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The Components of Attitude

Definition, Formation, Changes

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Overview of Attitude

Attitude formation, attitudes and behavior, why attitudes change, frequently asked questions.

In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event.

Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing. They can have a powerful influence over behavior and affect how people act in various situations. While attitudes are enduring, they can also change. The main components of attitude are cognitive, affective, and behavioral, which means they incorporate thoughts, feelings, and actions.

This article explores what attitudes mean in psychology and how they are formed. It also covers how attitudes impact behaviors and factors contributing to attitude change.

Illustration by JR Bee, Verywell 

To understand the meaning of attitudes, it can be helpful to look at a few different examples. Attitude can refer to:

• Your opinion on the death penalty
• Your opinion about which political party does a better job of running the country
• Whether prayer be allowed in schools
• Whether violence on television be regulated

Chances are that you probably have fairly strong opinions on these and similar questions. You've developed attitudes about such issues, and these attitudes influence your beliefs as well as your behavior. Attitudes are an important topic of study within the field of social psychology . But what exactly is an attitude? How does it develop? 

How Psychologists Define Attitudes

Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can include evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events. Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at times.

For example, you might have mixed feelings about a particular person or issue. Researchers also suggest that there are several different characteristics that make up attitudes. The components of attitudes are sometimes referred to as the ABC's of attitude.

3 Components of Attitude

• Affective Component:  How the object, person, issue, or event makes you feel
• Cognitive Component:  Your thoughts and beliefs about the subject
• Behavioral Component:  How attitude influences your behavior

Attitudes can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitudes are those that we are consciously aware of and that clearly influence our behaviors and beliefs. Implicit attitudes are unconscious but still have an effect on our beliefs and behaviors.

Several factors can influence how and why attitudes form, including:

Attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due to direct personal experience, or they may result from observation.

Social Factors

Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve society's rules for what behaviors are considered appropriate.

Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Consider how advertisers use classical conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television commercial, you see young, beautiful people having fun on a tropical beach while enjoying a sports drink. This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive association with this particular beverage.

Conditioning

Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a young man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain, chastise him, and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around him eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up the habit.

Observation

Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing people around them. When someone you admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the same beliefs. For example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their parents and usually begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.

Attitudes can form through direct experience, social influence, formal education, conditioning processes, and observation.

We tend to assume that people behave according to their attitudes. However, social psychologists have found that attitudes and actual behavior are not always perfectly aligned.

After all, plenty of people support a particular candidate or political party yet fail to vote. People also are more likely to behave according to their attitudes under certain conditions.

Factors Influencing Attitude Strength

• Are an expert on the subject
• Expect a favorable outcome
• Experience something personally
• Stand to win or lose something due to the issue
• Are repeatedly expressed attitudes

Changing to Match Behavior

In some cases, people may alter their attitudes to better align them with their behavior. Cognitive dissonance is a phenomenon in which a person experiences psychological distress due to conflicting thoughts or beliefs. In order to reduce this tension, people may change their attitudes to reflect their other beliefs or actual behaviors.

Using Cognitive Dissonance

Imagine the following situation: You've always placed a high value on financial security, but you start dating someone very financially unstable. You have two options to reduce the tension caused by conflicting beliefs and behavior.

You can end the relationship and seek a more financially secure partner, or you can de-emphasize the importance of fiscal stability.

In order to minimize the cognitive dissonance between your conflicting attitude and behavior, you either have to change the attitude or change your actions.

While attitudes can have a powerful effect on behavior, they are not set in stone. The same influences that lead to attitude formation can also create attitude change.

Learning Theory

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning can be used to bring about attitude change. Classical conditioning can be used to create positive emotional reactions to an object, person, or event by associating positive feelings with the target object.

Operant conditioning can be used to strengthen desirable attitudes and weaken undesirable ones. People can also change their attitudes after observing the behavior of others.

Elaboration Likelihood Theory

This theory of persuasion suggests that people can alter their attitudes in two ways. First, they can be motivated to listen and think about the message, thus leading to an attitude shift.

Or, they might be influenced by the characteristics of the speaker, leading to a temporary or surface shift in attitude. Messages that are thought-provoking and that appeal to logic are more likely to lead to permanent changes in attitudes.

Dissonance Theory

As mentioned earlier, people can also change their attitudes when they have conflicting beliefs about a topic. In order to reduce the tension created by these incompatible beliefs, people often shift their attitudes.

Attitudes are not set in stone and may change when people learn new information, when they are persuaded by influential people, or when they experience discomfort due to holding conflicting beliefs.

A Word From Verywell

Attitudes play a pivotal role in shaping human behavior, from the choices people make about living their lives to the health behaviors they engage in daily. Understanding where these attitudes come from and how they sometimes change can help you look for ways to improve your attitudes, whether it means adopting a more positive outlook on life or changing your opinion based on new information.

Attitudes can be positive or negative, and explicit or implicit. Positive attitudes involves good feelings, where negative attitudes are charaterized by hostility, anger, or dislike. Explicit attitudes are conscious, while implicit attitudes are unconscious.

The cognitive component of attitude involves the thoughts that people have about something. The affective component refers to the emotional response tht people have about the attitudinal object. 

International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences. 3 D Model of Attitude.

Chaiklin, H. Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Practice . The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare : Vol. 38 : Iss. 1 , Article 3. 

Perlovsky L.  A challenge to human evolution—cognitive dissonance.  Frontiers in Psychology . 2013;4. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00179.

American Psychological Association.  Teaching tip sheet: Attitudes and behavior change . 

• Chaiklin H. Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Practice.  Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare . 2011. 
• Teaching Tip Sheet: Attitudes and Behavior Change.  American Psychological Association.  http://www.apa.org/pi/aids/resources/education/attitude-change.aspx

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Essay on Attitude And Values

Students are often asked to write an essay on Attitude And Values in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Attitude And Values

Understanding attitude and values.

Attitude is the way we think and feel about something. It is our mental outlook on things. For example, we may have a positive attitude towards studying or a negative attitude towards cleaning.

What are Values?

Values are the things that are important to us. They guide our actions and decisions. For example, if honesty is a value, we will always tell the truth.

Link Between Attitude and Values

Our values shape our attitudes. If we value hard work, we will have a positive attitude towards it. Our attitudes also reflect our values.

Importance of Positive Attitude and Values

Having a positive attitude and good values is important. It helps us to be happy and successful. It also helps us to make good choices and be good people.

In conclusion, our attitude and values are very important. They shape who we are and how we act. So, it is important to have a positive attitude and good values.

250 Words Essay on Attitude And Values

Attitude and values are two important parts of our life. They shape our thoughts, actions, and how we see the world. Attitude is how we feel about something or someone. It can be positive or negative. Values are the things we believe are good and important. They guide our behavior and choices.

The Role of Attitude

Attitude is like a mental filter through which we see the world. It can shape our thoughts and actions. For example, if we have a positive attitude towards school, we will enjoy learning. We will be eager to go to school and study. But if we have a negative attitude, we might not like school. We might feel bored or unhappy there. So, our attitude can change our experiences.

The Importance of Values

Values are like a compass that guides us. They help us decide what is right and wrong. For example, if we value honesty, we will always tell the truth. If we value kindness, we will be kind to others. So, our values guide our actions and behavior.

Attitude and Values Together

Attitude and values are closely related. Our values can shape our attitude. For example, if we value hard work, we will have a positive attitude towards challenges. We will see them as opportunities to learn and grow. So, our values can influence our attitude.

In conclusion, attitude and values are very important. They shape our thoughts, actions, and experiences. They help us become better people. So, we should always try to have a positive attitude and good values.

