, both about an individual and a group, has an impact on well-being, with potential psychological consequences (contributing to mental stress, anxiety, depression) and affecting other aspects, such as self-esteem, humor, and satisfaction with life [ 105 ].

3.3. Social Domain

The social domain related to QoL includes personal relationships and social support [ 28 ]. In fact, having good social connections is essential for mental health and well-being, positively influencing one’s QoL. In this case, the consequences of adopting a vegetarian diet have to be analyzed based on the social and cultural group in which an individual is inserted, as well as the attitudes of close people towards vegetarianism.

3.3.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Social Domain

Unlike other dietary patterns, vegetarianism goes beyond the definition of one’s food choices. Rather, it is defined as a social identity, which consists of how a person identifies themselves in terms of the social group in which they believe to belong. A study conducted with young vegan women revealed that not only did they identify with the diet, but they also passionately engaged in a “vegan lifestyle”. The choice of becoming a vegan had positive effects in many different ways, including social relationships, and identification and sense of connection with the vegan subculture [ 106 ]. Therefore, the choice of following a vegetarian diet can enhance one’s connection with other people who share the same life philosophy [ 107 ], strengthening social bonds and positively influencing one’s QoL ( Figure 1 ).

Many of those who decide to adopt vegetarianism suffer rejection from others and are victims of stereotyping and discrimination. Such negative attitudes towards vegetarians and vegans are known as “vegaphobia” or “veganophobia”, a term already spread in the scientific literature. A possible explanation for the discrimination against vegetarians and vegans is related to the cognitive dissonance suffered by individuals who eat meat. In this context, cognitive dissonance refers to the contradiction experienced by individuals who like animals and feel compassion for them, but, at the same time, consume meat. Therefore, individuals who eat meat may discriminate against vegetarians not out of fear or dislike, but because they represent an affirmation that eating meat is not necessary and is, therefore, unjustified [ 108 ].

In order to avoid conflict and embarrassment, many vegetarians prefer to omit their dietary choice. In fact, social aspects are so relevant that the greatest reason why vegetarians make exceptions and eat meat is due to pressure from friends, family, and coworkers. According to Rosenfeld and Tomiyama [ 109 ], in a qualitative study that evaluated dieters’ motivations to break their diet, 51 percent of individuals reported having already eaten meat after adopting vegetarianism. In general, their justifications do not involve missing meat itself, but rather an attempt to avoid uncomfortable situations in a social context. The fear of being rude or offending some family culture or tradition, the need to make a good impression, or the fear of being stigmatized are some of the most important factors that lead vegetarians to stop following their diets momentarily. Such a study reinforces the idea that vegetarianism goes far beyond a dietary choice, creating a social identity that influences the entire context in which an individual is inserted [ 109 ].

The negative consequences of a vegetarian identity usually have a stronger impact on vegans than vegetarians because the former suffer more rejection and are viewed more negatively by omnivores [ 23 ]. Such discrimination comes not only from nonvegetarian people, but also from the media, as demonstrated by Cole and Morgan [ 110 ] in a study that evaluated how veganism was reported in UK newspapers. Such a study concluded that the media tends to present vegans as sentimentalists, fanatics and extremists, in addition to mocking veganism and considering it impossible to maintain in practice.

3.3.2. Influence of the Social Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Vegetarians and vegans also showed more adherence to their diet when compared to individuals who follow a paleo, gluten-free, or weight-loss diet. Social identification was an important predictor of adherence in both quantitative and qualitative analyses. According to Cruwys et al. [ 83 ], vegetarians and vegans described their diet not as an individual choice, but as a manifestation of their social ethics. Ethical and moral concerns were considered the most important facilitators of diet adherence, and a lack of adherence would go against the group’s moral code. Feeling part of a social group can also positively influence how strictly one sticks to a dietary pattern. The sense of belonging and the in-group social reinforcement could make it easier for individuals to maintain their dietary patterns, provided they feel supported by the group.

Vegetarians that have a close circle of vegetarian contacts (friends, family or coworkers) have been shown to have higher QoL than those who do not [ 13 ]. In this case, they can be positively influenced by their social environment. Moreover, just as the social context in which vegetarians are inserted may influence their adherence to the diet, individuals who eat meat may also be influenced by living with vegetarians. In their study, Geerts, Backer, and Erreygers [ 108 ] described some characteristics of meat-consuming individuals, with emphasis on the fact that meat consumption is considerably lower among those living with vegetarians in the same household. In addition, discrimination against vegetarians was less common among individuals who had vegetarians in their household or circle of friends. Thus, greater acceptance and lower levels of veganophobia among meat consumers (resulting from their close contacts with vegetarians) may have a positive influence on other individuals’ feeling more comfortable when adopting a vegetarian diet.

Cultural aspects are relevant predictors of meat consumption. The consumption of different species of animals varies between cultures. Animals considered suitable for consumption in some countries may not be seen in the same way by individuals of other nationalities. As demonstrated by Ruby [ 111 ], in countries considered individualistic (such as the United States and Canada), a feeling of disgust is the primary attitude of certain individuals when faced with the idea of eating certain animals. On the other hand, in more collectivist nations, such as China and India, cultural norms influence individual emotions and the sense of morality, being the greatest predictor for not consuming meat.

Moreover, gender differences may also influence one’s choice of eating or avoiding animal products. Meat consumption is usually seen as a symbol of masculinity and dominance over other species in several cultures where meat is considered a proper food for men [ 23 , 97 ]. In addition, men tend to eat less fruits and vegetables; care less about the nutritional properties of the food they eat; and agree more with the belief that a healthy diet needs to include meat [ 7 , 112 ]. According to Rosenfeld and Tomiyama [ 98 ], men are more resistant to adopting a vegetarian diet, mainly because they believe that a meatless diet would not be tasty. In addition, women are more likely to believe that meat consumption is harmful to the environment and that adopting vegetarianism is a plausible and healthy choice [ 113 ]. In fact, large population studies such as the Epic-Oxford [ 114 ] and the Adventist Health Study 2 [ 115 ] identified a higher proportion of females among vegetarians, with 78 percent and 65 percent of the sample consisting of women.

Such gender differences may influence the adoption of vegetarianism depending on the sociocultural context in which an individual is inserted. A study by Ruby et al. [ 116 ] with participants from Argentina, Brazil, the United States, and France (countries that are among the largest consumers of beef in the world) revealed that men consume beef more frequently and enjoy the taste of it more, while women show more negative attitudes towards the consumption of red meat, such as disgust. The same study also demonstrated that there are cultural differences related to the acceptance of vegetarianism. American women showed greater admiration for vegetarianism, while French women were the ones who admired vegetarians the least. Participants from Brazil and Argentina, considering the entire sample, demonstrated more positive attitudes toward beef consumption, followed by participants from France and, finally, from the United States [ 116 ].

3.4. Environmental Domain

The environment in which an individual is inserted also exerts an important influence on their QoL. Living in a safe and healthy environment, with proper social care and an efficient transport system, opportunities for acquiring new information and skills, as well as recreation/leisure areas, are all relevant factors. Moreover, having good financial resources can positively contribute to a good QoL. On the other hand, factors that have a negative impact on the environment, such as pollution and climate change, could also negatively affect one’s QoL [ 28 ].

3.4.1. Influence of Adopting a Vegetarian Diet on the Environmental Domain

Following a more sustainable diet, which will contribute to a healthier environment, could positively influence QoL ( Figure 1 ). In general, plant-based diets are more sustainable than those based on animal foods, as they require fewer natural resources for food production and have a lower impact on the environment. An omnivorous diet is estimated to require 2.9 times more water, 2.5 times more energy, 13 times more fertilizers, and 1.4 times more pesticides than a vegetarian diet [ 117 ]. In addition, meat and dairy production contribute 80 percent of all gas emissions from food production, and 24 percent of total greenhouse gases coming from food. Livestock production uses about 70 percent of all agricultural land globally, and consumes 29 percent of all water spent on agriculture [ 118 ].

Regarding the analysis of different types of diets, the data from 34 articles gathered in a systematic review showed that the more a diet is plant-based, the more sustainable it is. The vegan diet was considered the most sustainable of all, with the lowest greenhouse gas emissions and the least environmental impact, especially when based on locally produced foods and with a lower consumption of ultraprocessed meat substitutes. Ovolactovegetarian diets have a greater environmental impact than vegan diets, and it has been shown that 40 percent of greenhouse gases from ovolactovegetarian diets are attributed to the consumption of dairy products [ 118 ].

The production of animal-origin food is very inefficient in terms of energy, as it requires the use of many resources (water, energy, land, food) to keep animals alive. The animals themselves use much of the energy and nutrients in the form of food to maintain their metabolism, whereas only a small part of it is actually stored and converted into food for humans in the form of meat. This amount of energy wasted during production, standardized through the rate of the conversion of energy into protein, varies considerably from one animal to another. Whereas 4 calories from fossil fuels are required for each calorie of chicken protein that is produced, 40 calories are required for the production of 1 calorie of beef protein. For pork and dairy production, the rate is 14 fuel calories for each calorie of protein. In the case of eggs, the value is similar to that of beef (39 calories). On average, the energy used to produce each gram of animal protein (25 kcal/g) is 11 times greater than that used to produce vegetable proteins (2.2 kcal/g) [ 119 ].

In general, in the case of plant-origin foods, the higher the protein concentration, the greater the energy efficiency (which means that such foods need less energy to provide greater amounts of protein, as they are more concentrated in protein). Such an association does not exist for foods of animal origin, as their energy demand is very high—in fact, a decline in energy efficiency is observed as protein concentration increases (that is, foods with a higher protein concentration are those that demand more energy) [ 120 , 121 ].

