transition metals essay

Transition Metals Essay

1.INTRODUCTION: 1.1 Transition metals:- The element having partially filled d or f sub shell with any common oxidation states are known as transition metal elements. Mostly d-block elements are known as transition elements. The f-block lanthanides and actinides are known as inner transition elements. They are surrounded by s & p-block elements. These are known as transition metals as they represents the transition i.e.the change from metallic character of s-block elements to non metallic character of p-block elements. The typical electronic structure of transition metal atoms can be written as []ns2(n-1)dm . General properties: High melting point metals. Hard,strong,malleable,ductile and have high density. Good conductors of heat and electricity. Several oxidation states. Usually form coloured compounds. Often paramagnetics. 1.2 Transition metal oxides:- Transition metal oxides are belongs to the class of material that contain transition element and oxygen . They contain insulator as well as metal are included under this category. Transition metal oxides have a useful application in a wide variety of technologically important catalytic processes. For example:- selective oxidation, reduction and dehydrogenation. A promising family of mixed transition metal oxides designated as AxB3-xO4(A,B=Co,Ni,Zn,Mn,Fe etc.) play significant role for low cost and environmentally friendly energy storage & conservation technology. 1.3 Perovskite structure:- [Cubic perovskite unit cell. Blue spheres represent the A cations, yellow spheres represent the B cations, and red spheres represent oxygen anions forming an octahedra.] Perovskite structure is any material having crystal structure of the form XIIA2+ VIB4+X2−3. Ge... ... middle of paper ... ...nductor materials that exhibit both ferromagnetism and useful semiconductor properties. when implemented in devices, these materials provides a new type of control of conduction. Traditiona electronics are based on control of charge carriers (n- or p-type), practical magnetic semiconductor allowes control of quantum spin state (up or down). This would theoretically provide near-total spin polarization Aim of the project work:- Here we have synthesized perovskite compound of the form LaXO3(X=Co,Ni,Fe,Cr) & La2XMnO6. The former one shows diamagnetic & insulating properties,where as the later one shows ferromagnetic & semiconductor properties at room temperature.as semiconductor material has wide range of application in thermistor,hall probe arrangement,photoelectronic devices,semiconductor devices and the ferromagnetic property will help in good conductivity.

In this essay, the author

• Explains that transition metal elements have a partially filled d or f sub shell with any common oxidation states. they are surrounded by s & p-block elements.
• Explains that transition metal oxides contain transition element and oxygen, insulator as well as metal, and have useful applications in a wide variety of technologically important catalytic processes.
• Explains that size effects, deviations from the ideal composition, and the jahn-teller effect are responsible for the distortion.
• Explains that in the ideal cubic case the cell axis, a, is geometrically related to the ionic radii.
• Explains that the goldschmidt's tolerance factor t allows us to estimate the degree of distortion based on ionic radii.
• Explains that perovskites show magnetism or orbital (electronic) ordering phenomena with transition metal ion that have unfilled 3d electron shells. hopping and superexchange of these electrons takes place via oxygen sites due to the overlap of the respective wave function.
• Explains that the structure of abx3 perovskite family has wide research attention due to its structural variation, which result in important physical properties which are useful in:
• Explains that substituting cation b' for b leads to solid ab1-xb’xx3, but if x 0.5 b & b’ are sufficiently different in charge and size, they are called double perovskites.
• Explains the nature of antiferromagnetic materials, and how they behave in an applied magnetic field depending upon the temperature.
• Explains that they have synthesized perovskite compounds of the form laxo3(x=co,ni,fe,cr) & la2xmno6.
• Explains that perovskite structure is any material having crystal structure of the form xiia2+ vib4+x23. the ideal cubic-symmetry structure has the b cation in 6-fold coordination, surrounded by an octahedron
• Explains that the valency of fe ions can be changed by heating a sample in either an oxidizing or reducing environment. the oxygen content can vary between 2.5 and 3.
• Explains that in some perovskites the distortion of the structure can be assigned to jahn – teller active ions at the b position.
• Explains that magnetic materials show spontaneous magnetization. they are known as permanent magnets. magnetic semiconductors exhibit both ferromagnetism and useful semiconductor properties.

Click here to unlock this and over one million essays

Analysis Of The Stavelot Triptych

The structure is a combination of three triptychs in one, which are all enamel. There is the overall triptych, which is Mosan, and then there

Exploring the Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigeration Cycle

Gadolinium and its performance were limited by the use of passive regenerators and heat exchangers in the refrigeration cycle [25]. So, a magnetic refrigeration device must utilize a regenerative process to produce a large enough temperature span to be useful for refrigeration purposes [26].

Magnetic Levitation and Propulsion through Synchronous Linear Motors

2. Liang Chi Shen and Jin Au Kong, Applied Electromagnetism, 3rd ed. PWS Publishing Company, 1995.

...l commercially used magnet. The outcome of this in-balance causes a massive overlap in competition between China and other countries interested in rare earths (China). Lucky for China though, most rare earth industries focus on NdFeB and other such materials.

Ionic Compounds Essay

We have to emphasize the importance of memorizing certain names and formulas and some prefixes and suffixes that are used in building a system of nomenclature. From there on, it is a matter of applying the system to different names and formulas you meet. The summary all the ideas that will be presented in this essay help you to learn the nomenclature system.

Perovskite Structure: An Analysis Of The Structure Of Barium Titanate

Barium titanate is chemical compound with formula (BaTiO3) ,has perovskite structure (a group of crystalline material take it name from natural mineral perovskite (CaTiO3) with typical formula ABO3.[35] In barium titanate, (Ba:A) ion has large size (r=1.35 A), it located at the corner of unit cell and it is encompassed by (12) oxygen ion, oxygen are bound to both cation and it located at the center cubic face. While (Ti:B) are small in size (r=0.68 A), occupy the center of unit cell and are surrounded by (6) oxygen ion forming a octahedral site( TiO6). Barium titanate is formed by linking the corners of (TiO6) formed large dodecahedron hole with Ba+2 are fit at the center of the hole.[36]

Transition Metal Oxide Essay

...gnetic. This new magnetic state stems from the fact that the spins are interacting by the double exchange interaction. Subsequently the insulating state changes to semiconductor. Furthermore, the general concept is that ferromagnetic materials favours metalicity.

Platium: It´s Chemical Properties

Electronic configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14 5s2 5p6 5d9 6s1

Analysis Of Barium Hexaferrites

such as Sr, Ba, and Pb or a mixture of these [12]. Barium hexaferrites (BaFe12O19) with a magnetoplumbite structure are well known as hard magnetic materials which are based on iron oxides. Hexagonal ferrites are referred to as hard because the direction of magnetization cannot be changed easily to another axis [].Barium ferrite possesses relatively high Curie temperature,

Niobium Research Paper

Niobium is a metal element. The elemental properties of Niobium are that is a ductile metal, it has a grey color, with a lustrous shine.

A Magnet Research Paper

The four different types of magnets are: ceramic magnets, alnico magnets, neodymium magnets, and samarium cobalt. Ceramic magnets contain iron oxide in a ceramic composite and are the ones used in refrigerators. Ceramic magnets, also known as ferric magnets, are fairly weak. Alnico magnets are made of aluminum, nickel, and cobalt. Alnico magnets are much stronger than ceramic magnets, but are not stronger than magnets that contain rare-earth metals. Neodymium magnets contain iron, boron and neodymium. Neodymium is a rare-earth metal. Samarium cobalt magnets are made of cobalt and the rare-earth element samarium. Scientist have also discovered plastic magnets, known as magnetic polymer. However, some only work at very low

Essay On Magnetic Materials

Semi-hard magnets can be regarded as a special category of permanent magnets which are used for analog and digital magnetic recording.

An Atomic Orbital

sort of 3D map of the places that the electron is likely to be found.

Importance Of Wheel Speed Sensor

Perm-alloy is usually used material for magneto-resistive sensors because of mainly two reasons. First is due to its high magneto-resistive coefficient. Secondly its characteristics are suitable with the fabrication techniques which help to make silicon integrated circuits. Perm-alloy consists of 20%Fe and 80%Ni. Fig.7 shows typical magneto-resistive curve for perm-alloy. Resistance will change only 2% under saturation condition [11-15].

Metals And Metal Alloy Essay

Metals possess many unique fundamental properties that make them an ideal material for use in a diverse range of applications. Many common place things know today are made from metals; bridges, utensils, vehicles of all modes of transport, contain some form of metal or metallic compound. Properties such as high tensile strength, high fracture toughness, malleability and availability are just some of the many advantages associated with metals. Metals, accompanied by their many compounds and alloys, similar properties, high and low corrosion levels, and affects, whether negative or positive, are a grand force to be reckoned with.

More about Transition Metals Essay

Related topics.

• Transition metal
• Valence electron
• Electron configuration

Login Get started

Science Review of Transition Metals

• June 10, 2016
• No Comments

The transition metals occupy a large area on the periodic table.  They all appear to have similar metallic properties, because of the way their electron shells are filled.   Many transition metals form brightly colored compounds, especially in solution.  The transition metal group includes common elements such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), gold (Au), and silver (Ag).

The Periodic Table and Transition Metals

Transition metals are also called transition elements.  They are in Groups 3B through 2B, or 3 -12 of the periodic table, occupying the space between the alkali earth metals on the left and the true metals on the right.  They are a very large group of 38 elements.  Also, chemists usually consider the elements in the lanthanide and actinide series as inner transition elements.  There are so many of them that they are usually in a special configuration under the main periodic table.

Properties of Transition Metals

Transition metals are usually solids (except for mercury which is liquid at room temperature), often with high melting and boiling points.  They are shiny, metallic, dense, and are often excellent conductors of both heat and electricity.  Some transition metals, such as gold and platinum, do not react easily with oxygen, so they resist oxidation, while iron, another transition metal, rusts easily.  Technically, transition metals are in the d-block of the periodic table.

By definition, transition metals form various types of compounds by giving up different numbers of electrons from their incomplete d shells.  For example, sometimes iron gives up 2 electrons and sometimes it gives up 3 when it is oxidized.  Trace amounts of transition metals in compounds color paint pigments.  Traces of iron color citrine yellow and jade green, and traces of chromium color rubies red.  Some of the most unusual colors are caused when transition metals are dissolved in liquid (aqueous) solution.

Types of Transition Metals

The 38 elements include some of the most well-known metals.  For example, iron (Fe) is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth’s crust and one of the most widely used in manufacturing.  Since pure iron is a soft metal, it is usually alloyed with other elements to make it harder, often as steel.  Iron is also essential to life, as it is contained in hemoglobin for vertebrates and in plant cells.  Copper (Cu) is used in electrical wiring, as it is one of the best conductors, in alloys such as bronze, and even in copper pipes.  Nickel (Ni) is used in alloys, especially with iron, in coins, and is essential to life in some enzymes.  The transition metals are also excellent catalysts.

Interested in science tutoring services ? Learn more about how we are assisting thousands of students each academic year.

SchoolTutoring Academy is the premier educational services company for K-12 and college students. We offer tutoring programs for students in K-12, AP classes, and college. To learn more about how we help parents and students in Atlantic City, NJ visit: Tutoring in Atlantic City, NJ

Science Review of Alkaline Earth Metals

Science review of mercury.

• Earth and Environment
• Literature and the Arts
• Philosophy and Religion
• Plants and Animals
• Science and Technology
• Social Sciences and the Law
• Sports and Everyday Life
• Additional References

• News wires white papers and books

Transition Metals

Transition metals.

