essay about ancient rome

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Ancient Rome

By: History.com Editors

Updated: September 22, 2023 | Original: October 14, 2009

Beginning in the eighth century B.C., Ancient Rome grew from a small town on central Italy’s Tiber River into an empire that at its peak encompassed most of continental Europe, Britain, much of western Asia, northern Africa and the Mediterranean islands. Among the many legacies of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian) derived from Latin, the modern Western alphabet and calendar and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion.

After 450 years as a republic, Rome became an empire in the wake of Julius Caesar’s rise and fall in the first century B.C. The long and triumphant reign of its first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace and prosperity; by contrast, the Roman Empire’s decline and fall by the fifth century A.D. was one of the most dramatic implosions in the history of human civilization.

Origins of Rome

As legend has it, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars, the god of war. Left to drown in a basket on the Tiber by a king of nearby Alba Longa and rescued by a she-wolf, the twins lived to defeat that king and found their own city on the river’s banks in 753 B.C. After killing his brother, Romulus became the first king of Rome, which is named for him.

A line of Sabine, Latin and Etruscan (earlier Italian civilizations) kings followed in a non-hereditary succession. There are seven legendary kings of Rome: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Martius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (Tarquin the Elder), Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus, or Tarquin the Proud (534-510 B.C.). While they were referred to as “Rex,” or “King” in Latin, all the kings after Romulus were elected by the senate.

Did you know? Four decades after Constantine made Christianity Rome's official religion, Emperor Julian—known as the Apostate—tried to revive the pagan cults and temples of the past, but the process was reversed after his death, and Julian was the last pagan emperor of Rome.

Rome’s era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C. with the overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, whom ancient historians portrayed as cruel and tyrannical, compared to his benevolent predecessors. A popular uprising was said to have arisen over the rape of a virtuous noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king’s son. Whatever the cause, Rome turned from a monarchy into a republic, a world derived from res publica , or “property of the people.”

Rome was built on seven hills, known as “the seven hills of Rome”—Esquiline Hill, Palatine Hill, Aventine Hill, Capitoline Hill, Quirinal Hill, Viminal Hill and Caelian Hill. 

The Early Republic

The power of the monarch passed to two annually elected magistrates called consuls. They also served as commanders in chief of the army. The magistrates, though elected by the people, were drawn largely from the Senate, which was dominated by the patricians, or the descendants of the original senators from the time of Romulus. Politics in the early republic was marked by the long struggle between patricians and plebeians (the common people), who eventually attained some political power through years of concessions from patricians, including their own political bodies, the tribunes, which could initiate or veto legislation.

In 450 B.C., the first Roman law code was inscribed on 12 bronze tablets–known as the Twelve Tables–and publicly displayed in the Roman Forum . These laws included issues of legal procedure, civil rights and property rights and provided the basis for all future Roman civil law. By around 300 B.C., real political power in Rome was centered in the Senate, which at the time included only members of patrician and wealthy plebeian families.

Military Expansion

During the early republic, the Roman state grew exponentially in both size and power. Though the Gauls sacked and burned Rome in 390 B.C., the Romans rebounded under the leadership of the military hero Camillus, eventually gaining control of the entire Italian peninsula by 264 B.C. Rome then fought a series of wars known as the Punic Wars with Carthage, a powerful city-state in northern Africa.

The first two Punic Wars ended with Rome in full control of Sicily, the western Mediterranean and much of Spain. In the Third Punic War (149–146 B.C.), the Romans captured and destroyed the city of Carthage and sold its surviving inhabitants into slavery, making a section of northern Africa a Roman province. At the same time, Rome also spread its influence east, defeating King Philip V of Macedonia in the Macedonian Wars and turning his kingdom into another Roman province.

Rome’s military conquests led directly to its cultural growth as a society, as the Romans benefited greatly from contact with such advanced cultures as the Greeks. The first Roman literature appeared around 240 B.C., with translations of Greek classics into Latin; Romans would eventually adopt much of Greek art, philosophy and religion.

Internal Struggles in the Late Republic

Rome’s complex political institutions began to crumble under the weight of the growing empire, ushering in an era of internal turmoil and violence. The gap between rich and poor widened as wealthy landowners drove small farmers from public land, while access to government was increasingly limited to the more privileged classes. Attempts to address these social problems, such as the reform movements of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus (in 133 B.C. and 123-22 B.C., respectively) ended in the reformers’ deaths at the hands of their opponents.

Gaius Marius, a commoner whose military prowess elevated him to the position of consul (for the first of six terms) in 107 B.C., was the first of a series of warlords who would dominate Rome during the late republic. By 91 B.C., Marius was struggling against attacks by his opponents, including his fellow general Sulla, who emerged as military dictator around 82 B.C. After Sulla retired, one of his former supporters, Pompey, briefly served as consul before waging successful military campaigns against pirates in the Mediterranean and the forces of Mithridates in Asia. During this same period, Marcus Tullius Cicero , elected consul in 63 B.C., famously defeated the conspiracy of the patrician Cataline and won a reputation as one of Rome’s greatest orators.

Julius Caesar’s Rise

When the victorious Pompey returned to Rome, he formed an uneasy alliance known as the First Triumvirate with the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus (who suppressed a slave rebellion led by Spartacus in 71 B.C.) and another rising star in Roman politics: Gaius Julius Caesar . After earning military glory in Spain, Caesar returned to Rome to vie for the consulship in 59 B.C. From his alliance with Pompey and Crassus, Caesar received the governorship of three wealthy provinces in Gaul beginning in 58 B.C.; he then set about conquering the rest of the region for Rome.