500 Words Essay on Attitude And Values

Introduction to attitude and values.

Attitude and values are two key concepts that help us understand our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Attitude is the way we think and feel about something or someone. It is like a mental filter through which we experience the world around us. On the other hand, values are the beliefs that guide our decisions and behavior. They are like a compass that shows us the right way to act.

Understanding Attitude

Attitude is a mix of thoughts and feelings. It is not something we are born with, but something we learn from our experiences and surroundings. For example, if you have a positive attitude towards studying, you might see it as a chance to learn new things and enjoy the process. But if you have a negative attitude, you might see studying as a boring task.

Our attitude can change depending on the situation and our experiences. This is why it is important to always try to keep a positive attitude. A positive attitude can help us overcome challenges, make us happier, and lead us to success.

The Role of Values

Values are the deep beliefs that we hold about what is right and wrong, good and bad. They are the rules by which we live our lives. For example, if honesty is a value for you, you will always try to tell the truth. If respect is a value, you will treat others with kindness and understanding.

Values are usually learned from our family, culture, religion, and education. They shape our character and influence our choices. They help us decide what is important in life and guide us in our actions.

Connection between Attitude and Values

Attitude and values are closely linked. Our values often shape our attitudes. For example, if you value hard work, you might have a positive attitude towards challenges and see them as opportunities to grow. On the other hand, if you value comfort and ease, you might have a negative attitude towards hard work and see it as something to avoid.

In the same way, our attitudes can influence our values. If we have a positive attitude towards kindness, we might start to value it more. If we have a negative attitude towards dishonesty, we might start to value honesty more.

In conclusion, attitude and values are two important factors that shape our thoughts, feelings, and actions. They interact with each other and influence our behavior. By understanding our attitudes and values, we can better understand ourselves and make better decisions. We can also work on improving our attitudes and values to become better people and lead more fulfilling lives. Remember, a positive attitude and good values can make a big difference in our lives.

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Articles About Attitude: Top 5 and 9 Prompts

Articles about attitude are important in Psychology as they reflect human behaviors and viewpoints. See our top examples and prompts to guide you in writing. 

Attitude is a complex topic that encompasses many aspects of human nature and characteristics. It refers to an individual’s mindset, specifically how they react to something. In Psychology, attitude is divided into cognitive, emotional, and behavioral parts. It can also be explicit or implicit.

Articles about attitude help readers understand why people operate and respond the way they do. They are critical in investigative research to collect further relevant information about thought processes and decision-making techniques that support or hinder human growth. To inspire you, browse some essays about psychology before beginning your article.

5 Article Examples

1. the ‘can do’ attitude that defines hong kong by gary jones, 2. when does a good attitude become toxic positivity by jen rose smith, 3. attitude in psychology: definition, formation, changes by kendra cherry, 4. why attitude beats aptitude when hiring by ned smith, 5. people’s casual attitude to blame for rising covid infections: medical experts by pti, 7 prompts to write articles about attitude, 1. what is attitude, 2. significant influences on attitude, 3. positive and negative attitudes, 4. primary functions of attitude, 5. attitude vs. behavior, 6. bad attitudes in the workplace, 7. is attitude learned or genetic, 8. attitude and current events, 9. political and moral attitude.

“… Hong Kong’s 7.4 million people also take pride in an intangible quality that they claim as their own. The “Lion Rock Spirit” – which describes their collective determination to better their lives against seemingly insurmountable odds – is, believers say, hardwired in the Asian city.”

Jones’s article examines the “Lion Rock Spirit,” which refers to Hong Kong citizens’ old beliefs and attitudes. He explains that this attitude of striving to win opportunities, climb the social ladder, and have a bright future has changed many lives and made Hong Kong a more affluent and better country. He presents Li Ka-Shing ‘s case as an example to prove that this attitude is key to success. Jones believes that one thing will not change, and it’s the people’s attitude of working hard to achieve their goals.

“It’s not that being cheerful is a bad thing. A positive attitude can be a gift to those around you… but it shouldn’t take the place of listening thoughtfully to others’ experiences.”

Smith demonstrates how a positive attitude can inadvertently turn to toxic positivity. With experts’ research supporting her subject, she speaks about the negative impact of constant positivity and whether there’s anything good that results from feeling bad. Smith defines toxic positivity as an attitude in which a person focuses only on a particular or desired perspective and ignores real and challenging experiences.

“Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing. They can have a powerful influence over behavior and affect how people act in various situations. While attitudes are enduring, they can also change.”

This article includes a psychologist’s definition of attitude, stating it’s a learned behavior they use to evaluate people, issues, things, and events in a positive or negative light. Cherry mentions the three components of attitude and the factors that affect attitude formation, such as conditioning, social factors, and experience. 

“Nearly half of them are going to fail before hitting their second anniversary and most of the time it isn’t because they don’t have the right skills — it’s because they don’t have the right attitude.”

This article features an interview with Mark Murphy, a CEO, and author of the book “ Hiring for Attitude , ” which discusses the right way to hire people to improve the company’s future. It explains that while hiring skilled individuals is essential, most employees who are fired just a month after onboarding are those with attitude. Murphy says that competitiveness and individualism undermine a collaborative workplace, especially in a small business, so employees with the right attitude are critical.

Smith and Murphy also speak about “brown shorts,” or the unique way of getting the right people with a specific attitude. This article also briefly addresses questions that an interviewer should avoid during a typical 60-minute interview.

“The attitude of the people is as if Covid-19 has receded and even as if it was never there. Don’t understand how have they forgotten the condition during the two waves so easily and given up using masks and maintaining social distancing.”

This article focuses on the carefree attitude of West Bengal people as the root cause of the resurgence of pandemic positives in the area. Because of their casual attitude of believing that they are immune to the virus because they are fully vaccinated, they stopped following safety protocols. 

When editing for grammar, we also recommend taking the time to improve the readability score of a piece of writing before publishing or submitting

Many put their attitudes in high regard. Some even consider it more important than ability, money, or education. Use this prompt to explain attitude, its classifications, and the three components it has. After clarifying the basics, rationalize why attitude is an interesting research subject, including why people are bound to have it.

Society, culture, and family are just a few factors that shape a person’s attitude. In this prompt, identify and examine other causal factors that significantly affect the development of a person’s attitude. Then, present why a person’s behavior changes and the process by which this occurs using different theories of behavior change.

There are two main classifications of attitude that a person displays depending on their situation. For this prompt, delve into positive and negative attitudes, then look for the difference between them. Add examples that show how people use these attitudes in different settings, including the methods to develop and maintain a positive attitude.

Attitude helps people in many ways, such as expressing themselves or choosing appropriate behaviors. Use this prompt to demonstrate the importance of attitude by considering its primary functions. Then, explain how and why an individual needs to maintain a good attitude regardless of age, situation, or company.

Many think “attitude” and “behavior” are the same, but they are not. Clear up this misunderstanding by acknowledging the two definitions and differences. Use reliable data, preferably from esteemed or known experts in the field. You’ll also need to highlight what connects attitude and behavior. One primary difference is that “attitude” refers to mental tendencies while “behavior” constitutes physical actions.

Employee laziness, rudeness, and tardiness are dangerous behaviors that significantly impact the workplace. This prompt identifies and discusses common workplace attitudes and their harmful effects on the individual, their peers, and the organization. Then, add proven methods for preventing and dealing with bad attitudes in the workplace.

Use this prompt to clarify people’s confusion about where a person’s attitude comes from. Review and include studies that show evidence that attitudes are learned and not inherited and vice versa. Answer whether a big part of attitude came from genetics or experience, then include relevant research that supports your findings.