By far the largest family of elements is the one known as the transition metals, sometimes called transition elements . These occupy the "dip" in the periodic table between the "tall" sets of columns or groups on either side. Consisting of 10 columns and four rows or periods, the transition metals are usually numbered at 40. With the inclusion of the two rows of transition metals in the lanthanide and actinide series respectively, however, they account for 68 elements — considerably more than half of the periodic table . The transition metals include some of the most widely known and commonly used elements, such as iron — which, along with fellow transition metals nickel and cobalt, is one of only three elements known to produce a magnetic field. Likewise, zinc, copper, and mercury are household words, while cadmium, tungsten, chromium, manganese, and titanium are at least familiar. Other transition metals, such as rhenium or hafnium, are virtually unknown to anyone who is not scientifically trained. The transition metals include the very newest elements, created in laboratories, and some of the oldest, known since the early days of civilization. Among these is gold, which, along with platinum and silver, is one of several precious metals in this varied family.

HOW IT WORKS

Two numbering systems for the periodic table.

The periodic table of the elements, developed in 1869 by Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovitch Mendeleev (1834-1907), is discussed in several places within this volume. Within the table, elements are arranged in columns, or groups, as well as in periods, or rows.

As discussed in the Periodic Table of Elements essay, two basic versions of the chart, differing primarily in their method of number groups, are in use today. The North American system numbers only eight groups — corresponding to the representative or main-group elements — leaving the 10 columns representing the transition metals unnumbered. On the other hand, the IUPAC system, approved by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), numbers all 18 columns. Both versions of the periodic table show seven periods.

In general, this book applies the North American system, in part because it is the version used in most American classrooms. Additionally, the North American system relates group number to the number of valence electrons in the outer shell of the atom for the element represented. Hence the number of valence electrons (a subject discussed below as it relates to the transition metals) for Group 8 is also eight. Yet where the transition metals are concerned, the North American system is less convenient than the IUPAC system.

ATTEMPTS TO ADJUST THE NORTH AMERICAN SYSTEM.

In addressing the transition metals, there is no easy way to apply the North American system's correspondence between the number of valence electrons and the group number. Some versions of the North American system do, however, make an attempt. These equate the number of valence electrons in the transition metals to a group number, and distinguish these by adding a letter "B."

Thus the noble gases are placed in Group 8A or VIIIA because they are a main-group family with eight valence electrons, whereas the transition metal column beginning with iron (Group 8 in the IUPAC system) is designated 8B or VIIIB. But this adjustment to the North American system only makes things more cumbersome, because Group VIIIB also includes two other columns — ones with nine and 10 valence electrons respectively.

VALUE OF THE IUPAC SYSTEM.

Obviously, then, the North American system — while it is useful in other ways, and as noted, is applied elsewhere in this book — is not as practical for discussing the transition metals. Of course, one could simply dispense with the term "group" altogether, and simply refer to the columns on the periodic table as columns. To do so, however, is to treat the table simply as a chart, rather than as a marvelously ordered means of organizing the elements.

It makes much more sense to apply the IUPAC system and to treat the transition metals as belonging to groups 3 through 12. This is particularly useful in this context, because those group numbers do correspond to the numbers of valence electrons. Scandium, in group 3 (hence-forth all group numbers refer to the IUPAC version), has three valence electrons; likewise zinc, in Group 12, has 12. Neither the IUPAC nor the North American system provide group numbers for the lanthanides and actinides, known collectively as the inner transition metals.

THE TRANSITION METALS BY IUPAC GROUP NUMBER.

Here, then, is the list of the transition metals by group number, as designated in the IUPAC system. Under each group heading are listed the four elements in that group, along with the atomic number , chemical symbol, and atomic mass figures for each, in atomic mass units.

Note that, because the fourth member in each group is radioactive and sometimes exists for only a few minutes or even seconds, mass figures are given merely for the most stable isotope. In addition, the last elements in groups 8, 9, and 10, as of 2001, had not received official names. For reasons that will be explained below, lanthanum and actinium, though included here, are discussed in other essays.

• 21. Scandium (Sc): 44.9559
• 39. Yttrium (Y): 88.9059
• 57. Lanthanum (La): 138.9055
• 89. Actinium (Ac): 227.0278
• 22. Titanium (Ti): 47.9
• 40. Zirconium (Zr): 91.22
• 72. Hafnium (Hf): 178.49
• 104. Rutherfordium (Rf): 261
• 23. Vanadium (V): 50.9415
• 41. Niobium (Nb): 92.9064
• 73. Tantalum (Ta): 180.9479
• 105. Dubnium (Db): 262
• 24. Chromium (Cr): 51.996
• 42. Molybdenum (Mo): 95.95
• 74. Tungsten (W): 183.85
• 106. Seaborgium (Sg): 263
• 25. Manganese (Mn): 54.938
• 43. Technetium (Tc): 98
• 75. Rhenium (Re): 186.207
• 107. Bohrium (Bh): 262
• 26. Iron (Fe): 55.847
• 44. Ruthenium (Ru): 101.07
• 76. Osmium (Os): 190.2
• 108. Hassium (Hs): 265
• 27. Cobalt (Co): 58.9332
• 45. Rhodium (Rh): 102.9055
• 77. Iridium (Ir): 192.22
• 109. Meitnerium (Mt): 266
• 28. Nickel (Ni): 58.7
• 46. Palladium (Pd): 106.4
• 78. Platinum (Pt): 195.09
• 110. Ununnilium (Uun): 271
• 29. Copper (Cu) : 63.546
• 47. Silver (Ag): 107.868
• 79. Gold (Au): 196.9665
• 111. Unununium (Uuu): 272
• 30. Zinc (Zn): 65.38
• 48. Cadmium (Cd): 112.41
• 80. Mercury (Hg): 200.59
• 112. Ununbium (Uub): 277

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

We can now begin to explain why transition metals are distinguished from other elements, and why the inner transition metals are further separated from the transition metals. This distinction relates not to period (row), but to group (column) — which, in turn, is defined by the configuration of valence electrons, or the electrons that are involved in chemical bonding. Valence electrons occupy the highest energy level, or shell, of the atom — which might be thought of as the orbit farthest from the nucleus. However, the term "orbit" is misleading when applied to the ways that an electron moves.

Electrons do not move around the nucleus of an atom in regular orbits, like planets around the Sun ; rather, their paths can only be loosely defined in terms of orbitals, a pattern of probabilities indicating the regions that an electron may occupy. The shape or pattern of orbitals is determined by the principal energy level of the atom, which indicates a distance that an electron may move away from the nucleus.

Principal energy level defines period: elements in Period 4, for instance, all have their valence electrons at principal energy level 4. The higher the number, the further the electron is from the nucleus, and hence, the greater the energy in the atom. Each principal energy level is divided into sublevels corresponding to the number n of the principal energy level: thus, principal energy level 4 has four sublevels, principal energy level 5 has five, and so on.

ORBITAL PATTERNS.

The four basic types of orbital patterns are designated as s, p, d, and f. The s shape might be described as spherical, which means that in an s orbital, the total electron cloud will probably end up being more or less like a sphere.

The p shape is like a figure eight around the nucleus; the d like two figure eights meeting at the nucleus; and the f orbital pattern is so complex that most basic chemistry textbooks do not even attempt to explain it. In any case, these orbital patterns do not indicate the exact path of an electron. Think of it, instead, in this way: if you could take millions of photographs of the electron during a period of a few seconds, the resulting blur of images in a p orbital, for instance, would somewhat describe the shape of a figure eight.

Since the highest energy levels of the transition metals begin at principal energy level 4, we will dispense with a discussion of the first three energy levels. The reader is encouraged to consult the Electrons essay, as well as the essay on Families of Elements, for a more detailed discussion of the ways in which these energy levels are filled for elements on periods 1 through 3.

Orbital Filling and the Periodic Table

If all elements behaved as they "should," the pattern of orbital filling would be as follows. In a given principal energy level, first the two slots available to electrons on the s sublevel are filled, then the six slots on the p sublevel, then the 10 slots on the d sublevel. The f sublevel, which is fourth to be filled, comes into play only at principal energy level 4, and it would be filled before elements began adding valence electrons to the s sublevel on the next principal energy level.

That might be the way things "should" happen, but it is not the way that they do happen. The list that follows shows the pattern by which orbitals are filled from sublevel 3 p onward. Following each sublevel, in parentheses, is the number of "slots" available for electrons in that shell. Note that in several places, the pattern of filling defies the ideal order described in the preceding paragraph.

Orbital Filling by Principal Energy Level and Sublevel from 3 p Onward:

The 44 representative elements follow a regular pattern of orbital filling through the first 18 elements. By atomic number 18, argon, 3 p has been filled, and at that point element 19 (potassium) would be expected to begin filling row 3 d. However, instead it begins filling 4 s, to which calcium (20) adds the second and last valence electron. It is here that we come to the transition metals, distinguished by the fact that they fill the d orbitals.

Note that none of the representative elements up to this point, or indeed any that follow, fill the d orbital. (The d orbital could not come into play before Period 3 anyway, because at least three sublevels — corresponding to principal energy level 3 — are required in order for there to be a d orbital.) In any case, when the representative elements fill the p orbitals of a given energy level, they skip the d orbital and go on to the next principal energy level, filling the s orbitals. Filling of the d orbital on the preceding energy level only occurs with the transition metals: in other words, on period 4, transition metals fill the 3 d sublevel, and so on as the period numbers increase.

Distinguishing the Transition Metals

Given the fact that it is actually the representative elements that skip the d sublevels, and the transition metals that go back and fill them, one might wonder if the names "representative" and "transition" (implying an interruption) should be reversed. But it is the transition metals that are the exception to the rule, for two reasons. First of all, as we have seen, they are the only elements that fill the d orbitals.

Secondly, they are the only elements whose outer-shell electrons are on two different principal energy levels. The orbital filling patterns of transition metals can be identified thus: n s (n-1) d , where n is the number of the period on which the element is located. For instance, zinc, on period 4, has an outer shell of 4 s 2 3 d 10 . In other words, it has two electrons on principal energy level 4, sublevel 4 s — as it "should." But it also has 10 electrons on principal energy level 3, sublevel 3 d. In effect, then, the transition metals "go back" and fill in the d orbitals of the preceding period.

There are further complications in the patterns of orbital filling for the transition metals, which will only be discussed in passing here as a further explanation as to why these elements are not "representative." Most of them have two s valence electrons, but many have one, and palladium has zero. Nor do they add their d electrons in regular patterns. Moving across period 4, for instance, the number of electrons in the d orbital "should" increase in increments of 1, from 1 to 10. Instead the pattern goes like this: 1, 2, 3, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 10.

LANTHANIDES AND ACTINIDES.

The lanthanides and actinides are set apart even further from the transition metals. In most versions of the periodic table, lanthanum (57) is followed by hafnium (72) in the transition metals section of the chart. Similarly, actinium (89) is followed by rutherfordium (104). The "missing" metals — lanthanides and actinides respectively — are listed at the bottom of the chart. There are reasons for this, as well as for the names of these groups.

After the 6 s orbital fills with the representative element barium (56), lanthanum does what a transition metal does — it begins filling the 5 d orbital. But after lanthanum, something strange happens: cerium (58) quits filling 5 d, and moves to fill the 4 f orbital. The filling of that orbital continues throughout the entire lanthanide series , all the way to lutetium (71). Thus lanthanides can be defined as those metals that fill the 4 f orbital; however, because lanthanum exhibits similar properties, it is usually included with the lanthanides.

A similar pattern occurs for the actinides. The 7 s orbital fills with radium (88), after which actinium (89) begins filling the 6 d orbital. Next comes thorium, first of the actinides, which begins the filling of the 5 f orbital. This is completed with element 103, lawrencium. Actinides can thus be defined as those metals that fill the 5 f orbital; but again, because actinium exhibits similar properties, it is usually included with the actinides.

REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS

Survey of the transition metals.

The fact that the transition elements are all metals means that they are lustrous or shiny in appearance, and malleable, meaning that they can be molded into different shapes without breaking. They are excellent conductors of heat and electricity, and tend to form positive ions by losing electrons.