After Pompey’s wife Julia (Caesar’s daughter) died in 54 B.C. and Crassus was killed in battle against Parthia (present-day Iran) the following year, the triumvirate was broken. With old-style Roman politics in disorder, Pompey stepped in as sole consul in 53 B.C. Caesar’s military glory in Gaul and his increasing wealth had eclipsed Pompey’s, and the latter teamed with his Senate allies to steadily undermine Caesar. In 49 B.C., Caesar and one of his legions crossed the Rubicon, a river on the border between Italy from Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar’s invasion of Italy ignited a civil war from which he emerged as dictator of Rome for life in 45 B.C.

From Caesar to Augustus

Less than a year later, Julius Caesar was murdered on the ides of March (March 15, 44 B.C.) by a group of his enemies (led by the republican nobles Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius). Consul Mark Antony and Caesar’s great-nephew and adopted heir, Octavian, joined forces to crush Brutus and Cassius and divided power in Rome with ex-consul Lepidus in what was known as the Second Triumvirate. With Octavian leading the western provinces, Antony the east, and Lepidus Africa, tensions developed by 36 B.C. and the triumvirate soon dissolved. In 31 B.C., Octavian triumped over the forces of Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt (also rumored to be the onetime lover of Julius Caesar) in the Battle of Actium. In the wake of this devastating defeat, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

By 29 B.C., Octavian was the sole leader of Rome and all its provinces. To avoid meeting Caesar’s fate, he made sure to make his position as absolute ruler acceptable to the public by apparently restoring the political institutions of the Roman republic while in reality retaining all real power for himself. In 27 B.C., Octavian assumed the title of Augustus , becoming the first emperor of Rome.

Age of the Roman Emperors

Augustus’ rule restored morale in Rome after a century of discord and corruption and ushered in the famous pax Romana –two full centuries of peace and prosperity. He instituted various social reforms, won numerous military victories and allowed Roman literature, art, architecture and religion to flourish. Augustus ruled for 56 years, supported by his great army and by a growing cult of devotion to the emperor. When he died, the Senate elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a long-running tradition of deification for popular emperors.

Augustus’ dynasty included the unpopular Tiberius (A.D. 14-37), the bloodthirsty and unstable Caligula (37-41) and Claudius (41-54), who was best remembered for his army’s conquest of Britain. The line ended with Nero (54-68), whose excesses drained the Roman treasury and led to his downfall and eventual suicide.

Four emperors took the throne in the tumultuous year after Nero’s death; the fourth, Vespasian (69-79), and his successors, Titus and Domitian, were known as the Flavians; they attempted to temper the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. Titus (79-81) earned his people’s devotion with his handling of recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii .

The reign of Nerva (96-98), who was selected by the Senate to succeed Domitian, began another golden age in Roman history, during which four emperors–Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius–took the throne peacefully, succeeding one another by adoption, as opposed to hereditary succession. Trajan (98-117) expanded Rome’s borders to the greatest extent in history with victories over the kingdoms of Dacia (now northwestern Romania) and Parthia. His successor Hadrian (117-138) solidified the empire’s frontiers (famously building Hadrian's Wall in present-day England) and continued his predecessor’s work of establishing internal stability and instituting administrative reforms.

Under Antoninus Pius (138-161), Rome continued in peace and prosperity, but the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161–180) was dominated by conflict, including war against Parthia and Armenia and the invasion of Germanic tribes from the north. When Marcus fell ill and died near the battlefield at Vindobona (Vienna), he broke with the tradition of non-hereditary succession and named his 19-year-old son Commodus as his successor.

Decline and Disintegration

The decadence and incompetence of Commodus (180-192) brought the golden age of the Roman emperors to a disappointing end. His death at the hands of his own ministers sparked another period of civil war , from which Lucius Septimius Severus (193-211) emerged victorious. During the third century Rome suffered from a cycle of near-constant conflict. A total of 22 emperors took the throne, many of them meeting violent ends at the hands of the same soldiers who had propelled them to power. Meanwhile, threats from outside plagued the empire and depleted its riches, including continuing aggression from Germans and Parthians and raids by the Goths over the Aegean Sea.

The reign of Diocletian (284-305) temporarily restored peace and prosperity in Rome, but at a high cost to the unity of the empire. Diocletian divided power into the so-called tetrarchy (rule of four), sharing his title of Augustus (emperor) with Maximian. A pair of generals, Galerius and Constantius, were appointed as the assistants and chosen successors of Diocletian and Maximian; Diocletian and Galerius ruled the eastern Roman Empire, while Maximian and Constantius took power in the west.

The stability of this system suffered greatly after Diocletian and Maximian retired from office. Constantine (the son of Constantius) emerged from the ensuing power struggles as sole emperor of a reunified Rome in 324. He moved the Roman capital to the Greek city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople . At the Council of Nicaea in 325, Constantine made Christianity (once an obscure Jewish sect) Rome’s official religion.

Roman unity under Constantine proved illusory, and 30 years after his death the eastern and western empires were again divided. Despite its continuing battle against Persian forces, the eastern Roman Empire–later known as the Byzantine Empire –would remain largely intact for centuries to come. An entirely different story played out in the west, where the empire was wracked by internal conflict as well as threats from abroad–particularly from the Germanic tribes now established within the empire’s frontiers like the Vandals (their sack of Rome originated the phrase “vandalism”)–and was steadily losing money due to constant warfare.

Rome eventually collapsed under the weight of its own bloated empire, losing its provinces one by one: Britain around 410; Spain and northern Africa by 430. Attila and his brutal Huns invaded Gaul and Italy around 450, further shaking the foundations of the empire. In September 476, a Germanic prince named Odovacar won control of the Roman army in Italy. After deposing the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, Odovacar’s troops proclaimed him king of Italy, bringing an ignoble end to the long, tumultuous history of ancient Rome. The fall of the Roman Empire was complete.