According to Aleksandrowicz et al. [ 122 ], the change from a typical Western diet to more sustainable food patterns could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and land use related to food production by up to 80 percent, in addition to a 50 percent reduction in water use. In that study, all diets involved reducing or replacing animal foods with others of plant origin (such as, for example, vegetarian, vegan, Mediterranean and pescatarian diets), in addition to replacing the consumption of ruminant animals with monogastric animals [ 122 ]. Similar results were observed in a study by Rosi et al. [ 12 ] in Italy, which showed that vegetarian diets (ovolactovegetarian and vegan) had a lower ecological footprint in the three aspects assessed: CO 2 production, water consumption, and land use. Corroborating these data, a global analysis of different dietary strategies to reduce the environmental impact and improve health estimated that, in developed countries, the replacement of animal foods with plant-origin foods could reduce the number of premature deaths by up to 12 percent, and greenhouse gas emissions by up to 84 percent [ 123 ].

3.4.2. Influence of the Environmental Domain on the Adoption of a Vegetarian Diet

Environmental issues are part of the motivations that lead individuals to reduce meat consumption or adopt a vegetarian diet. The concept of sustainability applied to food refers to a diet that, in addition to being nutritionally adequate and healthy, respects biodiversity and ecosystems, is accessible, culturally accepted, and contributes to preserving natural resources [ 124 ].

A motivation to live in a healthier and more sustainable environment may positively influence people to adopt and maintain a vegetarian diet, as it has already been proved that a more plant-based diet has a lower environmental impact when compared to animal-based diets [ 122 ]. Individuals who are naturally engaged in sustainability and environmental issues are more likely to have positive feelings related to a sense of altruism achieved from adopting a vegetarian diet. The possibility of protecting their own environment and contributing to a better world can bring a sense of purpose in life [ 125 ], which could positively influence diet adherence and QoL.

Adopting a vegetarian diet may depend on other factors beyond an individual’s will. Economic aspects, both at the global level (economic situation of the country) and the individual level (income and social status), could influence food choices. In general, the lower the income, the greater its influence on food. People with higher income suffer less from fluctuations in food prices and are more demanding in their choices. Likewise, in poorer countries, the consumption of certain foods is highly influenced by their prices, which does not occur with the same intensity in developed countries [ 126 ]. The influence of economic aspects on the nutritional quality of a diet is quite variable. For example, it has been shown that increased income leads to a higher intake of fruit. However, the same increase might lead to eating out more often, or consuming more processed foods, in addition to eating more meat and fewer legumes [ 126 ]. Moreover, a cross-sectional study carried out in the United States showed that lower income levels were associated with poorer quality of food—in particular, lower consumption of fruits and vegetables and higher consumption of sugary drinks and frozen desserts [ 127 ].

The economic context is one of the factors that may influence the adoption of vegetarianism. On the one hand, the price of animal-origin foods may cause individuals to reduce their consumption. A study carried out in Canada found that an increase in meat price led 37.9 percent of individuals to reduce or eliminate their consumption. Still, as it is a food that is part of local culture, individuals value meat consumption more than any other food group. Therefore, despite economic issues, cultural aspects may also be considered an important barrier to reducing meat consumption [ 128 ]. In Australia, it has been shown that price increases are the biggest motivators for reductions in meat consumption, a factor that was considered more relevant than health, religious, ethical, and environmental aspects, among others [ 129 ]. Therefore, understanding the economic context in which individuals live is essential for understanding the motivations that lead them to reduce their meat consumption and possibly adopt vegetarianism.

Reducing meat consumption also depends on access to various plant-origin foods, which is also limited by economic issues. In Brazil, for example, the consumption of fruits and vegetables is influenced by prices and family income, with the cost burden being indicated as the primary barrier [ 130 ]. Data from the Brazilian Household Budget Survey (POF) showed that individuals from lower income groups spend a higher percentage of their budget on food. Families with a monthly income of up to BRL 1908.00 spend 22.6 percent of their household budget on food, compared with only 7.6 percent among families whose monthly income exceeds BRL 23,850.00 [ 131 ]. One of the barriers to adopting a vegetarian diet is the perception that it would be more expensive [ 98 ]. However, a vegetarian diet could be considered cheaper than an omnivorous diet, since meat is often the most expensive food item. In Brazil, a national survey from 2017–18 revealed that over 20 percent of all household food expenses were spent on “meats, viscera and fish”, a percentage higher than to any other food item [ 131 ]. Still, a vegetarian diet could become more expensive when more meat-substitute foods (which are less accessible) are consumed [ 132 ].

Another factor that could hinder the adoption of a healthy vegetarian diet is the logistics involving access to fresh fruits and vegetables. As they are perishable foods and are usually eaten fresh (unlike meats and other foods, which are often frozen and stored for longer), many types of fruits and vegetables require more frequent trips to the market, and adequate storage to minimize losses. Therefore, the consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables could be affected by people’s lack of time to purchase these foods frequently, and by losses resulting from inadequate storage. In other words, the perishability of fruits and vegetables could generate a cost increase. In addition, especially among low-income individuals, a more restricted access to fresh food is a factor that negatively influences its consumption [ 133 ]. Moreover, lower education levels could also negatively influence one’s decision to adopt a vegetarian diet, as a positive association has been demonstrated between higher educational levels and the adoption of a vegetarian diet [ 114 , 134 ]. In view of this, educating individuals to make healthier and more economically viable choices could encourage more people to adopt vegetarianism. Public policies that help reduce prices and facilitate access to fruits, vegetables, and other plant-origin foods could also help more people to reduce their meat consumption.

4. Vegetarians’ Quality of Life

A vegetarian diet’s effect on QoL was assessed in a cross-sectional study carried out with runners. A convenience sample was selected from German-speaking countries, namely Germany, Switzerland and Austria, and a total of 281 individuals (158 vegetarians and 123 omnivores) participated in the study. The instrument used to assess QoL was the WHOQOL-BREF, which was applied virtually to the study subjects. The results showed that all participants scored high on QoL, regardless of the type of diet adopted, with no difference between groups. Therefore, it was concluded that runners have high levels of QoL, and that a vegetarian diet was as good as an omnivorous diet for this population segment [ 135 ].

In Brazil, a specific questionnaire to evaluate the QoL of vegetarians was developed and validated, since other studies used only general questionnaires or others that were not specific to vegetarians [ 13 ]. The responses showed that vegetarians have satisfactory levels of QoL (average scores between 70 and 80 on a 100-point scale). Among the different types of vegetarians, vegans were the ones with the highest scores. Other factors that had an influence on participants’ QoL included their age, how long they had been following a vegetarian diet, and whether they had other vegetarians in their close circle of contacts [ 13 ].

In a clinical trial conducted with diabetic patients, the effect of a vegetarian diet on their QoL and eating behavior was compared to a standard diet used to treat type 2 diabetes. QoL was assessed using the Obesity and Weight-Loss QoL questionnaire (OWQOL) and Weight-Related Symptom Measure questionnaire (WRSM). Both diets led to positive effects on QoL and mood, but the effect was stronger in the group that followed a vegetarian diet, demonstrating that such a dietary pattern can have positive effects not only on the physical health, but also on the mental health of patients with type 2 diabetes [ 136 ].

Older studies [ 137 , 138 , 139 ] show similar results, with positive QoL outcomes when individuals were exposed to a vegetarian diet. Katcher, Ferdowsian, Hoover, Cohen, and Barnard [ 137 ] developed a workplace study in a US-based company as part of a health promotion program, in which volunteers adopted a vegan diet for 22 weeks. At the beginning and the end of the period, individuals answered the Food Acceptability Questionnaire—FAQ (SF) and the Work Productivity and Activity Impairment questionnaire (WPAI). The responses to the questionnaires showed that individuals who adopted the vegan diet reported improvement in general health, physical fitness, mental health, vitality and overall satisfaction with the diet, in addition to the reduced cost of food items. However, they reported more difficulty in finding options when eating out. Still, the vegan diet was effective in improving the participants’ QoL. QoL was also assessed in a study conducted at a health institute in the United States that offers a raw vegan diet to visitors and guests. Participants who remained at the institute for at least a week and who would maintain the raw vegan diet after leaving the institute were selected. A QoL analysis was performed at the beginning of the study and 12 weeks after the intervention, with a questionnaire that evaluated individual satisfaction with taste, food cost, convenience (ease of buying, planning and preparing food), and self-care perception. Individuals who followed the raw vegan diet for 12 weeks were compared to those who did not. There was an improvement both in the parameters of general QoL (assessed by SF-36), as well as in the QoL associated with changes in the diet, cost aspects and the perception of self-care. This shows the positive effect that this type of food can have in QoL, when used as a clinical treatment [ 138 ]

A study conducted in the United States by Barnard, Scialli, Bertron, Hurlock, and Edmonds [ 139 ] assessed the acceptability of a low-fat vegan diet in women. The study was carried out with 35 nonmenopausal women divided into two groups: one adopting the diet for a period equivalent to two menstrual cycles, and the other group not following any diet, with a crossover design. The low-fat vegan diet had high adherence and good acceptability, although the participants reported that maintaining the diet required more effort. They also reported weight loss and improved sleep, digestion and energy levels, which can positively contribute to improving QoL.