Review articles that show people’s attitudes at various events and discuss why they reacted the way they did based on research or theories from Social Psychology. Add what types of events make people have positive and negative attitudes.

For example, the Twitter shutdown news shocked all its users. While people unhappy with Twitter’s toxicity show a positive attitude, users who use it to connect with their internet friends are saddened, panicked, and angry by this news.

Political and moral attitudes are two different concepts that people often associate with each other. Use this prompt to analyze their meanings and provide a detailed discourse on the differences and similarities between these concepts. Then, explain the importance of political and moral attitudes to a person.

For help editing your articles, we recommend using the best grammar checker . Our round-up profiles these tools and offers discounts.

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

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Essay Samples on Attitude

Relation between positive attitude and success.

Behind every successful person, there is a positive attitude. Before proving this statement, let us know “what is success?” Success can be defined as the accomplishment of aim or victory or triumph in books and dictionaries. But it can be simply defined as the state...

• Positive Psychology

Attitude as the Sole Foundation of Human Individuality

Human minds ponder multiple kinds of thoughts and values which determine our response towards any entity, environment or event. What we think and believe form our attitude, which shapes our behavior and reaction to the environment. Attitude may be defined as a learned psychological tendency...

• Individual Identity

The Theory of Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

This essay is going to critically evaluate how attitudes are formed and changed by analyzing theories and research in social psychology and drawing conclusions on which theory is more credible and applicable in everyday life. First and foremost attitude is defined by Petty & Cacioppo...

• Critical Theory

The Definition of Attitude: Attitude as a Tool for Building Marketing Strategy

Functions of Attitudes Attitude refers to the feeling or an opinion about someone or say something that normally causes a way of behavior in an individual. Attitudes is one of the characters that human beings portray on a daily basis towards life. A good attitude...

• Cognitive Psychology

People's Attitude To Same-Sex Marriages

The development of Americans' states of mind about same-sex marriage has not one, but rather a few hidden causes. As more gays and lesbians turn out to loved ones, more individuals feel an individual association with the issue. The progression of time allows individuals to...

• Same Sex Marriage

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2. Attitude as the Sole Foundation of Human Individuality

3. The Theory of Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

4. The Definition of Attitude: Attitude as a Tool for Building Marketing Strategy

5. People’s Attitude To Same-Sex Marriages

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Home — Essay Samples — Philosophy — Values of Life — My Personal Values in Life

My Personal Values in Life

• Categories: Values of Life

About this sample

Words: 773 |

Published: Jan 31, 2024

Words: 773 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, body paragraph 1: personal value 1, body paragraph 2: personal value 2, body paragraph 3: personal value 3, counterargument.

• Adler, M. J. (2000). The four dimensions of philosophy: Metaphysical, moral, objective, categorical. Routledge.
• Miller, W. R., & Thoresen, C. E. (2003). Spirituality, religion, and health: An emerging research field. American Psychologist, 58(1), 24-35.
• Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford University Press.

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Psychology Discussion

Attitude: compilation of essays on attitude | human behaviour | psychology.

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Here is an essay on ‘Attitude’ for class 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Attitude’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Attitude

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Ways of Changing Attitude

Essay # 1. Definition of Attitudes:

Attitude has been defined in a number of different ways. Allport (1935) defined an attitude as a “mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related.” He looked upon attitude primarily as a set to respond in a particular way.

An attitude is an enduring system that includes a cognitive compo­nent, a feeling component and an action tendency. Attitudes involve an emotional component. This is why when an attitude is formed it becomes resistant to change; it does not generally respond to new facts. An attitude involves beliefs as well as evaluations. The upper caste man has an unfavourable attitude toward a Harijan.

The Indian has an unfavourable attitude toward the Pakistanis or the Chinese. These attitudes involve some knowledge about the other groups (the cogni­tive component), some feelings of dislike (the affective, evolutional component) and a predisposition to avoid, attack etc., (the action component).

A social object is a person, the creation of a person, or a social event. We have attitudes towards individuals and groups, like Gandhi and Indian National Congress or Lohia and the Socialist Party or Annadorai and D.M.K. etc. We have attitudes toward products like Hindustani or Karnatak music, Bharat Natyam or Kathak Dance or motor cars and aeroplanes etc.

There are response consistencies; for example, a person who likes Indira Gandhi will also like Congress R and dislike Congress O or Jan Sangh etc. Thus attitudes give some consistency to our thinking about social objects as well as our feelings towards them. People also tend to act consistently as a result of these consistent beliefs and feelings.

Our attitudes are derived primarily from social influences. From birth, the human being is enmeshed in social institutions which consti­tute his environment in the same sense as the physical world. The home, being the primary social unit, has a great influence on the for­mation of one’s attitudes. This is why later experiences cannot easily alter these attitudes. This is also the reason why attitudes give a con­sistency to our responses to persons, groups, and other social objects.

Essay # 2. Functions of Attitudes:

People have attitudes towards social objects because they:

(a) Help them to organize, simplify and understand the world around them,

(b) Protect their self-esteem, by avoiding unpleasant truths about themselves, and

(c) Allow them to express their fundamental values.

To these three functions must be added a fourth one, that they help them to conform to the group and thus maximize re­wards from the group. Thus attitudes help us to adjust to our environ­ment. Once a social object has been categorized, it is possible to react to it in the manner typical of the group to which we belong. This saves us from a fresh decision and all its difficulties and problems. It helps us to behave in a smooth manner.

Smith et al (1956) have pointed out that one of the functions of attitudes is to provide “externalization” to some inner problems. The man with unresolved inner conflicts and frustrations can direct his hatred towards the out groups. This is one reason why “agitational” approach to social and political problems is more in vogue in India today than the “constitutional” approach.

Even the members of the legislature and the parliament take recourse to agitations whether in favour of prohibition or against cow slaughter. Language problems, border problems, river-water sharing problems and so on have been providing endless opportunities to the political leaders to start agita­tions to overthrow the duly constituted governments.

Katz (1960) discussed four functions that attitudes perform for the personality:

(a) The adjustment function helps to maximize the rewards and minimize the penalties, by agreeing with the majority attitude.

(b) Ego-defensive functions are served by enabling the individual from acknowledging uncomplimentary basic truths about himself; when a person does not get selected for a job he will say that only people with “influence” get jobs these days, though he may himself have asked some legislator or minister to ring up somebody in the selection com­mittee.

(c) Value-expressive functions are involved when the expression of the attitudes gives pleasure to the person since they reveal the values he cherishes as, for example, vegetarianism or prohibition. and

(d) Knowledge functions based on the individual’s need to give struc­ture to his universe, to understand it.

Essay # 3. Major Dimensions of Attitudes:

According to Triandis two major dimensions underlie behaviour toward any kind of attitude object :

(a) Positive vs. negative affect, and

(b) Seeking vs. avoiding contact.

A positive attitude will make a person sacrifice himself to the loved object as in patriotism, for example. A negative attitude may make a person to destroy the government property like the bus or tram or post office. There is seeking contact towards an object with positive affect as in embracing the beloved; there is also seeking contact towards an object with negative affect like in stabbing a person.

Thus, when there is seeking contact with positive affect it is “going toward” and when there is seeking contact with negative affect it is “going against.” When there is avoiding contact with negative affect there is the beha­viour of “going away.”

As an illustration of avoiding contact toward an object with positive affect may be given the behaviour of a person towards one whom he reveres; for example, the youth who is fired by zeal with respect to the “Sarvodaya” movement may develop a great reverence to the Sarvodaya leader, Vinoba Bhave; he has a positive affect towards him, but he would not like to go near him; he may stand at a distance and look at him.