Roman Architecture

Roman architecture and engineering innovations have had a lasting impact on the modern world. Roman aqueducts, first developed in 312 B.C., enabled the rise of cities by transporting water to urban areas, improving public health and sanitation. Some Roman aqueducts transported water up to 60 miles from its source and the Fountain of Trevi in Rome still relies on an updated version of an original Roman aqueduct.

Roman cement and concrete are part of the reason ancient buildings like the Colosseum and Roman Forum are still standing strong today. Roman arches, or segmented arches, improved upon earlier arches to build strong bridges and buildings, evenly distributing weight throughout the structure.

Roman roads, the most advanced roads in the ancient world, enabled the Roman Empire—which was over 1.7 million square miles at the pinnacle of its power—to stay connected. They included such modern-seeming innovations as mile markers and drainage. Over 50,000 miles of road were built by 200 B.C. and several are still in use today.

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Ancient Rome

Find out why this ancient civilization is still important more than 2,000 years after its fall. 

Tens of thousands of Romans take their seats in an enormous stadium made of stone and concrete. It’s the year 80, and these people are entering the newly built Colosseum for the first time. Men wearing togas and women in long dresses called stolas will spend the next hundred days watching gladiator games and wild animal fights to celebrate the opening of this amphitheater.

These ancient people were living in the center of a vast empire that spanned across Europe , northern Africa , and parts of the Middle East. Lasting over a thousand years, the ancient Roman civilization contributed to modern languages, government, architecture, and more.

History of ancient Rome

Around the ninth or tenth century B.C., Rome was just a small town on the Tiber River in what’s now central Italy . (One myth says that the town was founded by two brothers—Romulus and Remus—who were raised by a wolf.) For about 500 years, the area was ruled by a series of kings as it grew in strength and power.

But around the year 509 B.C., the last king was overthrown, and Rome became a republic. That meant that some citizens could vote for their leaders and other important matters. Only male Roman citizens could cast votes; women and enslaved people—often brought back as prisoners from military battles—could not.

Elected officials included two consuls who acted sort of like today’s U.S. presidents and kept each other from taking too much power. Both consuls worked with senators, who advised the consuls and helped create laws. Senators were appointed by other officials and could hold their positions for life.

The Roman army fought many wars during this period, first conquering all of what’s now Italy. In 146 B.C., they destroyed the city of Carthage (in modern-day Tunisia, in northern Africa), which was Rome’s greatest rival for trade in the western Mediterranean Sea. Next they conquered Greece.

For 500 years, the republic system mostly worked. But then a series of civil wars divided the people. In 59 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar, a politician and military general, used the chaos to take power. Serving as consul, Caesar made new laws that benefitted his troops and other regular citizens. Then he conquered what’s now France and invaded Britain .

Even though his troops and many Roman citizens supported him, the Senate worried he was too powerful and wanted him gone. Knowing this, Caesar marched his loyal army into Rome. It was an illegal act that started a civil war, which Caesar would eventually win.

At first, he was named dictator for 10 years. (Before that, a dictator served during times of emergencies for only six months.) He canceled people’s debts and granted Roman citizenship to people outside of Italy so they could vote. Caesar also traveled to Egypt , making an alliance with the pharaoh Cleopatra.

In 44 B.C., Caesar named himself dictator for life. Fearing he was becoming a king, a group of senators killed him on the floor of the Senate. Caesar was gone, but his supporters chased down the assassins. His heir and nephew, Octavian, and general Mark Anthony battled for power.

Octavian eventually won and renamed himself Augustus Caesar. (The family name, Caesar, would become a title that future emperors would use to connect themselves back to Gaius Julius Caesar.) He convinced the Senate to give him absolute power and served successfully for 45 years. After his death, he was declared a god.

For the rest of its existence, Rome was ruled by emperors who were not elected—they reigned for life. The Senate was still part of the government, but it had very little power. Some emperors, like Claudius, were good at their jobs; others, like Nero and Caligula, were so cruel that even their guards turned against them. 

By A.D. 117, the Roman Empire included what’s now France, Spain , Greece , Egypt, Turkey , parts of northern Africa, England, Romania, and more. At one point, one out of every four people in the world lived under Rome’s control.

But emperors and the Senate found this vast empire difficult to rule from the city of Rome. In the year 285, it was split into a Western Roman Empire and an Eastern Roman Empire. Known as the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire was ruled from the city of Constantinople, now the modern-day city of Istanbul in Turkey.

The Byzantine Empire would last for almost another thousand years, but the Western Empire—Rome—began to fall apart. Civil wars, plagues, money troubles, and invasions from other groups made the empire unstable. In the year 476, a Germanic king overthrew Romulus Augustus, the last Roman emperor.

Life in ancient Rome

Most people in the city of Rome lived in crowded apartment buildings called insulae  that were five to seven stories high. Wealthier Romans lived in houses called domus that had a dining room and an atrium—an open-air courtyard that often had a pool at the center. Some Romans even had vacation homes in Pompeii and Herculaneum, two Roman cities that were destroyed when Mount Vesuvius erupted in A.D. 79.

Rich or poor, Romans gathered to relax, socialize, and clean themselves at Roman baths. Like modern spas, these structures had exercise rooms, swimming pools, saunas, hot and cold plunge pools, and massage spaces. The people also gathered to watch plays, chariot races, and gladiator battles.

Roman citizens enjoyed relaxing, but enslaved people in ancient Rome had a much more difficult life. Many worked in fields, mines, and on ships. Others, like educated Greeks who tutored wealthy children, were forced to work in rich people’s homes. However, some enslaved people were able to buy or earn their freedom and eventually become Roman citizens.

Roman women sometimes worked as midwives—helping to deliver babies—or became priestesses. But in Roman society, women’s main role was to look after the home and family. Although Romans could easily get divorced, children legally belonged to the father (or a male relative if he was no longer living).