5. Summary of Knowledge and Future Directions

Adopting a vegetarian diet can have a positive influence on all four QoL domains. Better health outcomes and lower rates of noncommunicable diseases have a positive impact on the physical domain. Positive feelings associated with doing something good, together with a feeling of belonging or stronger in-group bonds created with the vegetarian community, have a positive effect on the psychological and social domains, respectively. Finally, the lower environmental impact of vegetarian diets benefits the environmental domain.

On the other hand, negative effects on QoL might also result from adopting a vegetarian diet. Despite better overall health, a nonbalanced vegetarian diet could lead to nutritional deficiencies that would be detrimental to health, affecting the physical domain. As vegetarians are still a minority group, rejection and stigmatization from nonvegetarians may have a negative impact on the social domain. The psychological and mental effects of a vegetarian diet are not clear, although some studies point to an increased risk of depression.

Several aspects of different QoL domains can also have an impact on one’s decision whether or not to adopt a vegetarian diet. Improving one’s health can be an important motivator to try a vegetarian diet. Ethical/moral and religious/spiritual reasons are important psychological aspects that can lead to the adoption of vegetarianism, while an attempt to reduce one’s environmental impact can motivate someone to adopt such a diet. Becoming part of a social group and achieving a sense of belonging can also be a trigger for someone to become vegetarian.

Just as some individuals might feel motivated to follow a vegetarian diet for a number of different reasons, others might feel discouraged due to psychological, social, or environmental factors. A fear of being stigmatized or excluded from their social group could hinder one’s intention of becoming a vegetarian. Moreover, cultural aspects that enhance meat consumption could have the same effect, together with the connection that people make between meat and masculinity. Finally, since the adoption of an alternative dietary pattern also relies on environmental factors, such as food availability and economics, individuals may face difficulties when adopting a vegetarian diet if they lack a good supply of plant-based food options.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, vegetarianism can either influence or be influenced by different QoL domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet can have positive consequences, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community) and lower environmental impact. On the other hand, factors that go beyond an individual’s control, such as the environment and social/cultural group in which they are inserted, as well as gender-based differences, economic aspects, and limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods, can negatively impact the QoL of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products. Despite the low number of studies on vegetarianism and quality of life, the existing evidence points toward a more positive impact. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet—beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it. Further studies are necessary to understand how strongly these connections between QoL domains and vegetarianism can influence the individuals who adopt this dietary pattern.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknoledge the “Programa de Pós Graduação em Nutrição Humana da Universidade de Brasília (PPGNH/UnB)” and Luiz Eduardo S. Hargreaves for the support.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; methodology, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; investigation, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.H. and R.P.Z.; writing—review and editing, S.M.H., A.R., A.S. and R.P.Z.; visualization, S.M.H., R.P.Z., A.R.; supervision, R.P.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Pros and Cons of a Vegan Diet

Shereen Lehman, MS, is a former writer for Verywell Fit and Reuters Health. She's a healthcare journalist who writes about healthy eating and offers evidence-based advice for regular people.

Verywell / Alexandra Shytsman

A vegan diet is a vegetarian eating style, but it's completely devoid of animal products, including eggs , honey, and dairy products. Some vegans choose the diet for health reasons, but others prefer it for ethical reasons, such as avoiding animal cruelty and consuming more sustainable foods.

While there are documented health benefits of a vegan diet, some find the lifestyle challenging to maintain. Consider each of the pros and cons of a vegan diet before you decide if it is the right program for you.

Evidence-based health benefits

Encourages mindful eating

Wider variety of foods

May lead to weight loss

Reduced food costs

Healthier for the environment

No animal impact

Limited food choices

Possible nutrient deficiencies

Requires diligence

Difficulty dining out

Unrealistic expectations

Social isolation

The reason (or reasons) that you choose a vegan eating plan will determine the benefits that are most relevant for you. But advantages to this lifestyle are substantial, regardless of whether you are choosing it for health, environmental, or ethical reasons.

Health Benefits

Since a vegan diet is plant-based , it's easier to load up on healthy whole grains , legumes, fruits, and vegetables that many people on regular diets lack. Studies comparing different types of diets have found that vegan eating ranks highest for nutritional quality. A vegan diet is generally high in fiber, vitamin C , magnesium, iron, and folate and lower in calories and saturated fats.​

The nutritional quality of a vegan diet leads to more significant health benefits. Eating a diet rich in plant-based foods has been associated with a decreased risk of many chronic diseases. A large cohort study evaluated vegetarian and vegan diets. Researchers found that both groups experienced a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases, cardiometabolic risk factors, some cancers, and total mortality. Those who were vegan enjoyed those benefits along with a reduced risk of obesity, hypertension, type-2 diabetes, and cardiovascular mortality.

Other studies have confirmed those findings and have also found that plant-based eating may be helpful in the treatment and management of high blood pressure, diverticular disease, and eye cataracts.

Mindful Eating

Mindful eating is a practice that involves paying more attention to our food and increasing sensual awareness and experience of a meal. It requires the eater to be focused intentionally on eating behavior to enjoy the process of eating rather than any specific nutritional outcome ( calories , protein, fat, carbohydrates). Mindful eating practices are associated with a healthier relationship with food and have been used in some weight-loss interventions.

Vegan eating and mindful eating are different. But because vegan eaters—unlike omnivores—choose to eliminate certain categories of food from their diet, they need to be more selective and conscious about their food choices. In many cases, certain mindful eating practices are built into their meal planning .

For example, if you consume a traditional American diet, it is easy to grab a meal on the go at a fast-food restaurant, convenience mart, or coffee shop. It is easy to consume the meal without being fully aware of the eating process (i.e.chewing, tasting, and feeling a sense of fullness). But on a vegan diet, you may have to plan meals in advance to find foods that you enjoy and that are compliant on the eating plan. Or you may have to make careful selections in the moment. The choosing and planning process requires consideration, focus, and thoughtfulness about your food choices—critical components of mindful eating.

Wider Food Variety

An omnivore diet eliminates no foods. The standard American diet is an omnivore diet. But most people who consume a traditional diet eat a relatively limited number of foods or types of food. For instance, many traditional American dinners include meat, starch (potato or rice), and maybe a vegetable. Dairy products are often used as ingredients, side dishes, or toppings.

On a vegan diet, however, many traditional foods are not compliant. Therefore, when you begin this diet, you may have to get creative and experiment with foods that are not familiar.

But there is a caveat to this benefit. Many food manufacturers are creating plant-based versions of traditional favorites. For instance, most grocery stores carry vegan-friendly meatless burgers, processed chicken or turkey alternatives, and dairy substitutes that are made from soy or other ingredients. Sometimes, these products are no healthier than their meat/dairy alternative, and relying on them can lead to the same limited food palate like a traditional American diet.

Possible Weight Loss

Studies have shown that you may lose weight on a vegan diet. Of course, just choosing to go vegan does not cause weight loss to occur. But when you adopt this lifestyle, you eliminate many foods that are high in fat and calories.

Plant-based eating is often associated with losing weight. In 2018, a limited 16-week clinical trial found that a vegan diet proved to be superior to a control diet (that included animal protein) in improving body weight and fat mass. And a broad evidence review published in 2017 found that plant-based diets are an effective tool in the management and prevention of overweight and obesity.

Even if you have problems staying on a weight loss plan, a vegan lifestyle might be the best choice. Studies have also shown that a vegan eating plan may be more effective for weight loss , even if you don't completely stick to the program.

Reduced Food Costs

Choosing a vegan diet may help you to reduce your food costs. But whether or not you gain this benefit depends on what you eat before adopting this eating style and what you choose to eat after.

There is no doubt that meat, seafood, and dairy products are expensive. Some convenience foods can also be pricey. When you remove these foods from your diet, you eliminate the substantial food costs that are associated with them.

Vegan-friendly-grains and legumes are usually budget-friendly. And even though fresh produce and vegan-friendly convenience foods can be expensive, they are likely to cost less overall than a diet rich in animal-based products.

Better for the Environment

Some people choose a vegan diet because they feel it is better for the planet. There is increased concern in the environmental community about the impact of livestock and livestock farming practices on the earth.

By comparison, the farming of vegan-friendly plants requires fewer resources (land and water) than the production of typical western foods such as meat, poultry, and dairy. And cows produce more greenhouses gasses (methane) than plants do, which leads some to believe that eating vegan helps to reduce the risk of global warming.

Several research studies have even suggested that a vegan diet is better for the planet than other diets, including the popular Mediterranean diet .

No Animal Impact

Because no animals are harmed or killed to produce vegan-friendly foods, many choose this diet because of concerns about animal cruelty.

One study showed that the most popular reason for choosing a vegan diet is to support the more humane treatment of animals.   These vegans may also avoid clothing or other products that are made from animals, poultry, fish, or bees.

Interestingly, another research  study  published in the journal  Appetite  found that people who chose a vegan diet for ethical reasons were likely to stick to the diet longer than those who follow the program for other reasons.   

Even though a vegan diet may be healthier for you and the planet, this program doesn't work for everyone. Consider these drawbacks.

Limited Food Choices

The vegan diet is often referred to as the most restrictive version of a plant-based diet. Certainly, if you adopt this eating plan, and you currently eat a standard American diet, you can expect to eliminate most foods from your typical weekly menu. For some people, that level of restriction is too severe.

To get a greater sense of the scope of the restriction, remember that not only are animal products eliminated, but any food or product that contains an animal by-product is eliminated. Many traditional home recipes, groceries, and restaurant foods contain at least one animal by-product.

Of course, many vegans will tell you that there is a wealth of food variety in this diet. But because it varies substantially from what you might be used to eating, you may find it to be limiting at first.