However, most of our behaviour will be along the three types, namely, going toward, going against and going away; the fourth type of avoiding contact with an object with positive affect is rare.

Essay # 4. Formation of Attitudes :

How are attitudes acquired? How do they develop? As noted above the majority of attitudes held by a person are acquired from the mem­bers of the family and from the peer group in early childhood and later. Thus, other people are generally the sources for the formation of attitudes.

Most of our attitudes develop within the group to which we belong. Another source is personal experience; such experiences, however, form a small number; though they are more intense than those formed by association with other people. The most intense, but rare, are the attitudes formed by a “traumatic experience,” like, for example, the shock of being suddenly attacked physically by a member of another communal group.

The cognitive component of attitudes are influenced by the general tendency to categorization. A Muslim meets many Hindus, but he tends to put them all together and simplifies the problem by some such generalization as “All Hindus are unreliable.” Similarly the Hindu who meets many Muslims overlooks all the variations and may gene­ralize “All Muslims are crude.” Such categorizations simplify the situation but they are highly inaccurate because of the simplification.

The affective component of attitudes is characterized by the presence of positive or negative emotion. The affective component is influenced greatly by reinforcement and repetition. The positive attitude towards festivals is due to food, the lights etc., which give rise to pleasure. Similarly the negative attitudes are due to un-pleasure associated with individuals, groups or social events.

The behavioural component of attitudes are greatly influenced by social norms which are ideas held by a group regarding what is correct behaviour and what is not. In the course of socialization children are told by parents about what they should do and what they should not do.

The general basis for negative attitude toward Harijans is the fact that parents prevent children from associating with sweepers, cobblers, etc., who are poor, illiterate and dirty. Why do such norms for beha­viour toward out-groups develop? Triandis and Triandis (1960) have argued that economic conditions place one group in a position of advantage over another group.

In order to maintain this position of advantage negative attitudes are developed towards the group with economic disadvantage so that it can continue to be backward. The norms will continue to operate even when economic considerations are not relevant. The upper caste man, for instance, continues to look upon a person as “untouchable” though he may have superior educa­tion, wealth etc. This is how he tries to maintain his self-esteem.

Among the personality variables which determine the formation of attitudes, the most important is child-training which leads to formation of “authoritarian” personality. Adorno et al (1950) showed that people who had stern and punitive fathers and grew up in families organized along hierarchical lines with a powerful father figure, deve­loped the authoritarian personality.

Such people accept in group autho­rity figures without questioning them, desire powerful leaders, show obedience and respect for authority, approve severe punishment for deviants and admire military men, athletes and financiers. By contrast those low in authoritarianism prefer equalitarian leaders, show warmth and love in interpersonal relations, are tolerant of deviants, admire scientists, artists and social reformers. Thus, those high in authori­tarian scale are highly prejudiced in their outlook while those low in it are tolerant.

Another significant personality variable is “conscience” or inner control. There is a good deal of evidence to show that when the mother is the chief socializer using techniques of discipline like with­drawal of love, the child develops internal controls.

But, when the father is the chief socializer using techniques of discipline like physical punishment, the child has weak internal controls; the child does not learn to control himself. People who learn to use internal controls are more likely to act according to their own standards, while those who are under the influence of external controls are more likely to act according to the norms of their in-group.

Thus, the kind of child training to which different individuals are exposed results in different conceptualizations regarding interpersonal relationships. The more positive conceptualization leads to an out­look that people are good, strong and humanistic; they advocate negotiation etc., to settle disputes. But those who had experience of highly punitive child-training practices are likely to develop negative views of human relations looking upon people as bad and weak and favour settling disputes by violence.

Insecurity is another important personality variable. Sense of in­security makes a person to be intolerant of ambiguity; so he may opt for “right dictatorship” (fascism) or “left dictatorship” (communism). Insecurity may be caused not only by child training, where the parents punish inconsistently and without explanation, but also by loss of status in adult life.

Among the societal variables determining attitudes are membership of groups. A person is not only a member of some groups, he also aspires to belong to other groups, called “reference groups.” A person’s atti­tudes are anchored in his membership and to the reference group.

For example, Jennings and Niemi (1968) found in a nationwide sample in U.S. that 76 per cent of high school seniors favoured the political party which both parents favoured and only 10 per cent had opposite preference. Thus, the fact that on many issues the child is exposed to only one position at home, in the peer group etc., results in his attitudes reflecting it.

But when they are exposed to conflicting opinions, as in the case of those who go to the college, there will be changes in attitude because of the new views being expressed by the teachers and fellow students.

Studies have shown that only about 50 to 60 per cent of the college students agree with the political party preference of their parents as against 76 per cent at the high school level. But there is also the pressure to war cognitive consistency that will be operating during youth and adult periods. As a result only those beliefs and values tend to be accepted which will fit in with the already existing cognitive structure.

Thus, attitude formation begins primarily as a learning process during childhood and adolescence. Once the attitudes are formed, the influence of the principle of cognitive consistency becomes increasingly important.

The individual is no longer primarily passive. He begins to process the new information in terms of what he has already learned. He tends to reject inconsistent information and accept more readily information consistent with his attitude. Thus, well-established atti­tudes tend to be extremely resistant to change, but others may be more amenable to change.

Essay # 5. Measurement of Attitudes:

Measurement of attitude is a highly technical process.

So an attempt is made to give a general indication of the various procedures used to measure attitudes:

1. Self-report Measures:

Typically attitudes are assessed on the basis of a series of carefully constructed, standardised, statements each with an index. The subject is asked to specify whether he “agrees” or “disagrees” with the statement. Usually each statement is assigned a scale value so that a quantitative index of the attitude may be obtained.

When a scale constructed by the Thurstone (1929) method is used, the subject simply selects those items with which he agrees. For example, in the Thurstone scale to measure attitude toward war, the statement “War is glorious” has a scale value of 11.0. “I never think about war and it does not interest me” has a scale value of 5.5. “War is a futile struggle resulting in self-destruction,” has a scale value of 1.4. The attitude score is the median of the scale values of the items with which he agrees.

Another procedure which yields similar results is that developed by Likert (1932). In this method the subject has to indicate his response to a statement on a five-point scale strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly disagree; weights of 1. 2, 3, 4 and 5 are given to these responses. The final attitude score is obtained by summing the scores for each statement.

Another technique is the Bogardus (1925) social distance scale where seven statements of varying social intimacy from “would marry” a member of the group to “would not like him to enter my country” are given and the subject is asked up to which degree of intimacy he would like to admit the given social group.

Yet another technique is the “semantic differential technique” deve­loped by Osgood (1957) in which the subject has to indicate on a seven-point scale the quality of the item.

All the various techniques correlate highly with each other; if a person is rated as a highly prejudiced person by one technique, he will be rated in the same way by the other techniques also.

2. Observation of Overt Behaviour:

It has been seen above how La Piere (1934) made a trip around U.S. with a Chinese couple to study the attitude of hoteliers towards Oriental people, on the basis of actual behaviour.

Webb et al (1966) have criticised the heavy dependence of social psychologists on self-reports to measure attitudes. They have suggested a series of measures based on actual behaviour or on records indicating behaviour. For example, the sales records will show the attitude towards food items, or towards the various “soft drinks” like Coca- Cola, Fanta, Limca etc.

Similarly a measure of change in attitude toward “ready-made dresses” could be obtained by analysing the sales records of ready-made dresses and also analysing the number of orders given to tailors to make various types of clothing.