Romans believed in many gods, including the sky god Jupiter; Mars, a god who protected Romans in war; and Vesta, the goddess of the home. People would worship these gods and goddesses both at public temples and in their homes.

Why ancient Rome still matters

Today, the city of Rome is the capital of Italy, with around three million people. Visitors can still see many ancient Roman ruins, from the Colosseum to the Roman Forum, where much of ancient Roman politics took place.

But beyond the crumbling buildings, Rome’s impact is seen all over the world today, from huge sports stadiums inspired by the Colosseum to the way that we vote for politicians. The republic’s system of checks and balances on power even inspired the founders of the United States government.

If you drive in Europe or the Middle East today, you might be on a route created by the ancient Romans. Those engineers built a system of 50,000 miles of roads that connected the empire, allowing troops to easily conquer new land and traders to travel and bring back wealth. (It’s where we get the saying, “All roads lead to Rome.”)

You can also thank Roman engineers for perfecting a system for getting running water. They built aqueducts, which were long channels that delivered fresh water from up to 57 miles away for people’s baths, fountains, and even toilets. (Some ancient aqueducts still provide water to modern-day Rome!)

Julius Caesar even gave the world its 365-day calendar with an extra day every fourth year, or leap year. The month of July is named after him, and August is named after his successor, Augustus.

• The planets Mercury , Venus,  Mars , Jupiter , and Saturn are named after Roman gods.
• Roman gods inspired the names of two Western months: January (Janus) and March (Mars).
• Romans spoke Latin, the language that modern French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian are based on.
• Ancient Romans used animal and human urine to clean their clothes.
• A hill in modern-day Rome called Monte Testaccio is an ancient garbage dump made up of smashed pots and jars.
• Romans sometimes filled the Colosseum with water and held naval battles inside.

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The lost city of pompeii, the first olympics.

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Navigating the Historical Labyrinth of Ancient Rome: Essay Topics

Welcome, intrepid time travelers and history enthusiasts! As we stand on the brink of another academic exploration, the historical labyrinth of Ancient Rome beckons us. Famous for its grandeur, societal advancements, and dramatic political turmoil, Rome offers a goldmine of captivating topics for your next argumentative essay. To help you on this journey, we present a robust selection of 99 exciting essay topics that span various aspects of Roman civilization.

Table of content

Peeling Back the Layers: Rome Uncovered

What makes Rome so special that it commands our attention more than two millennia after its founding? The city is a fascinating embodiment of countless narratives, where every stone and monument whispers tales of yesteryears.

The story of Rome is one of power and decline, glory and catastrophe. A city that rose from a humble settlement on the banks of the Tiber River to rule a vast empire stretching across three continents. It is an epic tale filled with influential leaders, grand political schemes, momentous battles, and artistic innovations that continue to shape our world.

A plunge into Roman history is akin to unraveling a complex web of interactions, directly and indirectly, affecting societies today. Their architectural innovations, from aqueducts to roads, set a precedent for urban infrastructure. The Roman legal system became a foundation for numerous global legal practices. Concepts of citizenship and governance, notions of entertainment, and even parts of our language owe much to Rome.

Moreover, Rome represents a pivotal point in religious history, being central to the spread of Christianity. The development and dissemination of Christian thought within the Roman Empire and the eventual adoption of Christianity as the state religion had enduring consequences on global religious landscapes.

In a broader sense, understanding Rome means understanding the roots of Western civilization. The rise and fall of this once-majestic Empire provide a window into our collective past, offering insights into humanity’s capacity for creativity, resilience, ambition, and even self-destruction.

Rome offers an abundant, complex, and fascinating field of study, a treasure trove of knowledge waiting to be discovered and appreciated. Unearthing the secrets of Rome is a journey, an intellectual adventure that promises to be as enriching as it is exciting. So, are you ready to join us as we traverse the annals of Roman history, picking up the echoes of the past to comprehend our present better?

Topics Galore: Categories for Your Consideration

To aid your exploration, we’ve organized these essay topics into five broad categories: Society and Culture, Politics and Leaders, Warfare and Conquests, Religion and Mythology, and Architecture and Innovations.

The Mosaic of Society and Culture

Step into the everyday life of a Roman citizen, explore their social norms and examine the pivotal Role of culture in shaping the Roman Empire.

Topic Examples:

• The Class Structure of Roman Society: Patricians and Plebeians
• The Evolution of Roman Law and Its Impact on Modern Legal Systems
• The Role of Women in Roman Society
• Slavery in Rome: A Comparative Analysis with Ancient Greece
• The Significance of Roman Festivals and Public Spectacles
• Gladiatorial Games: a Societal Necessity or Brutal Entertainment?
• The Impact of Roman Colonization on Indigenous Cultures
• The Role of Patronage in the Roman Arts
• Language Diversity in the Roman Empire: a Study of Vernacular Languages
• Roman Festivals: an Exploration of Seasonal Celebrations and Their Societal Implications
• The Roman Culinary Arts: From the Simple to the Extravagant
• The Influence of Greek Culture on Roman Society
• The Impact of Rome on Modern Western Civilization
• The Societal Impact of Roman Clothing and Fashion
• An Analysis of the Roman Education System
• Roman Theater: a Societal Mirror or Mere Entertainment?
• The Role of Sports and Recreation in Roman Society
• Roman Marriage Customs and Their Influence on Societal Structure
• Influence of Latin: from Roman Streets to Modern Linguistics
• Roman Literature and Its Reflection on Society
• Graffiti in Pompeii: a Snapshot of Roman Culture
• The Significance of Patron-Client Relationships in Roman Society
• The Societal Role of the Roman Baths
• Roman Dining Customs: a Look at the Convivium
• Examination of Roman Social Clubs and Associations
• Roman Funeral Rituals and Beliefs About Death
• Childhood in Rome: From birth to Adulthood
• Roman Slavery: a Study of Manumission and Freedmen
• The Impact of Greek Philosophy on Roman Society
• Urban Versus Rural Life in Roman Society
• The Contribution of Rome to Modern Theatre
• The Influence of Rome on Western Literature
• The Effect of Roman Tax Policies on Its Citizens
• Examination of Roman Housing and City Planning
• Trade and Commerce in the Roman Empire
• An Overview of Roman Education: From Wax Tablets to Schools
• Influence of Roman Laws on Today’s Legal Systems
• The Cultural Significance of Roman Mosaics and Frescoes
• An In-Depth Look at Roman Entertainment
• Roman Citizenship: Privileges and Responsibilities
• The Role of Public Speaking and Rhetoric in Roman Society
• Influence of Roman Numerals on Modern Numbering Systems
• Roman Jewelry: More than Mere Decoration
• The Life of a Roman Soldier: Expectations and Reality
• The Societal Implications of Roman Expansion
• The Significance of Roman Trade Routes
• The Role of Women in Different Sectors of Roman Society
• The Societal Influence of the Pax Romana
• The Importance of the Family Unit in Roman Society
• An Analysis of Roman Coinage and Its Symbolism
• The Societal Impact of the Roman Calendar
• Roman Music: Its Characteristics and Influence on Modern Music