Possible Nutritional Deficiencies

A vegan diet can be healthy, but there are a few potential nutritional deficiencies that need to be addressed. Researchers have found that vegan diets are generally lacking in calcium , required for bone formation, muscle contraction, and other essential functions. Vegans can increase their intake by eating calcium-rich foods such as green leafy vegetables, pulses, sesame seeds, some dried fruits, and calcium-fortified foods such as plant milks, non-milk yogurt, or cereal with calcium added. Similarly, they can supplement their diet with multivitamins .

Vitamin B-12 , or cobalamin, is another nutrient that may be lacking because it's found primarily in foods of animal origin. Vitamin B-12 is needed for healthy nerve function and blood cell production. A deficiency can lead to a condition called pernicious anemia . Although some seaweed, mushrooms, and fermented foods can be a useful source of this essential B-complex vitamin, researchers have found that vitamin B-12 supplementation may be needed for people who follow a vegetarian or vegan diet.

Protein can be another issue, but it's one that is easily solved. Proteins are made up of building blocks called amino acids that your body needs to maintain organs and muscles and important functions. Essential amino acids are those that your body does not make so you need to get them from the foods you eat. Many vegans also take creatine supplements .

While animal proteins contain all of the essential amino acids, plant proteins are usually missing one or more of those amino acids. So, it's crucial to eat a variety of protein sources to ensure you get all those amino acids you need.

Vegan diets can also be low in vitamin D , though to be fair, so are other diets since most of your vitamin D comes from exposure to sunlight. Two potentially good vegan sources of vitamin D include maitake mushrooms and portobello mushrooms that have been exposed to UV light. Fortified nut milks can also help you get vitamin D during the winter months. In some cases, however, a vitamin D supplement may be needed.

A vegan diet is also deficient in two omega-3 fatty acids called eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid that your body needs for a healthy heart and eyes and brain function. Eating foods such as walnuts, soy, pumpkin, flax, or chia seeds , will help increase your intake of an omega-3 fatty acid called alpha-linolenic acid, which your body converts to the other two forms. Still, supplementing with a product such as a micro algae supplement may be needed. Also, if you're pregnant, however, it is important to talk to your healthcare provider to make sure you get enough omega-3s during your pregnancy.

Lastly, iron is a nutrient of concern in vegan diets. According to the Vegan Society, good plant sources of iron include lentils, chickpeas, beans, tofu, cashew nuts, chia seeds, ground linseed, hemp seeds, pumpkin seeds, kale, dried apricots and figs, raisins, quinoa and fortified breakfast cereal.

Requires Diligence

Those who follow a vegan diet will need to become accustomed to carefully reading nutrition labels and ingredient lists, especially if they choose to consume processed foods . Foods that you might assume to be free from animal by-products may contain gelatin, whey, casein, honey, or other foods that are non-compliant on a vegan diet.

You'll also need to carefully read nutrition labels to stay healthy on a vegan diet. It is important to choose foods that contain important vitamins and minerals to avoid nutritional deficiencies.

Difficulty Dining Out

When shopping for vegan-friendly food, consumers can read product information. But if you eat at someone's home or in a restaurant, you don't have access to an ingredient list. For this reason, dining out can be a challenge for those who choose a vegan diet.

A few restaurants make a note of vegan or vegetarian foods on their menus, but not many. You may be able to create a vegan meal from the salads or side dishes that they already serve. However, you'll need to ask to be sure that no animal products are used in the preparation.

And sometimes, even asking about food isn't helpful. It is not uncommon for well-meaning restaurant staff (or well-intentioned friends and family) to assume that plant-based foods are vegan if they don't contain dairy. But that isn't always the case. Vegetable soup, for example, might be made with broth that used an animal bone for flavoring.

Many vegan experts recommend that when dining at someone's home, bring a recipe that you can enjoy and that you can share with others. And choose restaurants that you know to be vegan-savvy.

Unrealistic Expectations

While consuming a vegan diet is likely to produce health benefits and a healthier weight, it is not a guarantee. For example, if you are trying to slim down, you still need to be mindful of the foods you choose and the amount you eat.

There is an increasing number of heavily processed vegan foods. Many times, these foods are just as unhealthy—containing more fat and calories—as their traditional counterparts.

And health benefits are not a slam dunk either. A study published in the  Journal of the American College of Cardiology compared a large number of women who ate a healthy vegan diet (including whole grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, oils, tea and coffee) to those who ate a less healthy vegan food (including juices, sweetened beverages, refined grains, potatoes, fries, and sweets). Researchers concluded that the healthier vegan diet resulted in a substantially lower risk for heart disease, whereas the less healthy vegan diet was associated with a higher risk.   

Social Isolation

People's food choices can come under scrutiny from friends, family, coworkers, and other acquaintances. While veganism is more normalized these days and plant-based foods are more widely available, you might still find that you are questioned and challenged about your reasons for choosing this lifestyle. Additionally, those who don't know how to accommodate your diet may exclude you from social gatherings. Or worse, they may invite you and encourage you to eat foods that are not vegan-friendly.

Some vegan blogs address these issues and provide guidance for those adapting to the eating style. Experts advise that you reach out to other vegans in your community and build a network, while also being patient with those who don't understand your choices.

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Le, L., & Sabaté, J. (2014). Beyond Meatless, the Health Effects of Vegan Diets: Findings from the Adventist Cohorts . Nutrients, 6(6), 2131–2147. doi:10.3390/nu6062131

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Moore W, McGrievy M, Turner-McGrievy G.   Dietary adherence and acceptability of five different diets, including vegan and vegetarian diets, for weight loss : The New DIETs study.  Eating Behaviors . 2015;19:33-38.

Castañé, S., & Antón, A. (2017). Assessment of the nutritional quality and environmental impact of two food diets: A Mediterranean and a vegan diet . Journal of Cleaner Production, 167, 929–937. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.121

Janssen, M., Busch, C., Rödiger, M., & Hamm, U. (2016). Motives of consumers following a vegan diet and their attitudes towards animal agriculture . Appetite, 105, 643–651. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.06.039

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By Shereen Lehman, MS Shereen Lehman, MS, is a former writer for Verywell Fit and Reuters Health. She's a healthcare journalist who writes about healthy eating and offers evidence-based advice for regular people.

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The Disadvantages of Dieting

Erica carneglia, ms rd | contributor.

McKel Hill Kooienga, MS, RDN, LDN

Founder of nutrition stripped and the mindful nutrition method™.

What are the disadvantages of dieting and why should you ditch dieting for good ? Keep reading to learn more.  

There’s always a new diet, detox , or food trend that everyone seems to be trying. But is it always a good idea to join in? Whether rooted in nutrition or geared towards quick weight loss , these trends always involve two things – restrictions, and rules. 

As soon as restrictions and rules come into play, a slew of disadvantages come along with them. Such as feeling out of control around food and experiencing heightened food guilt or food stress , just to name a couple. In the end, dieting is the root cause of it all. If you’re wondering whether or not it’s finally time to stop dieting for good, this article is for you. Understanding the disadvantages and consequences of dieting can help you to say no to the next detox or trend that comes your way. 

What Do We Mean When We Say Dieting?

It’s important to note what exactly we mean when we say dieting. What we are not referring to here is a medically recommended diet. Such as a low sodium diet for hypertension, a low FODMAP diet for IBS, or a plant-focussed diet for high cholesterol. 

What we are referring to are strict, extreme diets that tell you to avoid, remove, or restrict anything from your diet outside of the context of a medical recommendation. They often do so while promising extreme, life-changing effects as a result. Such as fast weight loss or extreme boosts in energy. Additionally, they’ll often have a time stamp associated with them. You only have to follow their recommendations or protocol for 10 days, 30 days, or 3 months. Afterward, you’re promised incredible results with minimal commitment. 

If you find yourself continually following these types of diets, keep reading to learn about the disadvantages of diets before you decide to get started.

6 Disadvantages of Dieting 

The following six outcomes are what we see most often as registered dietitians in the nutrition coaching realm. Individuals come to us having dieted for years and are frequently experiencing all six of these symptoms listed below. 

Causes an “All-in” and “All-out” relationship with Food

Diets function in a cyclical way. You’re either on a diet or off of one. Unfortunately, they don’t prepare you for what normal life looks like after the diet is over. As a result, you go right back to your prior habits (i.e. “all-out”). Until undoubtedly, you decide you’d like to make a change and try another diet. Cue the pendulum swing from one end of the spectrum to the other.

This creates an imbalance in food and is arguably the biggest disadvantage of dieting. It makes it impossible to do both, to enjoy food and nourish yourself with food. It makes you feel like you’re either “being good”, or “being bad”, with no in-between. 

Leads to Extreme Cravings

What happens when you really want your favorite ice cream that’s in the freezer, but you tell yourself you can’t have any? You want it even more. And not only that, you crave it. It almost seems to take over your thoughts and all of a sudden becomes the most important thing on your mind, right? 

This brings us to the second disadvantage of dieting, extreme cravings . When you inherently want something or enjoy something, it isn’t beneficial to abruptly restrict or remove it from your life. When you do so, your mindset immediately shifts to lack. You can’t help but think about what you’re missing out on, or how good it would feel to have what you no longer can have. Over time, this manifests as a craving . 

That ice cream in the freezer sounds so incredible, so you absolutely must have it. As a result, you physically have to have a mental argument with yourself to prevent yourself from, “giving in”, or “losing willpower”. If this sounds familiar, you’ve certainly experienced this disadvantage of dieting before. 