Generally speaking, metals are hard, though a few of the transition metals — as well as members of other metal families — are so soft they can be cut with a knife. Like almost all metals, they tend to have fairly high melting points, and extremely high boiling points.

Many of the transition metals, particularly those on periods 4, 5, and 6, form useful alloys — mixtures containing more than one metal — with one another, and with other elements. Because of their differences in electron configuration, however, they do not always combine in the same ways, even within an element. Iron, for instance, sometimes releases two electrons in chemical bonding, and at other times three.

ABUNDANCE OF THE TRANSITION METALS.

Iron is the fourth most abundant element on Earth , accounting for 4.71% of the elemental mass in the planet's crust. Titanium ranks 10th, with 0.58%, and manganese 13th, with 0.09%. Several other transition metals are comparatively abundant: even gold is much more abundant than many other elements on the periodic table. However, given the fact that only 18 elements account for 99.51% of Earth's crust, the percentages for elements outside of the top 18 tend to very small.

In the human body, iron is the 12th most abundant element, constituting 0.004% of the body's mass. Zinc follows it, at 13th place, accounting for 0.003%. Again, these percentages may not seem particularly high, but in view of the fact that three elements — oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen — account for 93% of human elemental body mass, there is not much room for the other 10 most common elements in the body. Transition metals such as copper are present in trace quantities within the body as well.

DIVIDING THE TRANSITION METALS INTO GROUPS.

There is no easy way to group the transition metals, though certain of these elements are traditionally categorized together. These do not constitute "families" as such, but they do provide useful ways to break down the otherwise rather daunting 40-element lineup of the transition metals.

In two cases, there is at least a relation between group number on the periodic table and the categories loosely assigned to a collection of transition metals. Thus the "coinage metals" — copper, silver, and gold — all occupy Group 9 on the periodic table. These have traditionally been associated with one another because their resistance to oxidation, combined with their malleability and beauty, has made them useful materials for fashioning coins.

Likewise the members of the "zinc group" — zinc, cadmium, and mercury — occupy Group 10 on the periodic table. These, too, have often been associated as a miniature unit due to common properties. Members of the "platinum group" — platinum, iridium, osmium, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium — occupy a rectangle on the table, corresponding to periods 5 and 6, and groups 6 through 8. What actually makes them a "group," however, is the fact that they tend to appear together in nature.

Iron, nickel, and cobalt, found alongside one another on Period 4, may be grouped together because they are all magnetic to some degree or another. This is far from the only notable characteristic about such metals, but provides a convenient means of further dividing the transition metals into smaller sections.

To the left of iron on the periodic table is a rectangle corresponding to periods 4 through 6, groups 4 through 7. These 11 elements — titanium, zirconium, hafnium, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, and rhenium — are referred to here as "alloy metals." This is not a traditional designation, but it is nonetheless useful for describing these metals, most of which form important alloys with iron and other elements.

One element was left out of the "rectangle" described in the preceding paragraph. This is technetium, which apparently does not occur in nature. It is lumped in with a final category, "rare and artificial elements."

It should be stressed that there is nothing hard and fast about these categories. The "alloy metals" are not the only ones that form alloys; nickel is used in coins, though it is not called a coinage metal; and platinum could be listed with gold and silver as "precious metals." Nonetheless, the categories used here seem to provide the most workable means of approaching the many transition metals.

Coinage Metals

Gold almost needs no introduction: virtually everyone knows of its value, and history is full of stories about people who killed or died for this precious metal. Part of its value springs from its rarity in comparison to, say iron: gold is present on Earth's crust at a level of about 5 parts per billion (ppb). Yet as noted earlier, it is more abundant than some metals. Furthermore, due to the fact that it is highly unreactive (reactivity refers to the tendency for bonds between atoms or molecules to be made or broken in such a way that materials are transformed), it tends to be easily separated from other elements.

This helps to explain the fact that gold may well have been the first element ever discovered. No ancient metallurgist needed a laboratory in which to separate gold; indeed, because it so often keeps to itself, it is called a "noble" metal — meaning, in this context, "set apart." Another characteristic of gold that made it valuable was its great malleability. In fact, gold is the most malleable of all metals: A single troy ounce (31.1 g) can be hammered into a sheet just 0.00025 in (0.00064 cm) thick, covering 68 ft 2 (6.3 m 2 ).

Gold is one of the few metals that is not silver, gray, or white, and its beautifully distinctive color caught the eyes of metalsmiths and royalty from the beginning of civilization. Records from India dating back to 5000 b.c. suggest a familiarity with gold, and jewelry found in Egyptian tombs indicates the use of sophisticated techniques among the goldsmiths of Egypt as early as 2600 b.c. Likewise the Bible mentions gold in several passages. The Romans called it aurum ("shining dawn"), which explains its chemical symbol, Au.

Early chemistry had its roots among the medieval alchemists, who sought in vain to turn plain metals into gold. Likewise the history of European conquest in the New World is filled with bitter tales of conquistadors, lured by gold, who wiped out entire nations of native peoples.

At one time, gold was used in coins, and nations gauged the value of their currency in terms of the gold reserves they possessed. Few coins today — with special exceptions, such as the South African Krugerrand — are gold. Likewise the United States , for instance, went off the gold standard (that is, ceased to tie its currency to gold reserves) in the 1930s; nonetheless, the federal government maintains a vast supply of gold bullion at Fort Knox in Kentucky .

Gold is as popular as ever for jewelry and other decorative objects, of course, but for the most part, it is too soft to have many other commercial purposes. One of the few applications for gold, a good conductor of electricity, is in some electronic components. Also, the radioactive gold-198 isotope is sometimes implanted in tissues as a means of treating forms of cancer.

Like gold, silver has been a part of human life from earliest history. Usually it is considered less valuable, though some societies have actually placed a higher value on silver because it is harder and more durable than gold. In the seventh century b.c., the Lydian civilization of Asia Minor (now Turkey ) created the first coins using silver, and in the sixth century b.c., the Chinese began making silver coins. Succeeding dynasties in China continued to mint these coins, round with square holes in them, until the early twentieth century.

The Romans called silver argentum, and therefore today its chemical symbol is Ag. Its uses are much more varied than those of gold, both because of its durability and the fact that it is less expensive. Alloyed with copper, which adds strength to it, it makes sterling silver, used in coins, silverware, and jewelry. Silver nitrate compounds are used in silver plating, applied in mirrors and tableware. (Most mirrors today, however, use aluminum.)

Like gold, silver was once widely used for coinage, and silver coins are still more common than their gold counterparts. In 1963, however, the United States withdrew its silver certifications, paper currency exchangeable for silver. Today, silver coins are generally issued in special situations, such as to commemorate an event.

A large portion of the world's silver supply is used by photographers for developing pictures. In addition, because it is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity, silver has applications in the electronics industry; however, its expense has led many manufacturers to use copper or aluminum instead. Silver is also present, along with zinc and cadmium, in cadmium batteries. Like gold, though to a much lesser extent, it is still an important jewelry-making component.

Most people think of pennies as containing copper, but in fact the penny is the only American coin that contains no copper alloys. Because the amount of copper necessary to make a penny today costs more than $0.01, a penny is actually made of zinc with a thin copper coating. Yet copper has long been a commonly used coinage metal, and long before that, humans used it for other purposes.

Seven thousand years ago, the peoples of the Tigris-Euphrates river valleys, in what is now Iraq , were mining and using copper, and later civilizations combined copper with zinc to make bronze. Indeed, the history of prehistoric and ancient humans' technological development is often divided according to the tools they made, the latter two of which came from transition metals: the Stone Age , the Bronze Age (c. 3300-1200 b.c.), and the Iron Age .

Thus, by the time the Romans dubbed copper cuprum (from whence its chemical symbol, Cu, comes), copper in various forms had long been in use. Today copper is purified by a form of electrolysis, in which impurities such as iron, nickel, arsenic, and zinc are removed. Other "impurities" often present in copper ore include gold, silver, and platinum, and the separation of these from the copper pays for the large amounts of electricity used in the electrolytic process.

Like the other coinage metals, copper is an extremely efficient conductor of heat and electricity, and because it is much less expensive than the other two, pure copper is widely used for electrical wiring. Because of its ability to conduct heat, copper is also applied in materials used for making heaters, as well as for cookware. Due to the high conductivity of copper, a heated copper pan has a uniform temperature, but copper pots must be coated with tin because too much copper in food is toxic.

Copper is also like its two close relatives in that it resists corrosion, and this makes it ideal for plumbing. Its use in making coins resulted from its anti-corrosive qualities, combined with its beauty: like gold, copper has a distinctive color. This aesthetic quality led to the use of copper in decorative applications as well: many old buildings used copper roofs, and the Statue of Liberty is covered in 300 thick copper plates.

Why, then, is the famous statue not copper-colored? Because copper does eventually corrode when exposed to air for long periods of time. Over time, it develops a thin layer of black copper oxide, and as the years pass, carbon dioxide in the air leads to the formation of copper carbonate, which imparts a greenish color.

The human body is about 0.0004% copper, though as noted, larger quantities of copper can be toxic. Copper is found in foods such as shell-fish, nuts, raisins, and dried beans. Whereas human blood has hemoglobin, a molecule with an iron atom at the center, the blood of lobsters and other large crustaceans contains hemocyanin, in which copper performs a similar function.

The Zinc Group

Together with copper, zinc appeared in another alloy that, like bronze, helped define the ancient world: brass. (The latter is mentioned in the Bible, for instance in the Book of Daniel, when King Nebuchadnezzar dreams of a statue containing brass and other substances, symbolizing various empires.) Used at least from the first millennium b.c. onward, brass appeared in coins and ornaments throughout Asia Minor . Though it is said that the Chinese purified zinc in about a.d. 1000, the Swiss alchemist Paracelsus (1493-1541) is usually credited with first describing zinc as a metal.

Bluish-white, with a lustrous sheen, zinc is found primarily in the ore sulfide sphalerite. The largest natural deposits of zinc are in Australia and the United States , and after mining, the metal is subjected to a purification and reduction process involving carbon. Zinc is used in galvanized steel, developed in the eighteenth century by Italian physicist Luigi Galvani (1737-1798).

Just as a penny is not really copper but zinc, "tin" roofs are usually made of galvanized steel. Highly resistant to corrosion, galvanized steel finds application in everything from industrial equipment to garbage cans. Zinc oxide is applied in textiles, batteries, paints, and rubber products, while luminous zinc sulfide appears in television screens, movie screens, clock dials, and fluorescent light bulbs.

Zinc phosphide is used as a rodent poison. Like several other transition metals, zinc is a part of many living things, yet it can be toxic in large quantities or specific compounds. For a human being, inhaling zinc oxide causes involuntary shaking. On the other hand, humans and many animals require zinc in their diets for the digestion of proteins. Furthermore, it is believed that zinc contributes to the healing of wounds and to the storage of insulin in the pancreas.

In 1817, German chemist Friedrich Strohmeyer (1776-1835) was working as an inspector of pharmacies for the German state of Hanover. While making his rounds, he discovered that one pharmacy had a sample of zinc carbonate labeled as zinc oxide , and while inspecting the chemical in his laboratory, he discovered something unusual. If indeed it were zinc carbonate, it should turn into zinc oxide when heated, and since both compounds were white, there should be no difference in color. Instead, the mysterious compound turned a yellowish-orange.

Strohmeyer continued to analyze the sample, and eventually realized that he had discovered a new element, which he named after the old Greek term for zinc carbonate, kadmeia. Indeed, cadmium typically appears in nature along with zinc or zinc compounds. Silvery white and lustrous or shiny, cadmium is soft enough to be cut with a knife, but chemically it behaves much like zinc: hence the idea of a "zinc group."