The Grand Stage of Politics and Leaders

Dive into the tumultuous political arena of Rome and discover the individuals whose leadership shaped the Empire’s destiny.

• Julius Caesar: Revolutionary Leader or Tyrant?
• The Political Implications of Caesar’s Assassination
• The Influence and Impact of the Twelve Tables
• The Transition From the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire
• A Critique of Emperor Nero’s Reign
• The Political Structure of the Roman Empire: a Detailed Study
• The Role of the Roman Senate in the Governance of the Empire
• Analysis of Augustus’ Policies and Their Impact on Rome
• The Rise and Fall of Julius Caesar: a Critical Analysis
• The Political Genius of Emperor Augustus
• The Significance of the Roman Consuls
• An Analysis of the Political Reforms of the Gracchi Brothers
• A Critique of the Rule of Emperor Marcus Aurelius
• An Examination of the Roman Legal System
• The Legacy of Roman Law on Contemporary Legal Practices
• The Reign of Emperor Hadrian: Rome’s Grand Builder
• The Roman Republic vs. the Roman Empire: a Comparison
• The Political Impact of Rome’s Geographic Location
• The Role of the Praetorian Guard in Roman Politics
• Examination of Political Propaganda in Ancient Rome
• The Political Implications of Roman Citizenship
• Influence and Power: the Political Role of Roman Women
• The Effect of Roman Colonization on the Provinces
• Examination of the Political Climate During the Pax Romana
• The Political Strategy behind Roman Road Construction
• The Rule of Emperor Constantine and the Christian Shift
• An Analysis of the Reign of Emperor Diocletian
• Influence of Roman Political Ideologies on Western Political Thought
• Examination of Roman Provincial Administration
• The Influence of Roman Bureaucracy on Modern Administrative Systems
• The Role and Power of the Roman Assemblies
• Impact of the Roman Legal Code on International Law
• Political Conflicts and Their Impact on Rome’s Fall
• An Overview of the Roman Tax System
• The Rule of Emperor Trajan: Rome at Its Zenith
• Role of Foreign Policy in Rome’s Expansion
• The Societal Impact of the ‘Bread and Circuses’ Policy
• The Transition of Power: from Republic to Imperial Rule
• Examination of Treason Laws in the Roman Empire
• The Influence of Stoicism on Roman Leaders
• The Political Significance of the Roman Forum
• The Use and Misuse of Political Power in Rome
• The Influence of Roman Political Architecture
• An Examination of Roman Diplomacy
• The Influence of Emperor Justinian on Roman Law
• Roman Economy: a Source of Political Power?
• The Political Implications of the Roman Census
• The Impact of Corruption on the Decline of the Roman Empire
• Analysis of the Social Mobility in Roman Political Structures
• Examination of the Power Dynamics within the Roman Imperial Family
• The Impact of the “Princeps” Title on the Image of Roman Leadership
• The Role of Tribunes in the Roman Political Landscape

Epic Battles: Warfare and Conquests

Explore Rome’s military might, strategic brilliance, and the monumental conquests that expanded its boundaries.