Results in a Loss of Control Around Food 

After those cravings kick in, the loss of control comes next. 

You’re on a diet and you’re out with friends on a Friday night. You know you’re, “not supposed” to have pizza, yet, there’s some pizza at the party. Next thing you know, you’ve had three slices. At the end of the night, you’re home and thinking to yourself, “What’s wrong with me? I have absolutely no control when I’m around pizza.”. Is it true that you have no control? Absolutely not. It’s simply the diet causing this sensation.

Another disadvantage of dieting is that it not only causes a lack mindset , but it also causes a scarcity mindset. Because dieting has told you time and time again that pizza is, “bad”, “not allowed”, and, “off-limits”, whenever you have access to it, it seems like it’s your only opportunity. It’s the one chance you have to eat pizza and, “get away with it”. 

So, in turn, you eat more than you really want, eat past your satiety cues, and appear to lose control. The following day, you feel guilty, stressed, and overwhelmed, so you tell yourself you’re, “getting back into it”, or “doing better” today. It brings you right back to that cycle we started with.

Only Allows for Short-term Success 

So what’s the draw? If we know diets cause a loss of control around food, give us extreme cravings and make us swing back and forth between extreme habits, why are people still following them? 

Short-term, quick results. Diets temporarily work because of how extreme they are. As long as you follow their rules, you’ll see some results. And what happens when you do? You’re hooked. You have proof that it works, right? But very soon after, you find yourself at the “all-out” and of the spectrum, yearning to get back to the “all-in” end in order to get those results back. And the cycle continues. 

This disadvantage of dieting is that the success you achieve is never maintainable or sustainable. It’s short-lived and somewhat addicting. It leaves you wanting more so you’ll always come back for more and try again. 

Diminishes Natural Body Cues 

When we’re constantly following someone else’s rules, it gets pretty difficult to discern what our own body truly wants or needs. Our bodies are built to communicate with us, to tell us what we like or dislike, and tell us when we’re hungry or when we’re full. But diets tell us otherwise. They tell us we’re supposed to eat a certain number of meals per day that contain a specific number of calories that can only be eaten at certain times. Cue the confusion! 

New clients almost never know what true hunger or satiety feels like. They’re almost always struggling to simply understand what they enjoy versus what they believe they, “should” be eating. This is another example of a disadvantage to dieting. When we have a balanced, sustainable relationship with food, we work with the body and its cues, not against it. Diets, on the other hand, will tell you to fight those cues and ignore them.  

Makes Food Difficult and Time-Consuming

When you’re on a diet, or simply used to being on a diet often, food starts to be complicated. It takes up so much of your time and your thoughts. You’re constantly trying to recall the rules, remember what you ate that day or how much you had last night. You might even try and write it all down to make it easier on yourself. 

Food becomes a controlling part of your life. It starts to dictate your actions and maybe even your social choices. This is what the “all-in” of the spectrum looks like. 

Food is meant to be enjoyed, and it’s meant to be a source of nourishment. It’s not meant to be a daunting, overwhelming part of your life. If you’ve experienced this disadvantage of dieting before, you know it’s a viable reason to never go back. 

The Takeaway

When you have a balanced, sustainable relationship with food that does not include dieting, you don’t have to experience any of these disadvantages. You’re able to eat food because you want to eat it, while also feeling in control of your choices and your actions. You’re able to experience social situations with ease. You even feel confident listening to your body’s cues and enjoying food for the sake of enjoying it! 

If you’re looking for a sign to stop dieting and start building lasting habits, this is most certainly it.  

Do You Want to Experience More Balance with your Food Choices?

Then start by finding your balanced eating type!

Take this 45-second free quiz to find out which balanced eating archetype you are, and what your unique type needs to maintain balance with the way you nourish yourself. That way, you can finally be free from food and diet obsession, maintain a balanced weight, and cultivate a positive relationship with food and your body. 

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Is It Healthier to Be a Vegetarian or an Omnivore?

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Update: Our award-winning video series Above the Noise took a fresh look at the pros and cons of vegetarianism.  Students can watch the video to get a primer on the facts then write their own response.

This post is part of KQED’s Do Now U project. Do Now U is a biweekly activity for students and the public to engage and respond to current issues using social media. Do Now U aims to build civic engagement and digital literacy for learners of all ages. This post was written by the following students from Autumn Marshall’s “Professional Orientation” course at Lipscomb University: Hannah Feiten, Riya Rana, Courtney Brenner, Erick Ramirez, Alexis Burchfield and Constance Fonseca.

Featured Media Resource VIDEO: Big Think How Healthy is Vegetarianism…Really? Dr. Marion Nestle, a nutritionist, discusses diets and their impact on human and environmental health.

Is It Healthier to Be a Vegetarian or an Omnivore? #DoNowUOmnivore

How to Do Now

To respond to the Do Now U, you can comment below or post your response on Twitter. Just be sure to include #DoNowUOmnivore  and @KQEDedspace in your posts.

Learn More About Vegetarianism and Omnivorism

The vegetarian-omnivore debate has been raging for decades, if not centuries. The world of healthcare continues to debate the health benefits, and the pros and cons of each side. In addition, many public figures, from medical professionals to professional athletes, have weighed in on the subject. To clarify terms, a vegetarian is defined as a person who does not eat any meat of any kind—poultry, game, fish, or shellfish. Some versions of vegetarianism allow some animal foods; for example, lacto-ovo vegetarians eat milk products and eggs, and flexitarians occasionally eat meat, poultry, and fish. Depending on dietary preference, eggs, dairy and fish may not be included at all in this diet ( veganism  means there are no animal products in the diet). An omnivore, on the other hand, is one who consumes a variety of meat and dairy foods as well as plant food groups, including fruit, vegetables and grains.

A leading concern for those who prefer a vegetarian diet is making sure adequate nutrients are supplied, particularly calories and protein. Due to the fact that meat—a main protein source in most Americans diets—is eliminated, vegetarians have to pursue other avenues to get adequate protein, like legumes, soy and nuts. Without meat in the diet, humans cut out vitamin B12 and limit DHA/EPA (active forms of omega-3 fats), nutrients which promote brain health. In contrast, a vegetarian diet is shown to have a lesser risk of certain diseases . With the increase in plant-based foods in the diet, more phytochemicals are consumed, thus reducing risk of chronic diseases linked with animal fats, such as overweight, obesity, cardiovascular disease and hypertension. Animal products are often high in cholesterol and saturated fat as well, so vegetarians benefit from reducing these unhealthy fats and thus reducing risk for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease.

On the other hand, studies have shown an increased incidence of chronic disease among those who eat meat . Today, meat and poultry are often treated with hormones to make the animals grow faster and larger , and antibiotics are used not only to treat, but also to prevent, disease. These methods concern for some consumers. And yet, meat products contain creatine and carnosine, which are beneficial to the brain and muscles . Meat has demonstrated the capacity to improve bone health, which is beneficial as humans grow older. And, Vitamin B12 is essential to prevention of pernicious anemia, which affects the central nervous system; thus an omnivore’s diet helps to protect the brain and nerves. The protein found in meat is complete, high biological value protein, which means the proteins are more easily absorbed and utilized by the body. Additionally, omnivores are less likely to be deficient in total calories, Vitamin B12, iron and zinc than their vegetarian counterparts.

With pros and cons for each diet, the choice is up to you. What do you think? Is it healthier to be a vegetarian or an omnivore?

More Resources

Article: Authority Nutrition 7 Reasons Not To Avoid Meat Read a nutrition researcher’s take on why meat is not bad for your diet, but why it’s not necessary either.

Website: ProCon.org Should People Become Vegetarian? Check out the top “pro” and “con” arguments for becoming vegetarian.

Infographic: Culinary Schools.org Veganism and the Environment: By the Numbers Learn about how veganism has a reduced impact on environment versus a diet that contains meat.

Find  best practices for using Do Now, using Twitter for teaching , and using other digital tools .

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Beyond the Table

Every year during March we celebrate National Nutrition Month. This year's theme is "Beyond the Table," which highlights the farm-to-fork aspect of nutrition.

Fad Diets: The Pros and Cons

By Brianna Hanson, Dietetic Intern MUSC Health Metabolic & Bariatric Surgery Program

"Lose 40 pounds in two weeks!" "Burn fat fast with our new protein shake!" "Lose weight fast!" Have you ever heard these phrases before? Weight loss programs and diets often use catchy, seemingly easy weight loss solutions to promote their company or their products.

Are their promises of weight loss true and sustainable? Are they safe after bariatric surgery?

We are bombarded with new diet trends, social media influencers telling us what foods we should or should not eat, and food products tailored to weight loss. Among all of the noise and pseudoscience circulating in the world of nutrition, it may be hard to determine what is true and what is not about these claims. Time to break down a few popular diets and examine the pros and cons of some trending diets.

Ketogenic Diet

The Ketogenic diet has grown in popularity over the years. Despite its origin as a treatment for epilepsy, it has now become a more common diet for weight loss. The hallmark of this diet is the high amount of fat and low intake of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the body's main source of fuel but when this is severely restricted, as it is on a true keto diet, the body is forced to be fueled by another source (fat). The breakdown of the standard ketogenic diet is 70% of daily calories come from fat, only 20% for protein, and 10% carbohydrates. The diet can be modified to be higher in protein, reducing the fat content down to 60%, increasing protein to 35% of calories, and reducing the carbohydrate intake to 5% of calories.