3. Interpretation of Partially Structured Stimuli:

The subject may be shown a photo or a picture and asked to describe the scene. This is a “projective” technique. On this basis of the description or story, the subject’s attitude toward that social object could be studied.

Essay # 6. Relationship between Attitudes and Actual Behaviour:

Lapiere (1934) found no relationship between actual behaviour and the attitude expressed towards a Chinese couple. He travelled with a Chinese couple and they stopped at many hotels and visited many restaurants. They were cordially received, given rooms and all facilities.

Later he wrote to all these hotels and restaurants which they visited and also many others which they had not visited and asked the managers whether they would receive Chinese guests. It was found that 92 per cent of those who replied said that they would not accept the Chinese as guests.

Thus, there was no relation between the actual behaviour and the attitude expressed in reply to a letter. This discre­pancy is due to the difference in the two stimulus situations. When the Chinese guests went with an American, they were cordially received and served. But the letter was a formal request and the response was according to the prevailing norm, not to receive any guests of Oriental origin.

In contrast Kuppuswamy (1954) found that the Andhra college youth were very eager that linguistic provinces should be established in response to a questionnaire given in 1951. Actually by 1954 there were student rioting and adult rioting in Vijayawada and other places and the situation was so severe that Andhra State was formed as the first linguistic state. Here there is a positive relation between the atti­tude expressed and the actual behaviour.

Another illustration may be given. The Shiv Sena movement in Bombay was against the people of the Southern states who had settled down in Bombay. Actually within a short period the attitude mani­fested itself in actual behaviour destroying the properties of the Southerners.

It is well known that there was an identity between the social norm expressed as an attitude and the actual behaviour towards the ex-un­touchables in India. In spite of the campaign carried on by Gandhiji and inspite of Art. 17 abolishing untouchability in 1950, even now negative attitude as well as avoidance behaviour are to be found in the villages of India where 80 per cent of the people live.

On the other hand, one of the great problems India has been facing is in the area of national integration. As far as the expressed attitudes are concerned Indians are highly nationalistic. They will shout “Jai Hind.” They stand in reverence when the national anthem is sung. But in actual behaviour casteism, communalism and linguism prevail. Here behaviour is at variance with the attitude expressed verbally.

It must be recognized that attitudes are neither necessary nor suffi­cient causes of behaviour. They are only “facilitative causes.”

Behaviour is a function of:

(a) Attitudes,

(b) Social norms,

(c) Habits, and

(d) Expec­tations about reinforcement.

When there is consistency between all these four factors, there is consistency between attitudes and behaviour. Sugar (1967) tested this formulation.

He asked college students:

(a) Whether they liked to smoke (affect toward smoking),

(b) Whether their friends approve of smoking (norm),

(c) Whether they usually smoked (habit).

Later on he casually offered them cigarettes. It was found that when all the three predictors were consistent, the behaviour followed; but when the three predictor variables were not consistent the accuracy of prediction dropped.

Thus, the actual behaviour is dependent not on attitude alone but on the other factors like the social norm, habit, etc.

Essay # 7. Some Approaches to the Study of Attitudes:

Broadly there are three approaches to the study of attitude for­mation and change:

1. Conditioning and Reinforcement:

This model is closely associated with Hovland and his coworkers. The basic assumption is that atti­tudes are learnt like other habits. Just as people acquire information and facts, they also acquire feelings and values associated with these facts. The child not only learns that a certain animal is a dog, he also learns to like or dislike dogs. Thus, according to this view the princi­ples and theories derived from studying the learning process can be applied to attitudes also. Attitudes are learnt through association.

Because the grandmother, who is liked, tells stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata during childhood, the Indian child has a positive atti­tude towards these epics. Learning also occurs through reinforcement. The attitude toward Ramayana is reinforced by the reward (pleasure, praise) which visitors to the house express when the child relates the story of Rama.

2. Incentives and Conflicts:

According to this theory a person adopts that attitude which maximizes his gains. This approach is particularly relevant to attitude change. It views the attitude situation in terms of an approach-avoidance conflict. This can be illustrated with the “con­structive programme” developed by Gandhi in order to unify the people of India to obtain independence.

He made the Congress work­ers to accept a number of programmes which were traditionally unacceptable to them. For example, in order to promote a sense of hygiene and also to make people give up their disgust towards scavangers and scavanging, he made the Congress workers to participate in what he called safai programme.

They were made to dig pits for use and cover the refuse with mud so that the latrine is clean and free from smell. Similarly to promote Hindu-Muslim unity he made the Congress workers of all communities not only to live together, eat together, but also to join in the common prayers where texts from the Gita, the Koran, the Bible etc., were recited.

He made the removal of “untouchability” a basic programme and induced the higher caste people to take their food along with the Harijans. All these programmes are really programmes to change the attitude of people towards the various social groups. Gandhi succeeded in changing the attitudes of the Congress workers at that time because of there love and reverence to him and because of their zeal for national liberation.

So the “approach” was more powerful than the “avoidance”; the attitude change took place from disgust to ex-untouchables to a more humanistic outlook. Similarly with respect to other issues also. But the real effects of this were only changes in legislation, that is, change in official norms rather than change in local norms in the small groups in rural and urban areas.

3. Cognitive Consistency:

Cognitive consistency theorists, though they differ considerably among themselves, generally assume that there is a tendency for all people to seek consistency among their cognitions and that this is a major determinant of attitude formation.

According to these theories, when in an individual, there is inconsistency between some beliefs and values and other beliefs and values, he strives to alter them so that they become more consistent with each other. Even if his cognitions are consistent and he is faced with a new cognition that would produce inconsistency, he strives to minimize the inconsistency.

An illustration from current Indian situation will clarify the point. According to prevailing social norms in an agricultural society, people believe that children are the gifts of God, that male children are neces­sary both for secular success in carrying out agricultural operations profitably and for the repayment of the debt to the ancestors (pitr rna); thirdly, there was the fact of large incidence of infant mortality and the short span of life of those who survived.

All these attitudes have now to be changed in view of “population explosion.” Increase in knowledge and large scale application of knowledge in public health has decreased both the infant mortality rate (from about 160 in 1951 to about 80 in 1971) and general mortality rate (from about 30 in 1951 to about 15 in 1971); it has increased the longevity of people from about 27 years in 1951 to about 57 years in 1971.

As a result of steep decreases in death rate without a corresponding decrease in birth rate, the country is faced with great increase in population and conse­quent increase in unemployment, food shortage, etc. Like in the 19th century Europe and America, the educated middle classes living in urban areas are being affected by the increased cost of living and so are trying to change their attitude by accepting the small family norm.

But the national problem remains since 80 per cent of the people continue to live in rural areas and as many are illiterate. Their stan­dard of life is so low that there is no cognitive inconsistency; hence there is no attempt to change their attitudes. Some slight change in their attitude was effected through large scale utilization of “incentive programmes.”

But all these cannot bring about a real decrease in the birth rate if there is no change in social norms in the small groups in rural and urban areas. Here again is an illustration of the change in national norms which have become ineffective without a corresponding change in the norms of the small groups.

It is not necessary to go into the details of various theories of cognitive consistency, like the balance theory, congruity theory and so on in this book.

Some Indian Studies on Attitudes:

There have been studies in attitude measurement and change in the educational, industrial, family planning and other fields.

In the educational field attempts have been made to measure atti­tude of students toward the various school subjects, school activities, vocations etc. Some studies have also been made to study the attitude of teachers and teacher trainees. Attempts have also been made to assess the attitudinal changes effected as a result of training.