• The Significance of the Punic Wars in Rome’s Rise to Power
• Roman Military Tactics: a Study of the Roman Legion
• The Impact of Rome’s Military Conquests on Its Economy and Culture
• The Reasons Behind the Fall of the Roman Empire
• The Role of the Roman Navy in the Expansion of the Empire
• A Comparative Study of Roman and Greek Military Strategies
• Analysis of the Barbarian Invasions and Their Effect on Rome
• The Causes and Effects of the Roman Civil War
• Rome vs. Carthage: a Comparative Study of Military Might
• The Military Strategies of Julius Caesar
• An Analysis of the Roman Siege Warfare
• The Military Significance of the Battle of Actium
• The Influence of Roman Military Tactics on Modern Warfare
• Examination of the Roman Siege of Jerusalem
• The Role of the Roman Navy During the Punic Wars
• The Influence of Roman Military Gear and Equipment
• Analysis of the Roman Military Training and Discipline
• Roman Logistics: a Key to Military Success
• The Societal Implications of Rome’s Military Victories
• The Role of the Military in Roman Politics
• The Impact of Rome’s Military Culture on Its Society
• The Roman Army: an Instrument of Imperialism
• The Effect of the Roman Military on Conquered Societies
• The Influence of Roman Fortifications on Modern Military Architecture
• A Study of the Roman Auxiliary Troops
• Analysis of the Roman Military Hierarchy
• The Significance of Roman Military Law
• The Role of Military Engineering in Roman Conquests
• The Strategic Importance of Roman Camps
• A Detailed Study of the Roman Cavalry
• Examination of the Roman Defenses along the Rhine and Danube
• An Analysis of the Roman Supply Lines and Logistics
• The Societal Impact of the Roman Military-Industrial Complex
• The Psychological Warfare Employed by the Romans
• A Study of Roman Battlefield Medicine
• The Role of Intelligence and Espionage in Roman Military Strategy
• The Influence of Roman Military Formations
• The Significance of Roman Veterans in Society
• A Study of the Roman Military Standard
• An Analysis of the Role of Mercenaries in the Roman Army
• The Military Innovations of the Romans
• The Impact of Rome’s War Economy on Society
• A Detailed Study of the Roman Military Roads
• The Influence of Roman Naval Warfare
• A Study of the Roman War Chariots
• An Analysis of the Military Decorations and Honors in Rome
• The Impact of Military Defeats on Rome’s Societal and Political Landscape
• The Influence of Military Infrastructure on the Expansion of the Roman Empire
• The Role of Strategic Fortifications in the Defense of the Roman Empire
• Roman Imperialism: A Study of the Motivations Behind Rome’s Territorial Expansions
• An Examination of Roman War Elephants
• The Impact of the Roman Military on the Spread of the Latin Language

Religion and Mythology: Unraveling the Intricacies of Divine Rome

Unravel the complexities of Roman religious beliefs and mythology and their influence on Roman society.

• The Role of Religion in Roman society
• The Influence of Greek Mythology on Roman Religious Beliefs
• The Cult of the Emperor: Its Inception and Impact
• The Role of Augurs and Oracles in Roman Society
• The Introduction and Spread of Christianity in Rome
• Analysis of Roman Gods and Their Societal Significance
• Mithraism in the Roman Empire: a Detailed Study
• The Impact of Roman Mythology on Roman Societal Norms
• The Significance of Sacrificial Rituals in Roman Religion
• Comparative Study of Roman and Greek Gods
• The Societal Role of Roman Priesthoods
• An Analysis of the Roman State Religion
• The Influence of Roman Religious Festivals on the Societal Structure
• The Role of Religion in Roman Military Campaigns
• An Examination of the Roman Funeral Rites
• The Impact of the Roman Belief in Omens and Divination
• The Societal and Political Implications of the Vestal Virgins
• The Role of Astrology in Roman Religion
• An Analysis of the Eastern Religions in Rome
• The Significance of Roman Temples in Society
• The Evolution of the Roman Pantheon
• The Transition from Roman Polytheism to Christian Monotheism
• The Impact of Roman Religious Tolerance
• Examination of the Religious Symbolism in Roman Art
• The Influence of Roman Religion on Roman Law
• A Detailed Study of Roman Religious Festivals
• The Effect of Christianity on Roman Society and Culture
• A Study of the Persecution of Christians in Rome
• An Examination of the Religious Implications of the Roman Imperial Cult
• The Relationship between Roman Religion and Philosophy
• The Cultural Implications of Roman Burial Practices
• The Role of Mythology in Roman Literature
• The Impact of Roman Religious Architecture
• The Role of Roman Religion in Public Life
• The Influence of Roman Mythology on Western Culture
• Examination of the Roman Religious Calendar
• The Role of Religious Syncretism in Rome
• The Societal Implications of Roman Oracles and Prophecies
• The Significance of Roman Mystery Cults
• An Analysis of the Religious Landscape of Rome
• The Impact of the Roman Catacombs on the Christian Religion
• A Study of the Religious Rites and Rituals in Roman Society
• The Role of Roman Religion in the Preservation of Rome’s Heritage
• An Examination of the Roman Beliefs about the Afterlife
• The Influence of Roman Religion on Roman Music and Theater
• A Detailed Study of the Capitoline Triad
• The Societal Implications of Roman Religious Sculptures and Carvings
• The Impact of Roman Religious Beliefs on Medical Practices
• Examination of Syncretism in Roman Religious Practices
• Influence of Roman Religious and Mythological Narratives on European Literature
• Roman Death Rituals: a Study of Belief in the Afterlife
• The Societal and Political Impact of the Cult of Isis in Rome

Architecture and Innovations: Standing on the Shoulders of Roman Giants

Delve into the architectural marvels of Rome and discover the innovations that advanced Roman society.