• More accessible and available keto alternatives to common foods (bread, chips, flour, sweeteners).
• The severe decrease in carbohydrates can cause the body to hold less water, leading to quick weight loss.
• May help manage blood sugar levels by decreasing intake of simple carbohydrates.
• Carbs are your body's primary energy source, limiting your intake of these may cause brain fog, irritability, fatigue, and constipation. This collection of symptoms is known as "keto flu."
• Weight loss on the diet may not lead to long-term weight loss or maintenance.
• Eliminates healthy food from your diet, such as whole grains, fruits, and some vegetables. These foods are high in vitamins and minerals that your body needs.
• The diet does not differentiate between healthy and unhealthy types of fat.

Considerations after bariatric surgery

• Higher protein needs after surgery may be hard to achieve with a standard keto diet which is predominately fat.
• High amounts of fat are not well tolerated by people after weight loss surgery, and fat sources tend to be rich in calories. Fat malabsorption may occur, leading to loose and frequent bowel movements, excessive gas production, and vitamin deficiencies.

Atkins / Low Carbohydrate Diet

The Atkins Diet, similar to the keto diet, is a low carbohydrate diet to aid in weight loss and disease prevention. The standard Atkins diet is less restrictive than the keto diet and has three variations of the diet designed to fit your goals.

• Protein and fat are not digested as quickly as carbohydrates, which can suppress the appetite and keep your feeling full longer.
• Limiting carbohydrates may help reduce the amount of non-nutritive foods you are consuming.
• Fewer simple carbohydrates may help control your blood sugar, this is especially important for people with diabetes.
• This diet excludes many healthy foods, including fruits and vegetables, that provide essential vitamins/minerals and fiber in the diet.
• This diet also allows processed meats, which can raise your risk for heart problems and certain cancers.
• A low-carb diet may cause constipation, low blood sugar, kidney issues, and electrolyte imbalances.
• It is recommended that post-op bariatric patients avoid high sugar and high-fat foods as their bodies cannot break down or absorb these foods as well. Steatorrhea (fatty stool) may occur from fat malabsorption, which can occur in people who have undergone this surgery.

*Certain vitamins/minerals may not be adequately absorbed by the body after bariatric surgery, it is important to take the vitamins and supplements recommended by a registered dietitian.

The Paleo diet is designed to resemble the diet of human ancestors who relied on hunting and gathering thousands of years ago. This diet includes meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, fruits, nuts, seeds, herbs, spices, and healthy fats and oils. Foods excluded from this diet include processed foods, sugar, soft drinks, grains, most dairy products, legumes, artificial sweeteners, vegetable oils, margarine and translate fats. This diet was designed with a focus on improving overall health, including improving insulin sensitivity, lowering blood pressure, weight management, improving cholesterol balance, better satiety, healthy blood glucose levels, and overall lower risks of early mortality.

• This diet eliminates many processed foods that negatively impact our health.
• Multiple studies have shown that following this diet can lead to fairly significant weight loss.
• One study indicated a reduction of salt intake in patients with insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome and a lower intake of high-glycemic-index products.
• High consumption of plant products provides many anti-inflammatory benefits.
• The higher intake of protein and fats can lead to a greater sense of satiety.
• This diet reduces carbohydrate intake, which is essential for several body systems, including brain function.
• May be expensive and difficult to sustain long-term.
• If you are an athlete or exercise frequently, you may not be consuming a sufficient amount of carbohydrates to optimize your performance.
• Overconsumption of red meat may increase your risk of cancer and heart disease (WHO) due to its saturated fat content.
• This diet removes some healthy foods, including grains, dairy products, and legumes.
• The paleo diet emphasizes vegetables and fruits, many of which are low in calories but may be large in volume. It is important to ensure you have a balanced diet and meet your nutrition goals with a limited volume tolerance.
• Choose lean protein options to avoid eating high-fat meats and dairy products, which may not be absorbed properly.

Vegan or Vegetarian Diet

A vegetarian diet eliminates meat from the diet. A vegan diet removes all animal products and by-products from the diet, including meat, dairy, eggs, and honey. These diets are adapted for a variety of reasons, including moral convictions, environmental consciousness, or improving overall health.

• Heart-protective benefits of vegetarianism include intake of legumes, high fiber whole grains, nuts, fruits and vegetables, and other low-glycemic foods.
• Good for heart health, a study from the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition published a study indicating that vegetarians may be one third less likely to die or be hospitalized for heart disease.
• Plant foods tend to be lower in fat, sodium, and cholesterol, resulting in a positive effect on blood pressure.
• It can be difficult for some people to reach their protein goals, especially after surgery without consuming meat.
• People on this diet are more susceptible to deficiencies in vitamin B12, vitamin D, omega-3 fatty acids, zinc, and iron.
• Post-op patients have high protein needs and this may be difficult for some to achieve on a more restrictive diet.
• Vitamin deficiencies can be common in both vegans/vegetarians and those with a history of weight loss surgery. Speak with your medical care team to ensure you are receiving adequate nutrition.

Weight Watchers

Weight Watchers (WW) is a weight loss program featuring a point-based system that gives a numerical value for foods, drinks, and WW recipes. There is an allotment of points per day based on your weight loss goals. They offer in-person meetings or online programs. Leaders of the meetings help members create goals and discuss new topics and offer new tips during meetings.

• It does not eliminate an entire food group. All foods can fit within moderation.
• It can help people develop healthy habits and provide a community through their meetings.
• Some people find it difficult or frustrating to track your points, workouts, and weight as much as is required with this program.
• The program is facilitated by coaches, not physicians or other medical professionals.
• Some participants may not learn or truly understand the fundamentals of a healthy diet since they depend on the program to determine "points" for each food.
• Lifestyle modifications greatly benefit the maintenance of weight loss and weight maintenance after bariatric surgery. Lifestyle changes are a foundational part of the Weight Watchers program, which can be a benefit post-surgery.

Intermittent Fasting

Intermittent fasting is an eating pattern that includes periods without food or very little food that our glycogen stores are depleted. There are variations of intermittent fasting; 16/8 is one of the most popular. 16/8 intermittent fasting limits intake of food and drinks containing calories to 8 hours of the day, while fasting for the other 16 hours. You are allowed to drink water, zero-calorie beverages (black coffee and plain tea) during the 16-hour fast.

• Regardless of its label, most people experience a form of intermittent fasting during their sleep cycle. A normal, overnight fasting period can be helpful for
• The fasting style is flexible and can be adjusted to fit your schedule.
• This diet does not outline nutrient-dense foods, it only limits the time frame for meals and snacks. For some, this may encourage overeating/ overindulging before or after fasting.
• More research is needed to determine the risk of this diet for people with diabetes who may be at risk for hyper- and hypoglycemia.
• This diet may be helpful for weight loss or weight control by limiting the time frame in which you eat.
• Due to volume restrictions, it may be difficult to obtain all of your essential nutrients during a smaller window of time.

Babeu, D. (2022, February 16). The ketogenic diet: Is it a good fit for bariatric patients? New Jersey Bariatric Center. Retrieved February 23, 2022, from https://www.njbariatriccenter.com/the-ketogenic-diet

Cleveland Clinic. (2021, January 5). What is the Atkins Diet, and Is It Healthy? Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved February 23, 2022, from https://health.clevelandclinic.org/what-is-the-atkins Gunnars, K. (2018, August 1). The paleo diet - a beginner's Guide + Meal Plan. Healthline. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/paleo-diet-meal-plan-and-menu

Kim, H., Caulfield, L. E., Garcia‐Larsen, V., Steffen, L. M., Coresh, J., & Rebholz, C. M. (2019, August 7). Plant‐based diets are associated with a lower risk of incident cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular disease mortality, and all‐cause mortality in a general population of middle‐aged adults. Journal of the American Heart Association. Retrieved February 23, 2022, from https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.119.012865

Lindeberg, S., Jönsson, T., Granfeldt, Y., Borgstrand, E., Soffman, J., Sjöström, K., & Ahrén, B. (2007). A Paleolithic diet improves glucose tolerance more than a Mediterranean-like diet in individuals with ischemic heart disease. Diabetologia, 50(9), 1795–1807. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-007-0716-y

Manheimer, E. W., van Zuuren, E. J., Fedorowicz, Z., & Pijl, H. (2015). Paleolithic nutrition for metabolic syndrome: Systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 102(4), 922–932. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.113613

Österdahl, M., Kocturk, T., Koochek, A., & Wändell, P. E. (2007). Effects of a short-term intervention with a paleolithic diet in healthy volunteers. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62(5), 682–685. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602790

Patterson, R. E., Laughlin, G. A., LaCroix, A. Z., Hartman, S. J., Natarajan, L., Senger, C. M., Martínez, M. E., Villaseñor, A., Sears, D. D., Marinac, C. R., & Gallo, L. C. (2015, August). Intermittent fasting and human metabolic health. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Retrieved February 20, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4516560/

Problems with Digesting Fat After Weight-Loss Surgery. Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Retrieved February 23, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/problems-with-digesting-fat-after-weightloss-surgery

Raman, R. (2017, June 21). Can the paleo diet help you lose weight? Healthline. Retrieved February 23, 2022, from https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/paleo-diet-for-weight-loss

The digestive process: What is the role of your pancreas in digestion? Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Retrieved February 23, 2022, from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/the-digestive-process-what-is-the-role-of-your-pancreas-in-digestion

The keto diet: Pros, cons and tips. The Portland Clinic. (2020, February 4). Retrieved February 23, 2022, from https://www.theportlandclinic.com/the-keto-diet-pros-cons-and-tips/

The paleo diet: Pros and cons according to Nunm. National University of Natural Medicine. (2021, January 4). Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://nunm.edu/2019/04/paleo-diet/

Weight Watchers. (n.d.). WW USA. Personalized Weight Loss Like Never Before-No Two Plans Are Alike! Retrieved February 24, 2022, from https://www.weightwatchers.com/us/

About the Author

MUSC Health Metabolic & Bariatric Surgery Program With 20+ years of experience combined, Registered Dieticians Amanda, Haley and Cher facilitate behavior change through nutrition counseling for weight loss and maintenance with children through adults.