In the industrial field many studies have been made to measure the attitude towards the job, the management, the labour unions, etc. Ganguly (1958) set up an action programme including lectures and discussions to orient the attitude of foundary workers towards super­visors, national government, and the job. A marked improvement in the participants’ disposition was reported. Chowdhry (1953) studies the attitude of textile workers and its effect on working efficiency.

Several attempts have been made to construct scales to measure radicalism-conservatism. Rao (1962) using the centroid technique of factor analysis has shown that three bipolar factors are involved in social attitudes. Kundu (1966) has given weightage to attitude compo­nents and put forward a new concept of attitude.

Commenting on the various attempts made so far, Rath (1972) has said, “considering the importance of attitude scale construction, the work done in this regard does not seem to be very adequate; and there are not many well esta­blished and widely accepted standardized scales of attitude available for Indian conditions.”

Kamala Gopal Rao (1968) has put together several studies made to measure attitude toward Family Planning programmes. Most of these attempts have used the questionnaire and interview techniques; some have used scaling techniques. Panda and Kanungo (1964) used the Thurstone and Likert technique to develop scales to measure attitude toward family planning on an all-India basis.

Another significant development is what is known as KAP studies; the aim is to find the relation between knowledge, attitude and prac­tice. The results of large scale studies indicate that while knowledge with respect to family planning programme has been widespread be­cause of the use of mass media and while attitudes are also favourable, only about five per cent actually practice some family planning techni­ques to control birth. These studies clearly show how merely having favourable attitude toward family planning does not guarantee its practice.

Essay # 8. Ways of Changing Attitude:

Attitudes can be changed in a variety of ways. One of the sources of change is by obtaining new information which may come from other people or through the mass media. Such new information may pro­duce changes in the cognitive component of a person’s attitude.

There is a tendency for consistency in the component of any attitude. So when there are changes in the cognitive component there may be changes in the affective and behavioural components also. Attitudes may change through direct experience. A person who is prejudiced against Harijans may meet in a friend’s house a very well informed, intelligent Harijan.

This experience may bring about some dissonance between his cognitions between his expectation and his experience. This may require him to reorganize his thinking about Harijans.

Another way to change the attitudes is by legislation. Because the law prohibits and punishes the practice of untouchability there may be changes in attitudes toward Harijans. This can be seen in cities and big towns where there is hardly any awareness of the caste of the other person. But this is not true in the rural areas where the intimate, small group norm is more powerful than the distant, national norm.

Since a person’s attitudes are anchored in his membership group and reference group, one way to change these attitudes is to modify one or the other. Newcomb’s (1943) classic study showed how college attendance can have a significant effect on one’s attitudes. The study was conducted in a small residential college where there was great scope for interaction between the teachers and the students.

The girls came mostly from wealthy conservative homes. The teachers were extremely liberal in their outlook. As a result of this interaction the attitudes of the girls changed. They became more and more liberal. Newcomb (1963) made a follow-up study on as many girls as he could trace and found that 25 years later, they were conspicuously more liberal than the women of the same age and socio-economic back­ground.

However, it must be realised that there is a great difference in situa­tion; in the laboratory and in the college campus significant changes in attitudes may be possible; but as politicians and other propagandists like the advertisers know, the campaigns conducted through mass media are not so successful in producing changes in attitudes among the masses.

One of the most significant cases of mass change in attitudes in India was in the General Elections in 1970 for the Parliament and in 1971 for State Legislatures. After the split in the Indian National Cong­ress in 1969, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi with her radical programme of Bank Nationalization was able to build up a new image of Congress R.

The whole country was dissatisfied with the continuance of large scale poverty, illiteracy and unemployment after nearly 25 years of independence, even though there was very impressive success in the field of industrialization; this, however, only made a small proportion, probably ten per cent, of the population affluent. 

Further, the 1967 elections, which clearly rejected the Congress and put in several non- Congress parties in power in the States, showed that the “United- Front” Governments made up of parties with different ideologies were making a mess with their squabbles. Finally, the minority commu­nities, particularly the Muslims, the Christians and the Harijans were bewildered with the success in 1967 elections of the Jan Sangh, which, rightly or wrongly, is associated with communalism.

All these forces operated to bring about a landslide victory of the Congress R, in 1970 and 1971. But the basic problems of large-scale poverty, illiteracy and unemployment continue to plague the Indian situation. Unless there is some success in tackling these problems it is difficult to foresee what shape the attitude of people will take in the coming critical years, in spite of the success in Indo-Pakistan War of 1971.

Hovland and Janis (1959) suggested a useful model of attitude change that included many stages and variables.

The following figure illustrates the model in a very simplified form:

There must be a “communicator” who hold a particular position on some issue and is trying to convince others to hold the same position. In order to do this, he produces a “communication” designed to per­suade people to change their views. This communication is presented in a given “situation.”

These three constitute the essential features— the source, the communication and the situation and surroundings. But the communication may not reach the target intact. Probably the communication may not reach the target at all because the lines of communication do not exist.

For example, Kuppuswamy (1971), in his 1961-62 study in Mysore District, found that more than two-thirds of the rural group had not heard of the five-year plans. Secondly, because of previous commitments and personal involvements, the target groups may avoid the communication.

For example, in 1972 when the pro­blem of radical lowering of landholdings to 18 to 10 standard acres of irrigated land or to 54 acres of dry land was under discussion, the landholding groups were totally impervious to the concrete situation where about 20 per cent of rural people are landless and about 75 per cent of the landholding people had less than five acres of dry land.

They were only thinking of their own situation and these were gene­rally absentee landlords, living in cities, following professions or busi­ness. Then there is the factor of surrounding situation; there is the competing propaganda from other sources who are against the given source and the given message and try to impress their point of view on the people.

There is considerable evidence with regard to what is now identified as the “two-step flow of information.” Most people do not read news­papers and do not hear the radio. Only a small fraction in the society read newspapers carefully and hears the significant programmes on the radio. These people tend to be the most influential members of their community or group.

They are called the “opinion leaders,” because they have considerable impact on the attitudes of their asso­ciates. They pass on the information to their friends. By means of this two-step flow of communications, some of the persuasive material does reach the people. Thus, one of the critical points in propaganda and attitude change is to reach these opinion leaders.

We can now briefly apply these principles to the Indian situation. In 1920 when Gandhi launched his non-cooperation programme he was able to get practically the whole nation to support him. Thousands of responsible citizens ‘gave up their professions and joined the move­ment. Tens of thousands of students gave up their studies.

This pheno­menal situation arose because Gandhi, the source of communication, had already demonstrated in 1917 his capacity as a leader and his fearlessness by the four successful campaigns, namely:

(1) Champaran Satyagraha in indigo plantations in north-western corner of Bihar;

(2) Ahmedabad Satyagraha and fast to settle the textile mill labourers’ problems;

(3) The Kaira Satyagraha in Gujarat to suspend the land revenue code due to famine; and

(4) The abolition of indentured labour system.

The convent of his communication was the attainment of self- government through “ahimsa” the abandonment of all kinds of violence and thorough non-cooperation, “a voluntary withdrawal” of all support to the government. He wanted all those who “are holding offices of honour or emolument” to give them up, and also those who belong to the menial services under the government. Then what about the situation? The movement was launched after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and Khilafat agitation and the failure of the British Govern­ment to satisfy the demands for “Home Rule” by accepting the recom­mendation of Montague-Chelmsford reforms which only envisaged the transfer of a few subjects in the states to elected ministers.