Today cadmium is used in batteries, and for electroplating of other metals to protect them against corrosion. Because the cost of cadmium is high due to the difficulty of separating it from zinc, cadmium electroplating is applied only in specialized situations. Cadmium also appears in the control rods of nuclear power plants, where its ready absorption of neutrons aids in controlling the rate at which nuclear fission occurs.

Cadmium is highly toxic, and is believed to be the cause behind the outbreak of itai-itai ("ouch-ouch") disease in Japan in 1955. People ingested rice oil contaminated with cadmium, and experienced a number of painful side effects associated with cadmium poisoning: nausea, vomiting, choking, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headaches, and difficulty breathing.

One of only two elements — along with bromine — that appears in liquid form at room temperature, mercury is both toxic and highly useful. The Romans called it hydragyrum ("liquid silver"), from whence comes its chemical symbol, Hg. Today, however, it is known by the name of the Romans' god Mercury, the nimble and speedy messenger of the gods. Mercury comes primarily from a red ore called cinnabar, and since it often appears in shiny globules that form outcroppings from the cinnabar, it was relatively easy to discover.

Several things are distinctive about mercury, including its bright silvery color. But nothing distinguishes it as much as its physical properties — not only its liquidity, but the fact that it rolls rapidly, like the fleet-footed god after which it is named. Its surface tension (the quality that causes it to bead) is six times greater than that of water, and for this reason, mercury never wets the surfaces with which it comes in contact.

Mercury, of course, is widely used in thermometers, an application for which it is extremely well-suited. In particular, it expands at a uniform rate when heated, and thus a mercury thermometer (unlike earlier instruments, which used water, wine, or alcohol) can be easily calibrated. (Note that due to the toxicity of the element, mercury thermometers in schools are being replaced by other types of thermometers.) At temperatures close to absolute zero , mercury loses its resistance to the flow of electric current , and therefore it presents a promising area of research with regard to superconductivity.

Even with elements present in the human body, such as zinc, there is a danger of toxicity with exposure to large quantities. Mercury, on the other hand, does not occur naturally in the human body, and is therefore extremely dangerous. Because it is difficult for the body to eliminate, even small quantities can accumulate and exert their poisonous effects, resulting in disorders of the nervous system . In fact, the phrase "mad as a hatter" refers to the symptoms of mercury poisoning suffered by hatmakers of the nineteenth century, who used a mercury compound in making hats of beaver and fur.

Magnetic Metals

In its purest form, iron is relatively soft and slightly magnetic, but when hardened, it becomes much more so. As with several of the elements discovered long ago, iron has a chemical symbol (Fe) reflecting an ancient name, the Latin ferrum. But long before the Romans' ancestors arrived in Italy, the Hittites of Asia Minor were purifying iron ore by heating it with charcoal over a hot flame.

The Hittites jealously guarded their secret, which gave them a technological advantage over enemies such as the Egyptians. But when Hittite civilization crumbled in the wake of an invasion by the mysterious "Sea Peoples" in about 1200 b.c., knowledge of ore smelting spread throughout the ancient world. Thus began the Iron Age , in which ancient technology matured greatly. (It should be noted that the Bantu peoples, in what is now Nigeria and neighboring countries, developed their own ironmaking techniques a few centuries later, apparently without benefit of contact with any civilization exposed to Hittite techniques.)

Ever since ancient times, iron has been a vital part of human existence, and with the growth of industrialization during the eighteenth century, demand for iron only increased. But heating iron ore with charcoal required the cutting of trees, and by the latter part of that century, England 's forests had been so badly denuded that British ironmakers sought a new means of smelting the ore. It was then that British inventor Abraham Darby (1678?-1717) developed a method for making coke from soft coal, which was abundant throughout England. Adoption of Darby's technique sped up the rate of industrialization in England, and thus advanced the entire Industrial Revolution soon to sweep the Western world.

Symbolic of industrialism was iron in its many forms: pig iron, ore smelted in a coke-burning blast furnace ; cast iron, a variety of mixtures containing carbon and/or silicon; wrought iron, which contains small amounts of various other elements, such as nickel, cobalt, copper, chromium, and molybdenum; and most of all steel. Steel is a mixture of iron with manganese and chromium, purified with a blast of hot air in the Bessemer converter, named after English inventor Henry Bessemer (1813-1898). Modern techniques of steelmaking improved on Bessemer's design by using pure oxygen rather than merely hot air.

The ways in which iron is used are almost too obvious (and too numerous) to mention. If iron and steel suddenly ceased to exist, there could be no skyscrapers, no wide-span bridges, no ocean liners or trains or heavy machinery or automobile frames. Furthermore, alloys of steel with other transition metals, such as tungsten and niobium, possess exceptionally great strength, and find application in everything from hand tools to nuclear reactors. Then, of course, there are magnets and electromagnets, which can only be made of iron and/or one of the other magnetic elements, cobalt and nickel.

In the human body, iron is a key part of hemoglobin, the molecule in blood that transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells. If a person fails to get sufficient quantities of iron — present in foods such as red meat and spinach — the result is anemia, characterized by a loss of skin color, weakness, fainting, and heart palpitations. Plants, too, need iron, and without the appropriate amounts are likely to lose their color, weaken, and die.

Isolated in about 1735 by Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694-1768), cobalt was the first metal discovered since prehistoric, or at least ancient, times. The name comes from Kobald, German for "underground gnome," and this reflects much about the early history of cobalt. In legend, the Kobalden were mischievous sprites who caused trouble for miners, and in real life, ores containing the element that came to be known as cobalt likewise caused trouble to men working in mines. Not only did these ores contain arsenic, which made miners ill, but because cobalt had no apparent value, it only interfered with their work of extracting other minerals.

Yet cobalt had been in use by artisans long before Brandt's isolated the element. The color of certain cobalt compounds is a brilliant, shocking blue, and this made it popular for the coloring of pottery, glass, and tile. The element, which makes up less than 0.002% of Earth's crust, is found today primarily in ores extracted from mines in Canada , Zaire, and Morocco. One of the most important uses of cobalt is in a highly magnetic alloy known as alnico, which also contains iron, nickel, and aluminum. Combined with tungsten and chromium, cobalt makes stellite, a very hard alloy used in drill bits. Cobalt is also applied in jet engines and turbines.

Moderately magnetic in its pure form, nickel had an early history much like that of cobalt. English workers mining copper were often dismayed to find a metal that looked like copper, but was not, and they called it "Old Nick's copper" — meaning that it was a trick played on them by Old Nick, or the devil. The Germans gave it a similar name: Kupfernickel, or "imp copper."

Though nickel was not identified as a separate metal by Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1722-1765) until the eighteenth century, alloys of copper, silver, and nickel had been used as coins even in ancient Egypt. Today, nickel is applied, not surprisingly, in the American five-cent piece — that is, the "nickel" — made from an alloy of nickel and copper. Its anti-corrosive nature also provides a number of other applications for nickel: alloyed with steel, for instance, it makes a protective layer for other metals.

The Platinum Group

First identified by an Italian physician visiting the New World in the mid-sixteenth century, platinum — now recognized as a precious metal — was once considered a nuisance in the same way that nickel and cadmium were. Miners, annoyed with the fact that it got in the way when they were looking for gold, called it platina, or "little silver." One of the reasons why platinum did not immediately catch the world's fancy is because it is difficult to extract, and typically appears with the other metals of the "platinum group": iridium, osmium, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium.

Only in 1803 did English physician and chemist William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828) develop a means of extracting platinum, and when he did, he discovered that the metal could be hammered into all kinds of shapes. Platinum proved such a success that it made Wollaston financially independent, and he retired from his medical practice at age 34 to pursue scientific research. Today, platinum is used in everything from thermometers to parts for rocket engines, both of which take advantage of its ability to with stand high temperatures.

IRIDIUM AND OSMIUM.

In the same year that Wollaston isolated platinum, three French chemists applied a method of extracting it with a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids. The process left a black powder that they were convinced was a new element, and in 1804 English chemist Smithson Tennant (1761-1815) gave it the name iridium. Iris was the Greek goddess of the rainbow, and the name reflected the element's brilliant, multi-colored sheen. As with platinum, iridium is used today in a number of ways, particularly for equipment such as laser crystals that must with stand high temperatures. (In addition, one particular platinumiridium bar provides the standard measure of a kilogram.)

Tennant discovered a second element in 1804, also from the residue left over from the acid process for extracting platinum. This one had a distinctive smell when heated, so he named it osmium after osme, Greek for "odor." In 1898, Austrian chemist Karl Auer, Baron von Welsbach (1858-1929), developed a light bulb using osmium as a filament, the material that is heated. Though osmium proved too expensive for commercial use, Auer's creation paved the way for the use of another transition metal, tungsten, in making long-lasting filaments. Osmium, which is very hard and resistant to wear, is also used in electrical devices, fountain-pen tips, and phonograph needles.

PALLADIUM, RHODIUM, AND RUTHENIUM.

By the time Tennant isolated osmium, Wollaston had found yet another element that emerged from the refining of platinum with nitric and hydrochloric acids. This was palladium, named after a recently discovered asteroid, Pallas. Soft and malleable, palladium resists tarnishing, which makes it valuable to the jewelry industry. Combined with yellow gold, it makes the alloy known as white gold. Because palladium has the unusual ability of absorbing up to 900 times its volume in hydrogen, it provides a useful means of extracting that element.

Also in 1805, Wollaston discovered rhodium, which he named because it had a slightly red color. The density of rhodium is lower, and the melting point higher, than for most of the platinum group elements, and it is often used as an alloy to harden platinum. As with many elements in this group, it has a number of high-temperature applications. When electroplated, it is highly reflective, and this makes it useful as a material for optical instruments.

The element that came to be known as ruthenium had been detected several times before 1844, when Russian chemist Carl Ernest Claus (1796-1864) finally identified it as a distinct element. Thus it was the only platinum group element in whose isolation neither Tennant nor Wollaston played a leading role. Since it had been found in Russia , the element was called ruthenium, in honor of that country's ancient name, Ruthenia.

Alloy Metals

The elements described here as "alloy metals" will be treated briefly, but the amount of space given to them here does not reflect their importance to civilization. Several of these are relatively abundant, and many — titanium, tungsten, manganese, chromium and others — are vital parts of daily life. However, due to space considerations, the treatment of these metals that follows is a regrettably abbreviated one.

As suggested by the informal name given to them here, they are often applied in alloys, typically with other transition metals such as iron, or with other "alloy metals." They are also used in a variety of compounds for a wide variety of applications.

Titanium, Zirconium, and Hafnium

English clergyman and amateur scientist William Gregor (1761-1817) in 1791 noticed what he called "a new metallic substance" in a mineral called menchanite, which he found in the Menachan region of Cornwall, England. Four years later, German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1743-1817) studied menchanite and found that it contained a new element, which he named titanium after the Titans of Greek mythology . Only in 1910, however, was the element isolated. Due to its high strength-to-weight ratio, titanium is applied today in alloys used for making airplanes and spacecraft. It is also used in white paints and in a variety of other combinations, mostly in alloys containing other transition metals, as well as in compounds with nonmetals such as oxygen.

Six years before he identified titanium, in 1789, Klaproth had found another element, which he named zirconium after the mineral zircon in which it was found. Zircon had been in use for many centuries, and another zirconium-containing mineral, jacinth, is mentioned in the Bible. As with titanium, there was a long period from identification to isolation, which did not occur until 1914. Zirconium alloys are used today in a number of applications, including superconducting magnets and as a construction metal in nuclear power plants. Compounds including zirconium also have a variety of uses, ranging from furnace linings to poison ivy lotion.

Because it is almost always found with zirconium, hafnium — named after the ancient name of Copenhagen , Denmark — proved extremely difficult to isolate. Only in 1923 was it isolated, using x-ray analysis, and today it is applied primarily in light bulb filaments and electrodes. Sometimes it is accidentally "applied," when zirconium is actually the desired metal, because the two are so difficult to separate.