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The pros and cons of eating meat.

Despite meat being a dietary staple for centuries, present-day consumers tend to wonder if eating it is a healthy choice or if it comes with health risks. Find out the fact-based pros and cons of eating meat here.

Meat has been a dietary staple for centuries. Despite this long embedded history dating back to prehistoric times, modern-day questions whether or not it poses health risks. 

Food companies have made leaps and bounds to bring consumers plant-based mock meats, including that notorious Impossible™ Burger . Taking to these products may be based on environmental, societal, and nutritional grounds. 

But should one really forego that burger and become partially or totally meat-free? Find out the most recent, evidence-based pros and cons of eating meat.

THE PROS AND CONS OF EATING MEAT

There is a lot of beef when it comes to the pros and cons of eating meat. But rather than basing on popular opinion, we dive into the meaty research of potential risks and benefits. 

Benefits of Not Eating Meat

First and foremost, meat comes in many different forms and flavors, white and red meat included. Red meat, however, tends to be stigmatized related to potential health concerns. This is mostly due to the saturated fat content they contain. 

Red meats are animal muscle meats that include beef, veal, pork, lamb, mutton, horse, and goat. These meats can also be processed using salting, curing, and fermenting process to enhance flavor and increase preservation. 

Processed meats can include red meats, such as bacon, chorizo, salami, and hot dogs. But white meats such as turkey bacon, ground chicken, and other poultry products can also be classified as processed meats. 

Ultimately, though, red and processed meats spark worry for a number of health conditions. Decreasing life expectancy is a common worry, too. 

Does Meat Cause Chronic Disease? 

From heart disease to cancer, meat intake is suggested to increase the risk of developing various chronic diseases. Let’s cut into some of the most current data:

• The World Health Organization (WHO) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) suggests red meat is probably carcinogenic. Or, in layman’s term, cancer-causing. This is mostly specific to colorectal cancer with some evidence for pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer. Processed meat, on the other hand, is appointed carcinogenic to humans. 
• The World Cancer Research Fund likewise reports there is evidence that red or processed meat are both causes of colorectal cancer. Esophageal, gastric, and breast cancers, amongst the many, also tend to be of concern. 
• Research published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition suggests eating red meat can the risk of cardiovascular disease. A diet rich in red meat led to greater reductions in cholesterol and blood pressure levels. 
• Eating meat has been linked to a higher risk of diabetes . Research in the British Journal of Nutrition found plant and egg proteins could prevent type 2 diabetes. 

Increasing cancer risk but lowering the risk of heart disease? Many inconsistencies exist in the research and recommendations. 

In hopes to clear the air, new research on red and processed meat guidelines suggests these recommendations are primarily based on observational studies. These sorts of studies cannot conclude cause and effect.

The study also found no statistically significant differences for 21 additional outcomes observed, including heart disease and cancer. “Again, we assessed the risk for adverse cardiometabolic outcomes on the basis of an average of 10.8 years follow-up, and adverse cancer outcomes over a lifetime.”

Despite the muddy waters in the research world, health experts offer clarity for meat-eaters. 

Benefits of Eating Meat

With much chatter on the negatives, the pros of eating meat should not be overlooked. Besides, meat is a great source of beneficial nutrients that lead to a number of health benefits. These include:

• Protein: Protein is a macronutrient found in animal meats and some plant-based sources. Meat provides all essential amino acids, which can only be obtained through diet. Protein supports muscle growth and a healthy metabolism. It helpful for those hoping to lose weight, too, as it controls hunger.
• Iron: Iron is a mineral naturally found in red meats including beef and pork. It is absolutely essential for oxygenating blood, supplying it to the organs and body system. Inadequate iron intake increases the risk of iron deficiency anemia, which can cause fatigue and stunted growth.
• Vitamin B12: This B vitamin is primarily found in animal products, including meat and poultry. While symptoms are oftentimes rare, individuals lacking in the vitamin may experience fatigue, breathlessness, numbness, poor balance, and memory loss, as it is a critical component to healthy blood and nerve cells.
• Zinc: Zinc can be obtained from beef, pork, and other meats. It is virtually present in all parts of the body and vital for strengthening the immune system. A deficiency in zinc can lead to hair loss and changes in appetite, weight, and taste and smell sensations. 
• Omega-3 fatty acids: Omega-3 fatty acids are mainly known for their supply within fatty fish, though it can also be found in meat. This especially serves true if the source is grass-fed. The healthy fat reduces inflammation and the risks of heart disease and depression. 

The high nutrient profile of meat is undoubted. But to offset the risk of diseases, health experts do recommend these five tips to make the most out of meat intake:

1. Limit processed meats: As a whole, processed meats are a well-known risk factor in many health conditions. Consumers should limit processed meats to once or twice per month. 

2. Moderate red meat intake: Most available research suggests moderating red meat intake to 18-ounces of unprocessed, lean cuts. 

3. Choose lean cuts: Lean cuts of meat helps to reduce saturated and overall fat content. Pork tenderloin and steak sirloin are great examples of a lean cut of meat.

4. Select grass-fed meat if possible: Again, grass-fed sources show to offer greater amounts of omega-3 fatty acids compared to grain and corn-fed products. Selecting grass-fed sources can kick the nutrient profile of meat up a notch.

5. Balance the diet: Truly, eating meat can be a healthy part of a balanced diet. This especially serves true when considering the quality of the source and the other foods surrounding it. 

A nutrient-dense, whole foods eating pattern takes priority over diets rich in highly processed and packaged foods anyways. Incorporate more whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, plant-based and animal proteins, and healthy fat sources. Limit packaged and boxed products that tend to be loaded with sugar, salt, and saturated and trans fats as well.

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The Dr. Now Diet: Pros, Cons and How to Follow It

T LC's hit reality show "My 600-Lb. Life" follows a group of patients throughout their weight-loss surgery. The subjects of this docuseries all have class III obesity (formerly referred to as morbidly obese), meaning they have a body mass index of 40 or higher.

Dr. Younan Nowzaradan, who specializes in vascular and bariatric surgery, helps prep the patients for their upcoming surgery. The Iranian-born, Houston-based doctor has become a fan favorite for his no-nonsense, tough-love approach. He's been nicknamed by fans and patients as Dr. Now; and interest has grown in Nowzaradan's Dr. Now diet.

Raw HTML : Diets Table - Fastest Weight Loss Diets

What Is the Dr. Now Diet?

The Dr. Now diet is a highly restrictive low-calorie, low-carbohydrate diet developed by Nowzaradan to help patients prepare for bariatric surgery .

The Dr. Now diet was designed “for rapid, effective weight loss , most notably to assist obese patients to drop weight prior to weight-loss surgery,” explains Michele Smallidge, registered dietitian and director of the B.S. Exercise Science Program at the University of New Haven in West Haven, Connecticut.

How to Follow the Dr. Now Diet

If you're considering weight-loss surgery, talk to your doctor. Together, you will come up with a meal plan to prepare for the procedure that will probably look a lot like Dr. Nowzaradan's diet plan.

The Dr. Now diet is based on three primary principles often referred to as FAT: frequency, amount and type.

• Frequency : Consume only two to three meals a day, with no snacks in between.
• Amount : Calories are limited to 1,200 a day . They can be consumed in two 600-calorie meals or three 400-calorie meals.
• Type : The Dr. Now diet emphasizes consuming fiber- and protein-rich foods, while restricting carbohydrates and fats.

Foods allowed on the Dr. Now diet plan

People on the Dr. Now diet can consume a few basic types of foods, says Lisa D. Ellis, a registered dietitian in private practice in Manhattan and White Plains, New York. These foods include:

• Chia seeds.
• Flax seeds.
• Lean protein sources , including egg whites, lean fish and skinless white meat chicken or turkey.
• Low-carb condiments, such as mustard, without added sugar for flavoring.
• Non-starchy vegetables , such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower and spinach.
• Nonfat dairy , such as skim milk or nonfat yogurt.

Foods to avoid on the Dr. Now diet plan

The Dr. Now diet prohibits certain foods because of their high-calorie content, including:

• Battered and fried meats (fried chicken and chicken-fried steak).
• Certain carbs (crackers, snack chips, popcorn, white rice, brown rice, pancakes, waffles and pasta ).
• Fruits high in natural or added sugar ( bananas , cantaloupe, mangos, watermelon and fruit canned in syrup).
• Full-fat and sweetened dairy (chocolate milk, full-fat cheese, sweetened yogurt, ice cream and milkshakes).
• Potatoes (including french fries).

Daily Dr. Now Diet Meal Plan

Here is what a typical day of eating may look on the Dr. Now diet, with three meals that provide about 400 calories each:

• 1 cup of skim milk.
• 2 pieces of turkey bacon.
• 1 cup of plain nonfat yogurt.
• ½ cup of blueberries or blackberries.
• 1 cup of tuna salad made with nonfat Greek yogurt instead of mayonnaise.
• 1 whole-grain pita bread.
• A side salad with 1 tablespoon of vinaigrette dressing.
• 2 cups of low-fat chicken and vegetable soup.