Thus the whole country was seething with discontent. What about the target? Gandhi started for the first time a mass movement. So the people were ready to join a movement which gave promise of the overthrow of the alien rulers. The masses are ignorant; they were mobilized through the “two-step” flow of information.

The leaders, who resigned their offices, communicated the message. Thus, not only the 1920 movement, but the other movements launched by Gandhi in 1930 and 1942 were all of the same pattern. He had insight into the needs of the people and could make them sacrifice their all for the attainment of independence.

By contrast, such forces are not in operation either with respect to the Five-Year plans or the community development programme or other national programmes. It is only the Bank Nationalization pro­gramme that had some of these features which could change the attitudes of the people.

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Attitude Formation

Attitude formation definition.

An attitude is a general and lasting positive or negative opinion or feeling about some person, object, or issue. Attitude formation occurs through either direct experience or the persuasion of others or the media. Attitudes have three foundations: affect or emotion, behavior, and cognitions. In addition, evidence suggests that attitudes may develop out of psychological needs (motivational foundations), social interactions (social foundations), and genetics (biological foundations), although this last notion is new and controversial.

Emotional Foundations of Attitudes

A key part of an attitude is the affect or emotion associated with the attitude. At a very basic level, we know whether we like or dislike something or find an idea pleasant or unpleasant. For instance, we may say that we know something “in our heart” or have a “gut feeling.” In such cases our attitudes have been formed though our emotions rather than through logic or thinking. This can happen through (a) sensory reactions, (b) values, (c) operant/instrumental conditioning, (d) classical conditioning, (e) semantic generalization, (f) evaluative conditioning, or (g) mere exposure.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, sensory reactions.

Any direct experience with an object though seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, or touching will lead to an immediate evaluative reaction. We are experts at knowing whether we find a certain sensory experience pleas-ant or unpleasant. For example, immediately upon tasting a new type of candy bar, you know whether you like it or not. This also applies to aesthetic experiences, such as admiring the color or composition of an artwork. We form attitudes about objects immediately upon experiencing them.

Some attitudes come from our larger belief system. We may come to hold certain attitudes because they validate our basic values. Many attitudes come from religious or moral beliefs. For example, for many people their attitudes about abortion, birth control, same-sex marriage, and the death penalty follow from their moral or religious beliefs and are highly emotional issues for them.

Operant Conditioning

Operant or instrumental conditioning is when an attitude forms because it has been reinforced through reward or a pleasant experience or discouraged through punishment or an unpleasant experience. For example, a parent might praise a teenager for helping out at an after-school program with little kids. As a result, the teen may develop a positive attitude toward volunteer work. Similarly, many people find that broccoli has a terrible taste, and so they dislike broccoli because of its punishing flavor.

Classical Conditioning

Classical or Pavlovian conditioning happens when a new stimulus comes to elicit an emotional reaction because of its association with a stimulus that already elicits the emotional response. The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov took dogs, which naturally salivate to meat powder, and trained them to salivate at the sound of a bell by continually ringing the bell as the meat powder was presented. In humans, some of our attitudes have become conditioned in much the same way. For example, some people have a negative attitude towards “dirty” words. Just the thought of a taboo word will cause some people to blush. The words themselves have come to elicit an emotional reaction because their use is frowned upon in our culture in most contexts.

Semantic Generalization

Not only can we become conditioned to a specific stimulus, but this initial conditioning can generalize or spread to similar stimuli. For example, a bell higher or lower in pitch to the original conditioned sound may elicit the same reaction. In humans, the initial conditioning can spread even to words or concepts similar to the original stimulus. As a result, we can form attitudes about an object or idea without having direct contact with it. When this kind of generalization occurs, the process is called semantic generalization. For example, human subjects who have been conditioned to the sound of a bell may also show a response to the sight of a bell or by the spoken word bell. Semantic generalization can account for the formation of attitudes, like prejudice, where people have formed an attitude without having direct contact with the object of that attitude.

Evaluative Conditioning

An object need not directly cause us to feel pleasant or unpleasant for us to form an attitude. Evaluative conditioning occurs when we form attitudes toward an object or person because our exposure to them coincided with a positive or negative emotion. For example, a couple may come to feel positive toward a particular song that was playing on the radio during their first date. Their positive attitude to the song is a result of its association with the happy experience of a date.

Mere Exposure

Finally, when we see the same object or person over and over, we will generally form a positive attitude toward that object or person. This is true for an object or person we feel neutral or positive about, so long as we are not overexposed to it. For example, many popular styles of clothing seem bizarre at first, but then as we see more of them we may come to accept and even like them.

Behavioral Foundations of Attitudes

Sometimes we form attitudes from our actions. This can happen if we do something before we have an attitude (e.g., going to an art opening of an unknown artist), when we are unsure of our attitudes (e.g., going with a friend to a political rally), or when we are not thinking about what we are doing (mindlessly singing along with a random station on the radio). That is, there are times when just going through the motions can cause us to form an attitude consistent with those actions. In the previous examples, people may come to hate the new artist, support free trade, or like classical music because their actions have led them to engage in these behaviors, which then led to the formation of an attitude. There are at least four lines of evidence that account for how attitudes may form out of actions.

First, self-perception theory suggests that we look to our behavior and figure out our attitude based on what we have done or are doing. Second, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we strive for consistency between our attitudes and our actions and when the two do not match, we may form a new attitude to coincide with our past actions.

Third, research evidence using the facial feedback hypothesis finds that holding our facial muscles in the pose of an emotion will cause us to experience that emotion, which may then color our opinions. For example, participants who viewed cartoons that were not particularly funny while holding a pen across their teeth—a pose which activates the same muscles involved in smiling—rated the cartoons funnier than subjects who posed with a pen in their mouths, which activated the same muscles involved in frowning. As a result, people may develop positive or negative attitudes toward neutral objects after moving their facial muscles into smiles or frowns, respectively.

Finally, role-playing, such as improvising persuasive arguments, giving personal testimony, taking on another person’s perspective, or even play-acting, are all additional ways that people may come to form attitudes based on their behaviors. For example, in an early study, women who were heavy smokers participated in an elaborately staged play where they played the role of a woman dying of lung cancer. Two weeks later, these women smoked less and held less positive attitudes toward smoking than women who had not been through this role-play procedure.

Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes

The cognitive foundation of attitudes, what might be called beliefs, comes from direct experience with the world or through thinking about the world. Thinking about the world includes any kind of active information processing, such as deliberating, wondering, imagining, and reflecting, as well as through activities such as reading, writing, listening, and talking.

If you believe that insects are dirty and disgusting, then you will probably have the attitude that insects are not food. However, if you read that locusts and other insects are happily eaten in some cultures, then you may come to believe that locusts may not be so bad. Your attitude here comes from thinking about the new facts you read.

Additionally, if the National Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says that exposure to ultraviolet light is the most important environmental factor involved in the formation of skin cancers, and you believe that the CDC is a trustworthy expert, then you might logically reason that excessive sun exposure is not a healthy thing. Here your attitude comes from logically reasoning about the world.

Suppose you didn’t know how you felt about a topic until you were forced to write an essay for a writing class. This also would be an example of attitude formation through cognition, in this case, organizing your thoughts in preparation to write a coherent essay.