VANADIUM, TANTALUM, AND NIOBIUM.

Vanadium, named after the Norse goddess Vanadis or Freyja, was first identified in 1801, but only isolated in 1867. It is often applied in alloys with steel, and sometimes used for bonding steel and titanium.

Tantalum and niobium are likewise named after figures from mythology — in this case, Greek. These two elements appear together so often that their identification as separate substances was a long process, involving numerous scientists and heated debates. For this reason, alloys involving tantalum — valued for its high melting point — usually include niobium as well.

CHROMIUM, TUNGSTEN, AND MANGANESE, AND OTHER METALS.

Because it displays a wide variety of colors, chromium was named after the Greek word for "color." It is used in chrome and tinted glass, and as a strengthening agent for stainless steel . Tungsten likewise strengthens steel, in large part because it has the highest melting point of any metal: 6,170 ° F (3,410 ° C). Its name comes from a Swedish word meaning "heavy stone," and its chemical symbol (W) refers to the ore named wolframite, in which it was first discovered. Its high resistance to heat gives tungsten alloys applications in areas ranging from light bulb filaments to furnaces to missiles.

Likewise manganese, first identified in the mid-eighteenth century, is extraordinarily strong. Its major use is in steelmaking. In addition, compounds such as manganese oxide are used in fertilizers. Other alloy metals include rhenium (identified only in 1925) and molybdenum. These two are often applied in alloys together, and with tungsten, for a variety of industrial purposes.

Rare and Artificial Elements

Rare earth -like elements..

Though they are not part of the lanthanide series , scandium and yttrium share many properties with those elements, once known as the "rare earths." (In this context, "rarity" refers not so much to scarcity as to difficulty of extraction.) Furthermore, like most of the lanthanides, these two elements were first discovered in Scandinavia .

Their origin is reflected in the name given by Swedish chemist Lars Nilson (1840-1899) to scandium, which he discovered in 1876. As for yttrium, it came from the complex mineral known as ytterite, from whence emerged many of the lanthanides. Yttrium is used in alloys to impart strength, and has a wide if specialized array of applications. Scandium has no important uses.

ARTIFICIAL ELEMENTS.

Technetium, with an atomic number of 43, is unusual in that it is one of the few elements with an atomic number less than 92 that does not occur in nature. This is reflected in its name, from the Greek technetos, meaning "artificial." The strange thing is that technetium, produced in a laboratory in 1936, does occur naturally in the universe — but it seems to be found only in the spectral lines from older stars, and not in those of younger stars such as our Sun.

The other elements in the transition metals family are referred to as " transuranium elements ," meaning that they have atomic numbers higher than that of uranium (92). These have all been created artificially; all are highly radioactive; few survive for more than a few minutes (at most); and few have applications in ordinary life.

WHERE TO LEARN MORE

The Copper Page (Web site). <http://www.copper.org> (May 26, 2001).

Gold Institute (Web site). <http://www.goldinstitute.org> (May 26, 2001).

Kerrod, Robin. Matter and Materials. Illustrated by Terry Hadler. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Benchmark Books, 1996.

Mebane, Robert C. and Thomas R. Rybolt. Metals. Illustrated by Anni Matsick. New York : Twenty-First Century Books, 1995.

Oxlade, Chris. Metal. Chicago , IL: Heinemann Library, 2001.

"The Pictorial Periodic Table" (Web site). <http://chemlab.pc.maricopa.edu/periodic/periodic.html> (May 22, 2001).

Stwertka, Albert. A Guide to the Elements. New York : Oxford University Press, 1998.

"Transition Metals" ChemicalElements.com (Web site). <http://www.chemicalelements.com/groups/transition.html> (May 26, 2001).

"The Transition Metals." University of Colorado Department of Physics (Web site). <http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/periodic_table/transition_elements.html> (May 26, 2001).

WebElements (Web site). <http://www.webelements.com> (May 22, 2001).

Zincworld (Web site). <http://www.zincworld.org> (May22, 2001).

Those transition metalsthat fill the 5 f orbital. Because actinium — which does not fill the 5 f orbital — exhibits characteristics similar to those of the actinides, it is usually considered part of the actinides family.

A mixture containing more than one metal.

ELECTROLYSIS:

The use of an electric current to cause a chemical reaction.

ELECTRON CLOUD:

A term used to describe the pattern formed by orbitals.

Columns on the periodic table of elements. These are ordered according to the numbers of valence electrons in the outer shells of the atoms for the elements represented.

INNER TRANSITION METALS:

The lanthanides and actinides, both of which fill the f orbitals. For this reason, they are usually treated separately.

An atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained one or more electrons, and thus has a net electric charge.

Atoms that have an equal number of protons, and hence are of the same element, but differ in their number of neutrons. This results in a difference ofmass. Isotopes may be either stable or unstable. The latter type, known as radioisotopes, are radioactive.

IUPAC SYSTEM:

A version of the periodic table of elements, authorized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which numbers all groups on the table from 1-18. Thus in the IUPAC system, in use primarily outside of North America , both the representative or main-group elements and the transition metals are numbered.

LANTHANIDES:

The transition metalsthat fill the 4 f orbital. Because lanthanum — which does not fill the 4 f orbital — exhibits characteristics similar to those of the lanthanides, it is usually considered part of the lanthanide family.

NORTH AMERICAN SYSTEM:

A version of the periodic table of elements that only numbers groups of elements in which the number of valence electrons equals the group number. Hence the transition metalsare usually not numbered in this system. Some North American charts, however, do provide group numbers for transition metals by including an "A" after the groupnumbers for representative or main-group elements, and "B" after those of transition metals.

A pattern of probabilities indicating the regions that may be occupied by an electron. The higher the principal energy level, the more complex the pattern of orbitals.

PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS:

A chart that shows the elements arranged in order of atomic number, along with chemical symbol and the average atomic mass (in atomic mass units) for that particular element. Elements are arranged in groups or columns, as well as in rows or periods, according to specific aspects of their valence electron configurations.

Rows on the periodic table of elements. These represent successive principal energy levels for the valence electrons in the atoms of the elements involved. Elements in the transition metal family occupy periods 4, 5, 6, or 7.

PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVEL:

A value indicating the distance that an electron may move away from the nucleus of anatom. This is designated by a whole-number integer, beginning with 1 and moving upward. The higher the principal energy level, the greater the energy in the atom, and the more complex the pattern of orbitals. Elements in the transition metal family have principal energy levels of 4, 5,6, or 7.

RADIOACTIVITY:

A term describing a phenomenon whereby certain isotopes known as radioisotopes are subject to a form of decay brought about by the emission of high-energy particles. "Decay" does not mean that the isotope "rots"; rather, it decays to form another isotope until eventually (though this may take a long time), it becomes stable.

REACTIVITY:

The tendency for bonds between atoms or molecules to be made or broken in such a way that materials aretransformed.

REPRESENTATIVE OR MAIN-GROUPELEMENTS:

The 44 elements in Groups 1 through 8 on the periodic table of elements in the North American system, for which the number of valence electrons equals the group number. (The only exception is helium.) In the IUPAC system, these elements are assigned group numbers 1, 2, and 13 through 18. (In these last six columns on the IUPAC chart, there is no relation between the number of valence electrons and group number.)

The orbital pattern of the valence electrons at the outside of an atom.

A region within the principal energy level occupied by electrons in anatom. Whatever the number n of the principal energy level, there are n sublevels. At each principal energy level, the first sublevel to be filled is the one corresponding to the s orbital pattern, followed by the p and then the d pattern.

TRANSITION METALS:

A group of 40 elements, which are not assigned a group number in the version of the periodic table of elements known as the North Americansystem. These are the only elements that fill the d orbital. In addition, the transition metals — unlike the representative or main-group elements — have their valence electrons on two different principal energy levels. Though the lanthanides and actinides are considered inner transition metals, they are usually treated separately.

VALENCE ELECTRONS:

Electrons that occupy the highest principal energy level in an atom. These are the electrons involved in chemical bonding.

Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.

" Transition Metals . " Science of Everyday Things . . Encyclopedia.com. 11 Dec. 2023 < https://www.encyclopedia.com > .

"Transition Metals ." Science of Everyday Things . . Encyclopedia.com. (December 11, 2023). https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/transition-metals

"Transition Metals ." Science of Everyday Things . . Retrieved December 11, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/transition-metals

Citation styles

Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA).

Within the “Cite this article” tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list.

Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. Therefore, it’s best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication’s requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites:

Modern Language Association

http://www.mla.org/style

The Chicago Manual of Style

http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html

American Psychological Association

http://apastyle.apa.org/

• Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. However, the date of retrieval is often important. Refer to each style’s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates.
• In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list.

More From encyclopedia.com

About this article, you might also like.

• Families of Elements
• Element, Families of
• Metal Production
• Periodic Table of Elements
• Carbon family

NEARBY TERMS

Transition Elements

Read the full essay 388 words

The Effects Of Transition Metals

Copper cycle essay.

The purpose of the experiment is to cycle solid copper through a series of five reactions. At different stages of the cycle, copper was present in different forms. First reaction involves reaction between the copper and nitric acid, and copper changed from elemental state to an aqueous. The second reaction converted the aqueous Cu2+ into the solid copper (2) hydroxide. In the third reaction Cu(OH)2 decomposed into copper 2 oxide and water when heated. When solid CuO reacted with sulfuric acid, the copper returned to solution as an ion (Cu2+). The cycle of reactions was completed with the reaction where elemental copper was regenerated by Zn and Cu

13B Distribution and constiuents of fluids P3 M2

There are trace elements present in the body. These essential minerals are required in only small amounts.

Essay on Biology Case Study

Molecular Cell Biology, 7th Edition, 2013, Lodish, Berk, Kaiser, Krieger, Bretscher. Ploegh, Amon, and Scott. W.H. Freeman and Company (ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-3413-9)

Copper Transport Disorders Paper

Inherited copper transport disorders are caused by a defect in the gene that decodes for copper-transporting ATPases. This defect interferes with how the human body utilizes copper which is manifested in disorders such as Wilson’s disease, Menkes Disease, and the rare Occipital Horn Syndrome. This article attempts to examine the types of copper transport disorders and focus on the clinical problems in diagnosis and treatments. Even though there are diagnosis methods and treatments for these diseases, there are still issues with the available resources. Readers would be interested in the larger work because early diagnosis and treatment of this disease is critical in managing the disorders.

Menkes Disease Research Paper

ATP7A is a protein that aids in the delivery of copper to copper enzymes and the export of excess copper from the cell. Both of these jobs used by this protein are driven by ATP. The defect of the gene in ATP7A inhibits the protein from transporting copper to enzymes located in other tissues, which is why Menkes disease is a multi-systematic disorder, and leads to an abundance of copper in tissues. Tümer states in “Menkes Disease”, “One interesting aspect of distribution of the mutations is that in the copper-binding domains of ATP7A encoded by exons 2–7, no missense mutations are observed.” Even though the disease has shown to affect protein synthesis, stability, catabolic activity and trafficking and localization the defect offers no change to the sections of ATP7A that copper binds to. This information is relatively important in the research that is proceeding in order to find a cure; as it tells us that because it is not a problem with the binding of copper and instead something dealing with one of the mutated factors of the

Health Effects Of Copper Essay

Copper is a very important trace element to the overall health of many living organisms. For example, humans, Plants, and animals. It is key to the function of organs and metabolic pathways. Copper is also required in enzyme systems that oversee multiple metabolic processes required in the day to day life. In the body enzymes are needed in the cellular movement of cell regulations along with signal transductions.

Dragon Lab Report

This gene codes for the enzyme that makes the pigment that gives dragon skin its color.