• The Architectural Grandeur of the Colosseum: an In-Depth Analysis
• The Significance of Roman Roads and Their Influence on Modern Infrastructure
• The Invention of Concrete and Its Impact on Roman Architecture
• The Design and Purpose of Roman Aqueducts
• A Comparative Study of Roman and Greek Architecture
• The Engineering Marvel of the Roman Sewage System: the Cloaca Maxima
• The Cultural Significance of Roman Baths
• The Architectural Significance of the Roman Arch
• The Role of the Roman Pantheon in Architectural History
• An Analysis of the Roman Domus: From Layout to Lifestyle
• The Influence of Roman Architecture on the Renaissance Period
• An Examination of Roman City Planning
• The Architectural and Cultural Significance of the Roman Basilicas
• The Societal Implications of the Roman Insulae
• A Study of the Construction Techniques of Roman Bridges
• The Innovation and Importance of the Roman Hypocaust System
• An Analysis of the Use of the Arch in Roman Architecture
• The Architectural Marvel of the Roman Thermae
• The Influence of Roman Architecture on Modern Stadium Design
• The Evolution of Roman Wall Painting Styles
• The Architectural Significance of the Roman Villa
• An Examination of the Engineering of the Roman Aqueducts
• The Societal Implications of Roman Road Construction
• A Study of the Roman Forum and Its Buildings
• An Analysis of the Principles of Roman Urban Planning
• The Influence of Roman Architecture on Western Civilization
• The Impact of Roman construction materials and Techniques
• The Use and Symbolism of Roman Sculpture in Public Spaces
• The Aesthetic and Functional Aspects of Roman Gardens
• The Architectural and Societal Importance of Roman Theatres
• The Influence of Roman Military Architecture on Modern Fortifications
• The Significance of the Appian Way
• An Analysis of the Roman Use of the Dome
• The Roman Use of Concrete and Its Influence on Modern Architecture
• The Societal Role of the Roman Circus
• An Examination of the Architectural Innovations in the Colosseum
• A Study of the Architectural Layout of a Roman Military Camp
• An Examination of the Impact of Roman Architecture on Religious Structures
• The Design and Functionality of the Roman Sewer System
• An Analysis of the Roman Use of Column Orders
• The Societal Implications of Roman Public Squares
• The Architectural Legacy of Emperor Hadrian
• A Study of the Architecture and Design of Roman Ports
• An Examination of Roman Lighthouses and Their Architectural Importance
• The Architectural and Societal Impact of Roman Catacombs
• The Influence of Roman Architecture on European Cathedrals
• An Analysis of the Architectural and Artistic Features of Roman Triumphal Arches
• Roman Engineering: a Study of the Design and Construction of Roman Harbors
• The Societal Implications of Roman Apartment Buildings (Insulae)
• Roman City Defenses: a Study of Walls and Fortifications
• The Architectural Significance of the Roman Triumphal Columns
• Roman Villas: a Study of Country Houses and Their Impact on Roman Society

As you embark on this journey through time, remember that the goal of an argumentative essay is to present a balanced view substantiated by solid research and evidence. Choose a topic that excites you, gather your evidence, and embark on an intellectual adventure into the heart of Ancient Rome.

Let the spirit of Rome guide your pen! Happy writing, history explorers!

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1. Exploring Riveting World History Before 1500 Paper Topics 2. Navigating Through the Labyrinth of Ancient History Topics 3. Intriguing Modern History Topics for Engaging Research 4. Stirring the Pot: Controversial Topics in History for Research Paper 5. Navigating Historical Debates: History Argumentative Essay Topics

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Theater and amphitheater in the roman world.

Bronze grotesque

Bronze statuette of a draped man

Glass gladiator cup

Terracotta oil lamp

Carnelian intaglio of a gladiator fighting a lion

Terracotta statuette of a gladiator

Glass fragmentary beaker with painted decoration

Laura S. Klar Department of Greek and Roman Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2006

Spectacle was an integral part of life in the Roman world. Some forms of spectacle—triumphal processions, aristocratic funerals, and public banquets, for example—took as their backdrop the city itself. Others were held in purpose-built spectator buildings: theaters for plays and other scenic entertainment, amphitheaters for gladiatorial combats and wild beast shows, stadia for athletic competitions , and circuses for chariot races ( 59.11.14 ). As a whole, this pervasive culture of spectacle served both as a vehicle for self-advertisement by the sociopolitical elite and as a means of reinforcing the shared values and institutions of the entire community.

Theater in the Roman World According to the ancient historian Livy, the earliest theatrical activity at Rome took the form of dances with musical accompaniment, introduced to the city by the Etruscans in 364 B.C. The literary record also indicates that Atellanae, a form of native Italic farce (much like the phlyakes [ 24.97.104 ] of southern Italy), were performed at Rome by a relatively early date. In 240 B.C. , full-length, scripted plays were introduced to Rome by the playwright Livius Andronicus, a native of the Greek city of Tarentum in southern Italy. The earliest Latin plays to have survived intact are the comedies of Plautus (active ca. 205–184 B.C. ), which were principally adaptations of Greek New Comedy . Latin tragedy also flourished during the second century B.C. While some examples of the genre treated stories from Greek myth, others were concerned with famous episodes from Roman history . After the second century B.C. , the composition of both tragedy and comedy declined precipitously at Rome. During the imperial period , the most popular forms of theatrical entertainment were mime (ribald comic productions with sensational plots and sexual innuendo) and pantomime (performances by solo dancers with choral accompaniment, usually re-creating tragic myths).

The principal occasions for dramatic spectacles in the Roman world were yearly religious festivals, or ludi , organized by elected magistrates and funded from the state treasury. Temple dedications, military triumphs, and aristocratic funerals also provided opportunities for scenic performances. Until 55 B.C. , there was no permanent theater in the city of Rome, and plays were staged in temporary, wooden structures, intended to stand for a few weeks at most. The ancient sources concur that the delay in constructing a permanent theater was due to active senatorial opposition, although the possible reasons for this resistance (concern for Roman morality, fear of popular sedition, competition among the elite) remain a subject of debate. Literary accounts of temporary theaters indicate that they could be quite elaborate. The best documented is a theater erected by the magistrate M. Aemilius Scaurus in 58 B.C. , which Pliny reports to have had a stage-building comprised of three stories of columns and ornamented with 3,000 bronze statues.

The first permanent theater in the city of Rome was the Theater of Pompey, dedicated in 55 B.C. by Julius Caesar’s rival, Pompey the Great. The theater, of which only the foundations are preserved, was an enormous structure, rising to approximately 45 meters and capable of holding up to 20,000 spectators. At the rear of the stage-building was a large, colonnaded portico, which housed artworks and gardens. Constructed in the wake of Pompey’s spectacular military campaigns of the 60s B.C. , the theater functioned in large part as a victory monument. The cavea (seating area) was crowned by a temple to Venus Victrix, Pompey’s patron deity, and the theater was decorated with statues of the goddess Victory and personifications of the nations that Pompey had subdued in battle.