How Nutritious Is the Dr. Now Diet?

Overall, the Dr. Now diet allows for the consumption of many healthy, nutrient-dense foods.

The diet emphasizes lean protein sources, whole-grain carbohydrates, non-starchy vegetables and nonfat dairy, while avoiding high-calorie foods that are often high in sugar and saturated fat.

However, the diet does eliminate some healthful foods, such as potatoes, certain fruits and most nuts and seeds. These foods are incorporated in most healthy diets – including the Mediterranean diet , which ranks as the top diet on U.S. News and World Report's Best Diets rankings – because they provide vital vitamins and minerals, like vitamin E , niacin, zinc and magnesium . Eliminating them entirely can lead to serious nutritional deficiencies in the long run.

Pros and Cons of the Dr. Now Diet

Dr. now diet pros.

The main benefit of the Dr. Now Diet is its ability to help bariatric surgery patients lose a lot of weight in a short period of time.

Dr. Mir Ali, a bariatric surgeon and the medical director of MemorialCare Surgical Weight Loss Center at Orange Coast Medical Center in Fountain Valley, California, says that he often encourages patients to lose weight before surgeries as a way to reduce risks of post-surgical complications. Ali does not recommend patients follow the Dr. Now diet specifically, but suggests eating patterns with reduced calories, carbs and sugar as these can promote fat loss.

According to Ali, some of the benefits of weight loss before bariatric surgery include:

• Shrinking the size of the liver. This is because doctors will have a harder time operating on people with larger, fatty livers, as the liver can block the view of the stomach.
• Making it easier for patients to meet weight-loss goals after surgery.

Ideally, a patient can lose 5% to 10% of their body weight before surgery to reap the above benefits and reduce the above risks, he adds. This can be doable if people are dedicated to a diet, but doesn't happen for everyone.

In a 2015 study published in the Annals of Surgery, researchers evaluated 22,327 patients undergoing gastric bypass and found that preoperative weight loss was associated with a 13% reduction of complication risks. In addition, a 2020 study published by JAMA Network Open demonstrated that even modest weight loss of less than 5% of one's body weight before bariatric surgery was associated with a lower 30-day risk of mortality.

However, recent reviews of studies have not yielded conclusive evidence to support the practice, according to researchers of a 2020 paper published in the Cureus Journal of Medical Science. Additionally, a 2021 study published in the Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery didn't find a clear relationship between preoperative weight loss and bariatric surgery outcomes. The study found that greater weight loss before surgery was associated with only a mild decrease in length of stay, but the findings did not show a reduction in operative time, overall complication rates, intensive care unit admissions or complications during surgery.

Dr. Now diet cons

Some cons of the Dr. Now diet long term include:

• Nutritional deficiencies.
• Malnourishment.
• Rebound weight gain.
• Slowed metabolism.
• Muscle loss.

Unless you are preparing to undergo bariatric surgery, the Dr. Now diet is not a good fit for you. Even if you are, this diet should be followed under the supervision of your bariatric dietitian and surgeon.

Even for people preparing for bariatric surgery, extreme dieting can have consequences long term. Ali does not recommend patients stay on these for longer than a month or two before surgery, depending on the individual.

“Following a restrictive diet like this long term can increase the risk of nutrient deficiencies, as well as lead to disordered eating patterns ,” explains Erin Palinski-Wade, a registered dietitian based in Sparta, New Jersey. “This is a medically supervised weight-loss plan and should not be attempted by individuals on their own without the guidance of a physician and dietitian.”

"The other downside is because it is so restrictive, when patients stop this diet, there's a rebound effect and they can easily regain weight after stopping a diet," Ali says.

After surgery, he discourages continuing the Dr. Now or similarly low-calorie diet .

"For patients who are getting ready for surgery, it's reasonable because it's short term," Ali adds. "After surgery – which is a tool helping them to reduce their intake – we still recommend being careful with carbohydrates and sugars, but we don't give them specific numbers."

The slew of downsides that accompany the Dr. Now diet may discourage some people from pursuing it in the future, says Lisa Jones, a registered dietitian based in Philadelphia.

Further, because rapid weight loss can have health implications, she adds that consulting health care professionals is critical before undergoing a restrictive diet .

Is the Dr. Now Diet Effective or Sustainable for Weight Loss?

The Dr. Now diet is a very restrictive, low-calorie meal plan that is not designed to be followed for extended periods of time or by those who are not undergoing weight-loss surgery, experts say.

A diet of only 1,200 calories is by no means sustainable for most people. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend a number closer to 1,600 to 2,400 calories a day for women and about 2,000 to 3,000 calories a day for men. Exact recommendations will vary based on your age, gender, how physically active you are and your metabolism.

You can use U.S. News' calorie counter to estimate the number of calories you need a day to maintain or lose weight. Chances are, you can eat a lot more than 1,200 calories a day and still shed a few pounds.

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In addition to being unsustainable in the short term, ultra low-calorie diets can cause weight gain in the long run by slowing down your metabolism. Also, once you return to normal eating patterns, if those eating patterns are unhealthy or not well-balanced, weight regain is more likely to happen.

"Failing to supply your body with adequate calories can lead to fatigue, malnutrition and even a weakened immune system," Jones says. "Without receiving the right balance of calorie intake, the everyday functioning of the body can be severely impaired."

These diets can also put people at risk for nutrient deficiencies, heart problems and muscle loss.

To know if you qualify for this diet, Ellis stresses the need to defer to their medical doctor. "This diet is so restrictive that it is important that they be medically stable and have no vitamin and mineral deficiencies," she says.

If you're not a good candidate for bariatric surgery but are still interested in shedding some pounds, WeightWatchers , the Volumetrics diet and the DASH diet all rank among the U.S. News' 2024 best diets for weight loss .

What Is Bariatric Surgery?

Bariatric surgery refers to a number of procedures performed on the digestive tract designed to help people with obesity lose weight.

"Bariatric surgery can have a positive impact on your lifestyle practices, provide the opportunity to manage your weight and eliminate underlying health issues," Jones says. "It seeks to reduce the volume of the stomach and, in turn, restricts how much food you can consume. By changing what, when and how much you eat, bariatric surgery can lead to long-term positive outcomes for patients."

Successful weight loss from the surgery can improve chronic conditions associated with obesity, including:

• Sleep apnea.
• Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.
• Hypertension.
• Heart disease.
• Type 2 diabetes.
• Joint and back pain.

You may be a good candidate for bariatric surgery if you:

• Have unsuccessfully tried to lose weight with diet and exercise for a sustained period of time.
• Have been clinically diagnosed with class III obesity or have a BMI of 40 or over.
• Have a BMI of 35, but you're experiencing health complications related to obesity.

As a rule of thumb, a good candidate would be within 100 pounds of their ideal body weight, experts say.

Types of Bariatric Surgery

There are several types of bariatric surgery, including:

• Gastric bypass.
• Sleeve gastrectomy.
• Duodenal switch.

Gastric bypass

Also referred to as Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, gastric bypass reduces the size of your stomach. Surgeons create a small pouch using the top part of your stomach. The bypass involves connecting a small portion of your small intestine, or jejunum, to a hole in this new pouch, allowing food to travel from the pouch straight to your small intestine.

Because the pouch is much smaller than your stomach, it makes you feel full after a much smaller amount of food. When your weight-loss goal is achieved, gastric bypass is reversible, but your doctor may advise you on whether or not that's a good choice in your case.

Sleeve gastrectomy

This type of surgery involves removing about three-quarters of your stomach. What remains is a tube- or sleeve-shaped section, which can only contain a fraction of the food it used to. This procedure is permanent.

Duodenal switch

Officially known as biliopancreatic diversion with duodenal switch, this approach combines some features of sleeve gastrectomy and gastric bypass. Bariatric surgeons remove part of the stomach and small intestine to shorten the intestinal route food travels through the system. As a result, this restricts your stomach's capacity to hold food, limits how much your small intestine can absorb nutrients and prevents your body from producing hunger hormones. This procedure is reversible.

Although it is the most complicated type of bariatric surgery and, therefore, carries more risk, it is also considered one of the most effective in helping people lose weight and treating related conditions.

Laparoscopic gastric banding, a procedure also known as an adjustable and removable gastric band, involves the placement of a soft implant that includes an expandable balloon around the top of your stomach. This divides the stomach into two sections, and you can only eat enough food to fill the top part.

Best bariatric surgery option for you

Bariatric surgeons consider an array of factors when helping patients decide which option is the best for them.

"Most bariatric surgery practices in the U.S. perform either gastric bypass or sleeve gastrectomy, and the decision is one that should be mutually decided upon by the surgeon and patient together," says Dr. Erik P. Dutson, surgical director of the Center for Obesity and Metabolic Health at the University of California, Los Angeles. "The overwhelming number of patients will do well with either operation. However, a smaller number of patients should not get one or the other based on medical conditions."

For example, he says, larger patients, patients with diabetes in more advanced stages and patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease – a disorder in which stomach contents come back up through the lower valve of the esophagus – tend to do better with the gastric bypass.

Patients taking immunosuppressants – whether for cancer , organ transplantation or autoimmune diseases – tend to do better with sleeve gastrectomy.

"Ultimately, an evaluation by a trained medical specialist is necessary to determine if an individual is right for this kind of procedure," Jones says.

While bariatric surgery is effective, it is by no means a quick or simple fix. It's a major procedure that carries the risk of bleeding or perforation, blood clots , bowel obstruction, problems with malabsorption, hernia and other serious side effects.

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