The Effect Of Metal Chelation On Latin

Chelate means claw in Latin. Metal Chelation is a process when a polyvalent metal ion form covalent bonds with a drug and binds tightly to form a 5 or 6 membered ring. 5 and 6 membered ring structure are very stable because their bond angle has no ring strain. Thus, when a compound is chelated, it will not be able to pass through the biological membrane, in another words, it will not be metabolise by the body but to be pass through the renal without being absorbed and being excreted though urine. Essential metal such as magnesium, iron, calcium and zinc are easily found in many food source and is vital to be included as part of our diet as these trace elements are helping our body enzymes, hormones and cells to work. Insufficient intake of trace minerals can cause symptoms of nutritional deficiency. (Glusker,1999) At certain times, these metal are also use as an active ingredient or excipients in pharmaceutical industry.

Metallothionein Research Paper

In the course of persistent exposure, harmful effects of cadmium on the hepatic and renal are relying on the quantity of the metal in the renal and liver.[29]. The metal often gathers in the hepatic and renal,wherever it obliges the manufacturing of metallothionein an intracellular protein with low-molecular-weight that has an extensive affinity to joining cadmium. The metallothionein shaping a compound with cadmium to decrease the toxic possibility of cadmium. Once the binding capacity of metallothionein becomes saturated, the multiplied level of free cadmium ions begins procedures that may cause mitochondrial swelling and lack of crista as well as on prevention of Na+_ K+_ ATPase . These incidents eventually result in loss of ionic supervising

Zinc Binds To Protein

Zinc coordinates proteins with four different surroundings with different roles: catalytic, co-catalytic, structural and interface. In many proteins Zn2+ ions also serve to correct polypeptide folding. Furthermore, zinc is a cofactor in all six enzyme classes.

ABCC1 Gene Essay

The gene encoding the multidrug resistance-associated protein 1, ABCC1/MRP1, is a candidate for further molecular investigation based on its structural and functional association with CFTR, [7]. ABCC1, as well as CFTR (ABCC7) and 11 other genes associated with multidrug resistance, are subfamily C members of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter genes [8]. The diverse activities of subfamily C transporters include transportation of chemotherapeutic agents, amino acids, glutathione conjugates, and small peptides, as well as excretion of fungal and bacteria toxins [8-10]. CFTR is unique among the ABC subfamily C members of transporters due to its intrinsic ability to conduct chloride ions at a fast rate [10,11]; but shares its closest homology with ABCC1 [12,13].

Innate Immune System

Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the earth’s crust, it is a metallic chemical element which has “exceptional biological importance” (Bonaventura et al., 2015). Zn is involved in numerous aspects of cellular metabolism such as: protein synthesis, cellular respiration, wound healing, DNA synthesis, cell division, and immune function (Bonaventura et al., 2015). For as many essential functions Zn is necessary for it also has the potential to interact with at least as many biological functions to induce adverse effects (Maret and Sandstead, 2006). For these reasons Zn deficiency and toxicity is linked to a number of diseases and particularly immune diseases affecting both the innate and adaptive immune systems (Bonaventura et al., 2015, Maares and Haase, 2016).Therefore, a disruption in Zn homeostasis can lead to compromised host defense and an increased risk of excessive inflammation (Maares and Haase, 2016).

Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide ( CGRP )

There are two forms of CGRP found, one is alfa CGRP and other is beta CGRP. Alfa CGRP contrast only by 3 amino acids but share related homology. (3,4,5 ) Alfa CGRP is the main form and is present in the CNS and PNS while Beta CGRP is mainly present in enteric nervous system.(6,7) They are synthesizes from genes at different location on chromosome number 11. (8) The CALC1

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Gold And Platinum

Nickel is a common metal used to produce alloys for jewelry, yet nickel allergy is prevalent, affecting approximately 30% of the population (Rothenberg). For those with the allergy, nickel causes an immunological hypersensitivity response on the area of contact, resulting in symptoms of dermatitis. Although, nickel is not a classic allergen, as it doesn’t cause the body to produce excess antibodies (IgE) that prompt cellular production of chemicals inducing the reaction. Instead, studies show that nickel itself can act as a stimulator of the cells, activating the expression of dendritic (immune system signaling cells in the skin) and endothelial cells (blood vessel walls). Nickel is an inorganic activator of the receptors in these cells and has been shown to bridge connection between receptors. That, when activated, release intracellular signals prompting the production of inflammatory cytokines (signaling molecules) activating immune responses (Rothenberg). The body reacts to the produced chemicals with inflammation, redness, and swelling. Nickel is most common among the heavy metals for eliciting this reaction, therefore, alternative hypoallergenic metals exist which retain the properties necessary to replace nickel.

Reaction Paper On Flagella

Figure 3 show amino acid sequencing and structural modeling of the metalloprotease flagellin family. Figure 3a is an assay for amino acid sequencing analysis. 86 flagellin sequences from 74 species were analyzed by multiple sequence alignment. Three sections within the alignment are highlighted to indicate the functional motifs of the hypervariable region for metalloprotease. Figure 3b shows sequence logos for the functional motifs, which is comprised of the putative Ca++ ion binding site, the zinc-binding HExxH motif, and the third zinc-binding residue, which are the three highlighted sections in figure 3a. Sequence logos show the frequency of an amino acid. The x-axis refers to the position of the amino acid within the peptide, while the y-axis refers to the size or frequency of the amino acid, measured in bits. The

Related Topics

• Post-transition metal

Book a free consultation now

100+ Video Tutorials, Flashcards and Weekly Seminars

• Revision notes >
• GCSE Chemistry >
• AQA GCSE Chemistry

The Transition Metals (GCSE Chemistry)

The transition metals, transition metals.

Transition elements are metals that are found in the central block of the periodic table between Group 2 and Group 3. These are the elements that most people associate the world metal to such as copper, iron and silver.

During this tutorial we will be discussing the properties of transition metals. When we talk about transition metals, we will be focusing on the properties of chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel and copper.

The transition metals listed above have similar properties however are different from the alkali metals we discussed before. Below is a table comparing the properties between Group 1 and transition metals:

• Transition metals have more than one ion. Transition metals form ions with various charges. For example: Copper has 2 ions Cu + or Cu 2+ , Iron has 2 ions Fe 2+ or Fe 3+ and Cobalt has 2 ions Co 2+ or Co 3+ .
• Transition metals can be used as catalysts. Transition metals can act as catalysts which means they increase the rate of reaction without being used in the reaction. For example an iron catalyst is used in the Haber process to produce ammonia.

Transition metals are a group of elements in the periodic table that have unique properties and are found in the middle of the table. They are characterized by having multiple valence electrons, which are electrons in the outermost shell that are involved in chemical reactions.

Transition metals have several unique properties, including high melting and boiling points, high densities, and the ability to form multiple ionic charges. They are also known for their bright and colorful compounds, as well as their ability to conduct electricity and heat.

Transition metals have many important uses in everyday life. Iron, for example, is used to make steel, which is used to build buildings, bridges, and vehicles. Copper is used to make electrical wiring and coins, while nickel is used in stainless steel and batteries.

Transition metals are essential in many industries, including construction, electronics, and transportation. They are used in the production of steel, aluminum, and other metals, as well as in the manufacturing of electronic components and batteries.

Transition metals form compounds by donating or accepting electrons from other elements. They are able to form multiple ionic charges, which allows them to form compounds with different properties and uses.

Transition metals are different from other metals in that they have multiple valence electrons and the ability to form multiple ionic charges. They also have unique properties, such as high melting and boiling points, high densities, and the ability to conduct electricity and heat.

Yes, transition metals can react with other elements, such as oxygen, to form compounds. These reactions can produce compounds with unique properties and uses.

Transition metals are called “transition” metals because they are in the transition between the metals in the main groups of the periodic table and the inner transition metals.

Scientists study transition metals through a variety of methods, including experiments, observations, and computational simulations. By studying the properties and behavior of these elements, they can gain a better understanding of their role in the periodic table and their importance in various industries.

Still got a question? Leave a comment

Leave a comment, cancel reply.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

AQA 1 Atomic structure & the periodic table

Aqa 2 bonding, structure and matter, aqa 3 quantitative chemistry, using electrolysis to extract metals (gcse chemistry), reactions of acids with metals (gcse chemistry), neutralisation of acids (gcse chemistry), strong vs weak acids (gcse chemistry), aqa 4 chemical changes, aqa 5 energy changes, aqa 6 organic chemistry, aqa 7 chemical analysis, aqa 8 chemistry of the atmosphere, aqa 9 using resources, cie 1 states of matter, changing state (gcse chemistry), solids, liquids & gases (gcse chemistry), states of substances (gcse chemistry), cie 10 chemistry of the environment, metal alloys (gcse chemistry), reducing the use of resources (gcse chemistry), extraction of metals (gcse chemistry), the reactivity series (gcse chemistry), metals & non-metals (gcse chemistry), cie 11 organic chemistry, npk fertilisers (gcse chemistry), conditions of the haber process (gcse chemistry), haber process (gcse chemistry), corrosion & prevention (gcse chemistry), potable water (gcse chemistry), atmospheric pollutants (gcse chemistry), global climate change & carbon footprint (gcse chemistry), greenhouse gases (gcse chemistry), atmospheric carbon dioxide (gcse chemistry), atmospheric oxygen (gcse chemistry), cie 12 experimental techniques & chemical analysis, sulphur (gcse chemistry), cie 2 atoms, elements and compounds, detection, hazards & risks (gcse chemistry), chromatography and rf values (gcse chemistry), pure substances & formulations (gcse chemistry), factors affecting rate of reaction (gcse chemistry), endothermic vs exothermic reactions (gcse chemistry), soluble & insoluble salts (gcse chemistry), paper chromatography (gcse chemistry), filtration & crystallisation (gcse chemistry), distillation (gcse chemistry), separating mixtures (gcse chemistry), cie 3 stoichiometry, metallic bonds (gcse chemistry), graphene & fullerenes (gcse chemistry), silicon dioxide, diamond & graphite (gcse chemistry), properties of giant covalent structures (gcse chemistry), properties of small molecules (gcse chemistry), covalent bond diagrams (gcse chemistry), covalent bonds (gcse chemistry), ionic compound properties (gcse chemistry), ionic compounds (gcse chemistry), ionic formulae & diagrams (gcse chemistry), cie 4 electrochemistry, calculating percentage yield (gcse chemistry), percentage yield (gcse chemistry), limiting reactants (gcse chemistry), using moles to balance equations (gcse chemistry), amounts of substances (gcse chemistry), moles & avogadro’s constant (gcse chemistry), volume of gases using moles (gcse chemistry), using concentrations of solutions in mol/dm3 (gcse chemistry), calculating the mass (gcse chemistry), concentrations of solutions (gcse chemistry), cie 5 chemical energetics, anodes and cathodes (gcse chemistry), electrolysis of aqueous solutions (gcse chemistry), electrolysis of molten ionic compounds (gcse chemistry), explaining electrolysis (gcse chemistry), cie 6 chemical reactions, fuel cells (gcse chemistry), cells & batteries (gcse chemistry), reaction profiles & activation energy (gcse chemistry), chemical bond energies (gcse chemistry), cie 7 acids, bases and salts, changing conditions & equilibrium (gcse chemistry), equilibrium (gcse chemistry), energy changes (gcse chemistry), reversible reactions (gcse chemistry), the effect of light (gcse chemistry), catalysts (gcse chemistry), collision theory & activation energy (gcse chemistry), graphs to calculate rates of reaction (gcse chemistry), calculating rates of reaction (gcse chemistry), cie 8 periodic table, testing for water (gcse chemistry), carbonates, halides & sulphates (gcse chemistry), identifying ions (gcse chemistry), identifying common gases (gcse chemistry), reactions of metals (gcse chemistry), cie 9 metals, group 0 (gcse chemistry), group 7: reactions & displacement (gcse chemistry), group 7: reactivity (gcse chemistry), group 7 (gcse chemistry), group 1: reactivity (gcse chemistry), group 1: reactions (gcse chemistry), group 1 (gcse chemistry), periodic table metals vs non-metals (gcse chemistry), edexcel 1 atomic structure, acids, bases & ph (gcse chemistry), relative formula mass (gcse chemistry), conservation of mass (gcse chemistry), edexcel 10 quantitative analysis, alkanes (gcse chemistry), edexcel 11 dynamic equilibria, edexcel 12 rates of reaction and energy changes, edexcel 13 fuels, atom economy (gcse chemistry), edexcel 14 earth and atmospheric science, edexcel 15 hydrocarbons, polymers, alcohols and carboxylic acids, edexcel 16 bulk and surface properties of matter including nanoparticles, edexcel 2 periodic table, edexcel 3 bonding: ionic, covalent, loss & gain of electrons (gcse chemistry), oxidation & reduction (gcse chemistry), edexcel 4 types of substances, life cycle assessment (gcse chemistry), alternative methods of extracting metals (gcse chemistry), edexcel 5 calculations involving masses, edexcel 6 states of matter, edexcel 7 chemical changes, edexcel 8 extracting metals and equilibria, gases in the atmosphere (gcse chemistry), changes in the earth’s atmosphere (gcse chemistry), methods of cracking (gcse chemistry), combustion of hydrocarbons (gcse chemistry), edexcel 9 transition metals, alloys & corrosion, polymers (gcse chemistry), composites (gcse chemistry), ceramics (gcse chemistry), flame emission spectroscopy (gcse chemistry), amino acids (gcse chemistry), dna and other naturally occurring polymers (gcse chemistry), ocr 1.1 the particle model, ocr 1.2 atomic structure, relative atomic mass (gcse chemistry), relative electrical charges (gcse chemistry), size & mass of atoms (gcse chemistry), isotopes (gcse chemistry), developing the atomic model (gcse chemistry), discovery of protons & neutrons (gcse chemistry), atomic models part 2 (gcse chemistry), atomic models part 1 (gcse chemistry), ocr 2.1 purity and separating mixtures, ocr 2.2 bonding, electron transfer & ions (gcse chemistry), types of bonding (gcse chemistry), ocr 2.3 properties of mixtures, advantages & risks of nanoparticles (gcse chemistry), uses & properties of nanoparticles (gcse chemistry), nanoparticles (gcse chemistry), simple molecular covalent structures (gcse chemistry), ocr 3.1 introducing chemical reactions, representing elements (gcse chemistry), chemical equations (gcse chemistry), elements & compounds (gcse chemistry), common molecules & ions (gcse chemistry), ocr 3.2 energetics, ocr 3.3 types of chemical reactions, titrations (gcse chemistry), ocr 3.4 electrolysis, ocr 4.1 predicting chemical reactions, ocr 4.2 identifying the products of chemical reactions, ocr 4.3 monitoring chemical reactions, ocr 4.4 controlling reactions, ocr 4.5 equilibria, ocr 6.1 improving processes and products, ocr 6.2 organic chemistry, condensation polymerisation (gcse chemistry), addition polymerisation (gcse chemistry), carboxylic acids (gcse chemistry), reactions of alcohols (gcse chemistry), alcohols (gcse chemistry), reactions of alkenes (gcse chemistry), alkenes (gcse chemistry), ocr 6.3 interpreting & interacting with earth systems, ocr 7 practical skills, related links.