Pompey’s dedication effectively canonized the form of the Roman theater, providing a prototype that would be replicated across the empire for nearly three centuries. This new building type differed in striking ways from the traditional Greek theater . The latter consisted of two separate structures: a horseshoe-shaped seating area and a freestanding stage-building. The Roman theater, in contrast, was a fully enclosed edifice, unroofed but often covered with awnings on performance days. The seating area in the Greek theater was supported against a natural hillside, whereas the Roman theater was carried at least in part on concrete vaults, which provided access from the exterior of the building to the cavea. In the Hellenistic world , the stage-building was a relatively low structure, ornamented with painted panels but rarely with large-scale sculpture. The Roman theater, on the other hand, was characterized by a tall, wide scaenae frons (stage-front) with multiple stories, articulated by freestanding columns and lavishly ornamented with statues of gods and heroes and portraits of the imperial family and local luminaries.

The architectural differences between the Roman theater and its Greek predecessor are not satisfactorily explained by functional factors such as optics, acoustics, or staging needs. Rather, Rome’s adaptation of the Greek theater seems to have been driven largely by social and political forces. The columnar scaenae frons , for example, may have developed to house statuary looted from Greece and Asia Minor by Roman generals and exhibited at triumphal games as evidence of their military prowess. The architecture of the Roman theater also signals Roman concern for social control and hierarchical display. In contrast to the Greek world, where seating in the theater was largely open, Roman audiences were rigorously segregated on the basis of class, gender, nationality, profession, and marital status. This is reflected in both the enclosed form of the Roman theater, which restricted access to the building, and the system of vaulted substructures, which facilitated the routing of spectators to the appropriate sector of seating.

Amphitheater in the Roman World In contrast to the Roman theater, which evolved from Greek models, the amphitheater had no architectural precedent in the Greek world. Likewise, the spectacles that took place in the amphitheater—gladiatorial combats and venationes (wild beast shows)—were Italic, not Greek, in origin. The earliest secure evidence for gladiatorial contests comes from the painted decoration of a fourth-century B.C. tomb at Paestum in southern Italy. Several ancient authors record that gladiatorial combat was introduced to Rome in 264 B.C. , on the occasion of munera (funeral games) in honor of an elite citizen named D. Iunius Brutus Pera. By the mid-first century B.C. , gladiatorial contests were staged not only at funerals, but also at state-sponsored festivals ( ludi ). Throughout the imperial period, they remained an important route to popular favor for emperors and provincial leaders. In 325 A.D. , Constantine (26.229) , the first Christian emperor, prohibited gladiatorial combat on the grounds that it was too bloodthirsty for peacetime. Literary, epigraphic, and archaeological evidence indicates, however, that gladiatorial games continued at least until the mid-fifth century A.D.

As in the case of theatrical entertainment, the earliest venues for gladiatorial games at Rome were temporary, wooden structures. As early as 218 B.C. , according to Livy, gladiatorial contests were staged in the elongated, open space of the Roman Forum, with wooden stands for spectators. These temporary structures probably provided the prototype for the monumental amphitheater, a building type characterized by an elliptical seating area enclosing a flat performance space. The first securely datable, stone amphitheater is the one at Pompeii, constructed in 80–70 B.C. Like most early amphitheaters, the Pompeian example has an austere, functional appearance, with the seats partially supported on earthen embankments.

The earliest stone amphitheater at Rome was constructed in 29 B.C. by T. Statilius Taurus, one of the most trusted generals of the emperor Augustus . This building burned down during the great fire of 64 A.D. and was replaced by the Colosseum (59.570.426) , dedicated by the emperor Titus in 80 A.D. and still one of Rome’s most prominent landmarks . Unlike earlier amphitheaters, the Colosseum featured elaborate basement amenities , including animal cages and mechanical elevators, as well as a complex system of vaulted, concrete substructures. The facade consisted of three stories of superimposed arcades flanked by engaged columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. Representations of the building on ancient coins indicate that colossal statues of gods and heroes stood in the upper arcades. The inclusion of Greek columnar orders and copies of Greek statues may reflect a desire to promote the amphitheater, a uniquely Roman building type, to the same level in the architectural hierarchy as the theater, with its venerable Greek precedents.

In addition to gladiatorial contests, the amphitheater provided the venue for venationes, spectacles involving the slaughter of animals by trained hunters called venatores or bestiarii. Venationes were expensive to mount and hence served to advertise the wealth and generosity of the officials who sponsored them. The inclusion of exotic species (lions, panthers, rhinoceri, elephants, etc.) also demonstrated the vast reach of Roman dominion. A third type of spectacle that took place in the amphitheater was the public execution. Condemned criminals were slain by crucifixion, cremation, or attack by wild beasts, and were sometimes forced to reenact gruesome myths.

Klar, Laura S. “Theater and Amphitheater in the Roman World.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tham/hd_tham.htm (October 2006)

Further Reading

Beacham, Richard C. The Roman Theatre and Its Audience . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992.

Bieber, Margarete. The History of the Greek and Roman Theater . 2d ed., rev. and enl. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961.

Ciancio Rossetto, Paola, and Giuseppina Pisani Sartorio, eds. Teatri greci e romani: Alle origini del linguaggio rappresentato . 3 vols. Rome: Edizioni SEAT, 1994–96.

Frézouls, Edmond. "Aspects de l'histoire architecturale du théâtre romain." In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt , vol. II.12.1, edited by Hildegard Temporini, pp. 343–441. Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1982.

Golvin, Jean-Claude. L'amphithéâtre romain: Essai sur la théorisation de sa forme et de ses fonctions . 2 vols. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard, 1988.

Welch, Katherine E. The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

Wiedemann, Thomas. Emperors and Gladiators . London: Routledge, 1992.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Ancient Rome — How Ancient Rome Affected The Modern World

How Ancient Rome Affected The Modern World

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