• GCSE Chemistry Tutors
• GCSE Chemistry Online Course

Boost your GCSE Chemistry Performance

Get a 9 in GCSE Chemistry with our Trusted 1-1 Tutors. Enquire now.

100+ Video Tutorials, Flashcards and Weekly Seminars. 100% Money Back Guarantee

Let's get acquainted ? What is your name?

Nice to meet you, {{name}} what is your preferred e-mail address, nice to meet you, {{name}} what is your preferred phone number, what is your preferred phone number, just to check, what are you interested in, when should we call you.

It would be great to have a 15m chat to discuss a personalised plan and answer any questions

What time works best for you? (UK Time)

Pick a time-slot that works best for you ?

How many hours of 1-1 tutoring are you looking for?

My whatsapp number is..., for our safeguarding policy, please confirm....

Please provide the mobile number of a guardian/parent

Which online course are you interested in?

What is your query, you can apply for a bursary by clicking this link, sure, what is your query, thank you for your response. we will aim to get back to you within 12-24 hours., lock in a 2 hour 1-1 tutoring lesson now.

If you're ready and keen to get started click the button below to book your first 2 hour 1-1 tutoring lesson with us. Connect with a tutor from a university of your choice in minutes. (Use FAST5 to get 5% Off!)

Transition metal Essays

Change in erdrich's the red convertible.

The growth of a person can take place through changes that occur within or around their lives. For example, in “The Red Convertible,” Erdrich’s character Lyman is a prime example of growing through change. The change from carefree to serious is triggered through his experience of assisting his brother, Henry’s, psychological transformation after returning from the Vietnam War as a Prisoner of War. Lyman exemplified growth through his attempt to learn how to react to/help his brother. Prior to Henry

Gorilla In The Mist Essay

Gorilla in the Mist is a 1988 American drama film directed by Michael Apted and starring Sigouney Weaver based on true story of naturalist Dian Fossey work in Rwanda with mountain gorillas and was nominated for five Academy Awards. She is the second Leakey’s Angel which studied gorillas for 18 years and wrote about her research in the bestselling book Gorilla in the Mist about the relationship between humans and animals. She was born in San Fransisco, California in 1932 and she worked as physical

Chemical Reaction Lab Report

magnesium. The solutions are copper nitrate, silver nitrate, zinc nitrate, and magnesium nitrate. If the element is in the alkali earth metals such magnesium than it should be more reactive with the solutions than most groups and the metals in the transition metals should have some reaction to some solutions. Alkali earth metals are pretty reactive while transition metals are less reactive. Analysis:

Golden Parachutes Case Study

INTRODUCTION An acquisition takes place when one firm takes over the ownership of another firm. The bidding company is known as the acquiring company and the company which is acquired, by the acquiring company is known as the target company. Acquisitions can either be friendly or hostile. If the target company expresses, that it wants to be acquired, then the acquisition is considered to be friendly. On the other hand, hostile acquisitions don’t have the same agreement from the target company, and

The Toxic Nature Of Lead Exposure

Lead exposure takes place as soon as lead dust or fumes are breathe in, or once lead is ingested. Lead entering the respiratory and digestive systems is released to the blood and dispersed throughout the body. Additionally, more than 90% of the entire body encumbrance of lead is accumulated in the bones, where it is stored. Lead in bones may be released into the blood, re-exposing organ systems long after the original exposure. The toxic nature of lead is well documented. Lead affects all organs

Copper Transformation Lab Report

Copper Transformations Prelab Questions Three metals ions are Magnesium, Iron, and Nickel. Iron is used in the sea with iron rich minerals, for substances. Iron was also used in the formation of earth. Magnesium is used in cells of every organism. It helps balance out the functions within the cells. Nickel is used for light absorption in natural environments. Nickel is also used in rings for a cheap substance rather than silver or gold. The material needed for this experiment include a 100mL

Thermodynamic Properties Of Exothermic Reaction

AIM Design an experiment to study a thermodynamic property of a chemical substance, a chemical reaction, a physical change or chemical phenomenon. BACKGROUND INFORMATION Standard enthalpy change of solution, ∆Hsolnø, is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance dissolves in water to form a solution of infinite dilution under standard conditions.1 The standard enthalpy change can either be exothermic or endothermic. An exothermic reaction is a reaction where energy is released as a form of

Disadvantages Of Dutch Ovens

Heavy metal – a Dutch oven materials review A typical Dutch oven is made of cast iron and comes with a lid. You can wear and tear them because they have a reputation for being durable and reliable. Dutch ovens made of cast iron were used for centuries, but recently there has been a development in technology which resulted in Dutch ovens made of various materials: aluminum, glass, porcelain, steel, you name it. In this review we will give you a rough sketch of what to expect from each material. Various

Titanium Dioxide Case Study

Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) is known as the ultimate white pigment because of its high refractive index and also its brightness. This dust is naturally occurring from the oxides of titanium. This compound has many application uses. These include Paint manufacturing, food coloring, sunscreen products and the Pharmaceutical industry to name a few. According to the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer), it is classified as a Group 2B Carcinogen, basically it states that it is potentially cancerous

Aluminum Synthesis Lab Report

In the equation, Al metal was oxidized to aluminum with an oxidation number of +3 and the hydrogen in KOH or in water was reduced from an oxidation number of +1 to zero in hydrogen gas. Reaction #2 was an acid-base reaction. The H^+ ions from the sulfuric acid neutralized the

Chemical Elements Lab Report

The chemical elements are divided into two broad groups, the metals and the non-metals. In this experiment, you will examine some members of the metal group and identify similarities and differences in their physical and chemical properties. Metals are the elements that are found in the left of the periodic table with high electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals lose electrons to create positive ion charges. Metals have a unique shine, are prone to forming, have a high tendency to form cations

Asbestos Environmental Environment

4.1.1. Definition Asbestos is a naturally occurring minerals that are resistant to heat and corrosion. Asbestos has been used in products, such as insulation for pipes, floor tiles, building materials, and in vehicle brakes and clutches. 4.1.2. Physical and Chemical Characteristics There are six types of asbestos minerals, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite. Asbestos is inert, insoluble in water and

Plato's Protagoras Analysis

Plato’s Protagoras is a dialogue of much debate that allows for the readers to look further and to bring into question the argument on virtue for themselves. It is not something to be taken whole-heartedly since Plato is throwing different theories about virtue around in this dialogue. Socrates, one of the main characters was always fixated on virtue, especially the concept of defining and teaching virtue, and whether or not it can actually be taught. However, one must keep in mind that Socrates

Why Does Calcium Chloride Effective?

Calcium chloride is commonly used as the main ingredient in road dust control products because it has the ability to hold on to moisture for a longer period of time. Therefore, this keeps the dust from becoming airborne. Since the dust remains settled on the ground this creates a smooth surface that is easy to drive on. One of the reasons why calcium chloride is so effective is due to how it is handled prior to use. If the chemical substance is stored incorrectly this can ruin your roads and create

Lead Is More Active Due To Most Active Out Of Three Metals

Referencing our data, it can be determined that out of the three metals, Pb, Cu and Zn, it is shown that Lead (Pb) is more active than Copper (Cu) due to single-replacement reaction that took place. Lead had replaced Copper in the solution. Zinc (Zn), however, had replaced Lead thus leaving Copper to be the least active leaving Zinc to be the most active out of the three. In order of activity from least active, to most active, the metals would be lined up as following: Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, Mg. From this

Medieval Metal Essay

Concept Medieval Metals is a business that was started in 2018, to open Granite City to the ancient art of blacksmithing, and the various forms of it. As a new business in the area, M.M will be selling an assortment of equipment that replicates the archaic styles of Celtic, Medieval, and other ancient forms. The quality of the product will be one of maximum effort, and the price will always be fair and bargainable. Our goal as a business is to open every citizen of Granite City to their personalized

The Periodic Table

Rhenium is element 75 on the periodic table as a metal. It is located under manganese, but it was not always there. Rhenium was discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke and Otto Berg in 1925. Rhenium is one of the rarest metals on earth with the melting point of 3185-degrees Celsius, 5,765 degrees Fahrenheit. The only element with a higher melting point is Tungsten. Rhenium can

Polar Bears: Thick Layer Bear

Polar bears have a thick layer of fat called blubber which is about 11 cm thick. This also helps the bears to survive in the freezing conditions. Not only on land, but the thick layer of fur coat and blubber helps them as they spend a great amount of time swimming in the freezing waters of the Arctic. Blubber is a thick layer of fat that helps prevent sea mammals from getting too cold. Blubber in depth, is an extra digested food stored in the form of adipose tissue, which contains molecules called

Cesium Research Paper

The element cesium is an element like no other. It has many characteristics that separate it from many of the other elements that most people know. Cesium also has important uses for our society and we can benefit from it a lot. Cesiums story starts way back in 1860 Heidelberg Germany, with two German chemists by the names of Robert Bunsun and Gustav Robert Kirchoff. A year before they discovered the element cesium, they developed a spectroscope. This tool allowed them to see the atomic spectra

Ap Chemistry Penny Lab

In performing these sets of experiments, in which we would drop a water/water solution onto the surface of a penny, we were trying to test and experiment the bonding qualities of water when made into a solution compared to when the water is pure. When we dropped pure tap water on to a penny, the water, instead of flowing and spreading out, stayed together in a single drop on the penny. We wanted to see how different substances affected this phenomenon. When we formulated our guiding question we

• Science Clarified
• Real-Life Chemistry Vol 1
• Transition Metals

Transition Metals - How it works

Two numbering systems for the periodic table.

The periodic table of the elements, developed in 1869 by Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovitch Mendeleev (1834-1907), is discussed in several places within this volume. Within the table, elements are arranged in columns, or groups, as well as in periods, or rows.

As discussed in the Periodic Table of Elements essay, two basic versions of the chart, differing primarily in their method of number groups, are in use today. The North American system numbers only eight groups—corresponding to the representative or main-group elements—leaving the 10 columns representing the transition metals unnumbered. On the other hand, the IUPAC system, approved by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), numbers all 18 columns. Both versions of the periodic table show seven periods.

In general, this book applies the North American system, in part because it is the version used in most American classrooms. Additionally, the North American system relates group number to the number of valence electrons in the outer shell of the atom for the element represented. Hence the number of valence electrons (a subject discussed below as it relates to the transition metals) for Group 8 is also eight. Yet where the transition metals are concerned, the North American system is less convenient than the IUPAC system.

ATTEMPTS TO ADJUST THE NORTH AMERICAN SYSTEM.

In addressing the transition metals, there is no easy way to apply the North American system's correspondence between the number of valence electrons and the group number. Some versions of the North American system do, however, make an attempt. These equate the number of valence electrons in the transition metals to a group number, and distinguish these by adding a letter "B."

Thus the noble gases are placed in Group 8A or VIIIA because they are a main-group family with eight valence electrons, whereas the transition metal column beginning with iron (Group 8 in the IUPAC system) is designated 8B or VIIIB. But this adjustment to the North American system only makes things more cumbersome, because Group VIIIB also includes two other columns—ones with nine and 10 valence electrons respectively.

VALUE OF THE IUPAC SYSTEM.

Obviously, then, the North American system—while it is useful in other ways, and as noted, is applied elsewhere in this book—is not as practical for discussing the transition metals. Of course, one could simply dispense with the term "group" altogether, and simply refer to the columns on the periodic table as columns. To do so, however, is to treat the table simply as a chart, rather than as a marvelously ordered means of organizing the elements.

It makes much more sense to apply the IUPAC system and to treat the transition metals as belonging to groups 3 through 12. This is particularly useful in this context, because those group numbers do correspond to the numbers of valence electrons. Scandium, in group 3 (hence-forth all group numbers refer to the IUPAC version), has three valence electrons; likewise zinc, in Group 12, has 12. Neither the IUPAC nor the North American system provide group numbers for the lanthanides and actinides, known collectively as the inner transition metals.

THE TRANSITION METALS BY IUPAC GROUP NUMBER.

Here, then, is the list of the transition metals by group number, as designated in the IUPAC system. Under each group heading are listed the four elements in that group, along with the atomic number, chemical symbol, and atomic mass figures for each, in atomic mass units.

Note that, because the fourth member in each group is radioactive and sometimes exists for only a few minutes or even seconds, mass figures are given merely for the most stable isotope. In addition, the last elements in groups 8, 9, and 10, as of 2001, had not received official names. For reasons that will be explained below, lanthanum and actinium, though included here, are discussed in other essays.

• 21. Scandium (Sc): 44.9559
• 39. Yttrium (Y): 88.9059
• 57. Lanthanum (La): 138.9055
• 89. Actinium (Ac): 227.0278
• 22. Titanium (Ti): 47.9
• 40. Zirconium (Zr): 91.22
• 72. Hafnium (Hf): 178.49
• 104. Rutherfordium (Rf): 261
• 23. Vanadium (V): 50.9415
• 41. Niobium (Nb): 92.9064
• 73. Tantalum (Ta): 180.9479
• 105. Dubnium (Db): 262
• 24. Chromium (Cr): 51.996
• 42. Molybdenum (Mo): 95.95
• 74. Tungsten (W): 183.85
• 106. Seaborgium (Sg): 263
• 25. Manganese (Mn): 54.938
• 43. Technetium (Tc): 98
• 75. Rhenium (Re): 186.207
• 107. Bohrium (Bh): 262
• 26. Iron (Fe): 55.847
• 44. Ruthenium (Ru): 101.07
• 76. Osmium (Os): 190.2
• 108. Hassium (Hs): 265
• 27. Cobalt (Co): 58.9332
• 45. Rhodium (Rh): 102.9055
• 77. Iridium (Ir): 192.22
• 109. Meitnerium (Mt): 266
• 28. Nickel (Ni): 58.7
• 46. Palladium (Pd): 106.4
• 78. Platinum (Pt): 195.09
• 110. Ununnilium (Uun): 271
• 29. Copper (Cu): 63.546
• 47. Silver (Ag): 107.868
• 79. Gold (Au): 196.9665
• 111. Unununium (Uuu): 272
• 30. Zinc (Zn): 65.38
• 48. Cadmium (Cd): 112.41
• 80. Mercury (Hg): 200.59
• 112. Ununbium (Uub): 277

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

We can now begin to explain why transition metals are distinguished from other elements, and why the inner transition metals are further separated from the transition metals. This distinction relates not to period (row), but to group (column)—which, in turn, is defined by the configuration of valence electrons, or the electrons that are involved in chemical bonding. Valence electrons occupy the highest energy level, or shell, of the atom—which might be thought of as the orbit farthest from the nucleus. However, the term "orbit" is misleading when applied to the ways that an electron moves.

Principal energy level defines period: elements in Period 4, for instance, all have their valence electrons at principal energy level 4. The higher the number, the further the electron is from the nucleus, and hence, the greater the energy in the atom. Each principal energy level is divided into sublevels corresponding to the number n of the principal energy level: thus, principal energy level 4 has four sublevels, principal energy level 5 has five, and so on.

ORBITAL PATTERNS.

The four basic types of orbital patterns are designated as s, p, d, and f. The s shape might be described as spherical, which means that in an s orbital, the total electron cloud will probably end up being more or less like a sphere.

The p shape is like a figure eight around the nucleus; the d like two figure eights meeting at the nucleus; and the f orbital pattern is so complex that most basic chemistry textbooks do not even attempt to explain it. In any case, these orbital patterns do not indicate the exact path of an electron. Think of it, instead, in this way: if you could take millions of photographs of the electron during a period of a few seconds, the resulting blur of images in a p orbital, for instance, would somewhat describe the shape of a figure eight.

Since the highest energy levels of the transition metals begin at principal energy level 4, we will dispense with a discussion of the first three energy levels. The reader is encouraged to consult the Electrons essay, as well as the essay on Families of Elements, for a more detailed discussion of the ways in which these energy levels are filled for elements on periods 1 through 3.

Orbital Filling and the Periodic Table

If all elements behaved as they "should," the pattern of orbital filling would be as follows. In a given principal energy level, first the two slots available to electrons on the s sublevel are filled, then the six slots on the p sublevel, then the 10 slots on the d sublevel. The f sublevel, which is fourth to be filled, comes into play only at principal energy level 4, and it would be filled before elements began adding valence electrons to the s sublevel on the next principal energy level.

That might be the way things "should" happen, but it is not the way that they do happen. The list that follows shows the pattern by which orbitals are filled from sublevel 3 p onward. Following each sublevel, in parentheses, is the number of "slots" available for electrons in that shell. Note that in several places, the pattern of filling defies the ideal order described in the preceding paragraph.

Orbital Filling by Principal Energy Level and Sublevel from 3 p Onward:

The 44 representative elements follow a regular pattern of orbital filling through the first 18 elements. By atomic number 18, argon, 3 p has been filled, and at that point element 19 (potassium) would be expected to begin filling row 3 d. However, instead it begins filling 4 s, to which calcium (20) adds the second and last valence electron. It is here that we come to the transition metals, distinguished by the fact that they fill the d orbitals.

Note that none of the representative elements up to this point, or indeed any that follow, fill the d orbital. (The d orbital could not come into play before Period 3 anyway, because at least three sublevels—corresponding to principal energy level 3—are required in order for there to be a d orbital.) In any case, when the representative elements fill the p orbitals of a given energy level, they skip the d orbital and go on to the next principal energy level, filling the s orbitals. Filling of the d orbital on the preceding energy level only occurs with the transition metals: in other words, on period 4, transition metals fill the 3 d sublevel, and so on as the period numbers increase.

Distinguishing the Transition Metals

Given the fact that it is actually the representative elements that skip the d sublevels, and the transition metals that go back and fill them, one might wonder if the names "representative" and "transition" (implying an interruption) should be reversed. But it is the transition metals that are the exception to the rule, for two reasons. First of all, as we have seen, they are the only elements that fill the d orbitals.

Secondly, they are the only elements whose outer-shell electrons are on two different principal energy levels. The orbital filling patterns of transition metals can be identified thus: n s (n-1) d , where n is the number of the period on which the element is located. For instance, zinc, on period 4, has an outer shell of 4 s 2 3 d 10 . In other words, it has two electrons on principal energy level 4, sublevel 4 s —as it "should." But it also has 10 electrons on principal energy level 3, sublevel 3 d. In effect, then, the transition metals "go back" and fill in the d orbitals of the preceding period.

There are further complications in the patterns of orbital filling for the transition metals, which will only be discussed in passing here as a further explanation as to why these elements are not "representative." Most of them have two s valence electrons, but many have one, and palladium has zero. Nor do they add their d electrons in regular patterns. Moving across period 4, for instance, the number of electrons in the d orbital "should" increase in increments of 1, from 1 to 10. Instead the pattern goes like this: 1, 2, 3, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 10.

LANTHANIDES AND ACTINIDES.

The lanthanides and actinides are set apart even further from the transition metals. In most versions of the periodic table, lanthanum (57) is followed by hafnium (72) in the transition metals section of the chart. Similarly, actinium (89) is followed by rutherfordium (104). The "missing" metals—lanthanides and actinides respectively—are listed at the bottom of the chart. There are reasons for this, as well as for the names of these groups.

After the 6 s orbital fills with the representative element barium (56), lanthanum does what a transition metal does—it begins filling the 5 d orbital. But after lanthanum, something strange happens: cerium (58) quits filling 5 d, and moves to fill the 4 f orbital. The filling of that orbital continues throughout the entire lanthanide series, all the way to lutetium (71). Thus lanthanides can be defined as those metals that fill the 4 f orbital; however, because lanthanum exhibits similar properties, it is usually included with the lanthanides.

A similar pattern occurs for the actinides. The 7 s orbital fills with radium (88), after which actinium (89) begins filling the 6 d orbital. Next comes thorium, first of the actinides, which begins the filling of the 5 f orbital. This is completed with element 103, lawrencium. Actinides can thus be defined as those metals that fill the 5 f orbital; but again, because actinium exhibits similar properties, it is usually included with the actinides.

User Contributions:

Comment about this article, ask questions, or add new information about this topic:.