References:

• Bem, D. (1970). Beliefs, attitudes, and human affairs. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Elms, A. C. (1966). Influence of fantasy ability on attitude change through role-playing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 36-43.
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1981). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches. Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.
• Zanna, M. P., & Rempel, J. K. (1988). Attitudes: A new look at an old concept. In D. Bar-Tal & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), The social psychology of attitudes (pp. 315-334). New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Attitude and Behavior, Essay Example

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Attitude defined as the view that one has towards an object. It can either be positive, negative or neutral views towards a person, behavior or event. From the theory, of planned behavior (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 31), it supports that the intentions of performing certain behaviors can be predicted by the attitudes that one has towards the behavior, the subjective norms, and perceives control of behavior. Therefore, the actual behavior varies considerably as a result of the intentions one has towards the behavior together with the perceptions of behavioral control (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 67). By assessing one’s beliefs in regards to the consequences arising from behavior and by evaluating these consequences desirability, this determines the attitude towards behavior.

In the cognitive dissonance theory, it suggests that every person has an inner drive for holding all their attitudes and beliefs in harmony so as to avoid dissonance (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 7). This is because the dissonance will lead to the situation where there will be conflicting attitudes, behaviors or beliefs, and as a result, individuals end up feeling pain and cause change in one of the attitudes or beliefs (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 227). For example, when one forced, by circumstances, to behave in a way they do not do, their attitude towards their behavior may be re-evaluated to reduce dissonance.

In the self perception theory, it says that people decide on their own attitudes and feelings towards a certain behavior from watching how they behave in different situations. This occurs when a person’s cues are so weak or confusing that they put the same person in the same point, as an exterior observer (Hogg & Terry, 2000, p. 72). Potential implications of a person’s behavior that has a negative attitude towards individual or group would be development of feelings such as anger, frustration, hatred, disgust, sadness. Also, the drainage of energy from a person due to the maintenance of the negative attitude experienced. Implicit attitudes are the thoughts, feelings, or actions towards objects arising due to experiences that one may not be aware of, whereas explicit attitudes are the thoughts, feelings, or actions toward people, objects, or concepts that the person is aware of the feelings he or she holds in a certain context.

Hogg, M. A & Terry, D. J. (2000). Attitudes, Behavior, and Social Context: The Role of Norms and Group Membership. New York: Routledge.

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Components of Attitude: ABC Model

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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An attitude is “a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols” (Hogg & Vaughan 2005, p. 150)

“..a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.” (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1)

ABC Model of Attitude

The ABC Model of Attitudes, also known as the tri-component model, is a framework in psychology that describes 3 components of attitudes (Eagly & Chaiken 1998):

• A ffective component : this involves a person’s feelings/emotions about the attitude object. For example: “I am scared of spiders.”
• B ehavioral (or conative) component: the way the attitude we have influenced how we act or behave. For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one.”
• C ognitive component involves a person’s belief/knowledge about an attitude object. For example: “I believe spiders are dangerous.”

These three components collectively form an individual’s attitude toward an object, person, issue, or situation.

Affective Component

The affective component of an attitude refers to the emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, issue, or situation.

This component involves feelings or emotional responses like liking, disliking, love, hate, fear, etc.  It is essentially the emotional aspect of an attitude that can influence an individual’s behavior.

For instance, if someone feels positive about exercising, this is an affective response that may make them more likely to engage in physical activity.

Suppose someone has a fear of spiders (the affective component). In that case, they might avoid places where they believe spiders may be present (the behavioral component) due to their belief that all spiders are harmful (the cognitive component).

Behavioral Component

The behavioral component of an attitude refers to how one behaves or acts towards an object, person, issue, or situation based on their attitude.

It involves an individual’s tendency to behave in a certain way toward the attitude object.

For example, suppose a person has a positive attitude toward healthy eating (affective and cognitive components). In that case, the behavioral component of their attitude may be demonstrated by them frequently choosing to eat fruits and vegetables, avoiding fast food, and cooking meals at home.

Cognitive Component

The cognitive component of an attitude refers to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that an individual associates with an object, person, issue, or situation. It involves the mental processes of understanding and interpreting information.

For example, suppose a person believes that recycling benefits the environment and effectively conserves natural resources. In that case, this represents the cognitive component of their positive attitude towards recycling.

This cognitive component can influence their feelings about recycling (affective component) and their likelihood of engaging in recycling behaviors (behavioral component).

The knowledge function is intimately tied to the cognitive component of attitudes as it directly influences how we interpret and make sense of our beliefs and perceptions.

Attitude Strength

The strength with which an attitude is held is often a good predictor of behavior. The stronger the attitude, the more likely it should affect behavior. Attitude strength involves:

Importance / personal relevance refers to how significant the attitude is for the person and relates to self-interest, social identification, and value.

If an attitude has a high self-interest for a person (i.e., it is held by a group the person is a member of or would like to be a member of and is related to a person’s values), it is going to be extremely important.

As a consequence, the attitude will have a very strong influence on a person’s behavior. By contrast, an attitude will not be important to a person if it does not relate in any way to their life.

The knowledge aspect of attitude strength covers how much a person knows about the attitude object. People are generally more knowledgeable about topics that interest them and are likely to hold strong attitudes (positive or negative) as a consequence.

Attitudes based on direct experience are more strongly held and influence behavior more than attitudes formed indirectly (for example, through hearsay, reading, or watching television).

Principle of Consistency

One of the underlying assumptions about the link between attitudes and behavior is that of consistency.

This means that we often or usually expect a person’s behavior to be consistent with their attitudes. This is called the principle of consistency.

The principle of consistency reflects the idea that people are rational and attempt to behave rationally at all times and that a person’s behavior should be consistent with their attitude(s).

Whilst this principle may sound, it is clear that people do not always follow it, sometimes behaving in seemingly illogical ways; for example, smoking cigarettes and knowing that smoking causes lung cancer and heart disease.

There is evidence that behavior’s cognitive and affective components do not always match with behavior. This is shown in a study by LaPiere (1934) .

Eagly, A. H. Chaiken. S.(1998). Attitude, structure and function.  Handbook of social psychology , 269-322.

Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes . Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.

Hogg, M., & Vaughan, G. (2005). Social Psychology (4th edition) . London: Prentice-Hall.

LaPiere, R. T. (1934). Attitudes vs. Actions. Social Forces , 13, 230-237.

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Other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about writing an essay, an appeal to the senses: the development of the braille system in nineteenth-century france.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from social participation (Weygand, 2009). While disabled people in general suffered from discrimination, blindness was widely viewed as the worst disability, and it was commonly believed that blind people were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through culture (Weygand, 2009). This demonstrates the importance of reading and writing to social status at the time: without access to text, it was considered impossible to fully participate in society. Blind people were excluded from the sighted world, but also entirely dependent on sighted people for information and education.

In France, debates about how to deal with disability led to the adoption of different strategies over time. While people with temporary difficulties were able to access public welfare, the most common response to people with long-term disabilities, such as hearing or vision loss, was to group them together in institutions (Tombs, 1996). At first, a joint institute for the blind and deaf was created, and although the partnership was motivated more by financial considerations than by the well-being of the residents, the institute aimed to help people develop skills valuable to society (Weygand, 2009). Eventually blind institutions were separated from deaf institutions, and the focus shifted towards education of the blind, as was the case for the Royal Institute for Blind Youth, which Louis Braille attended (Jimenez et al, 2009). The growing acknowledgement of the uniqueness of different disabilities led to more targeted education strategies, fostering an environment in which the benefits of a specifically blind education could be more widely recognized.

Several different systems of tactile reading can be seen as forerunners to the method Louis Braille developed, but these systems were all developed based on the sighted system. The Royal Institute for Blind Youth in Paris taught the students to read embossed roman letters, a method created by the school’s founder, Valentin Hauy (Jimenez et al., 2009). Reading this way proved to be a rather arduous task, as the letters were difficult to distinguish by touch. The embossed letter method was based on the reading system of sighted people, with minimal adaptation for those with vision loss. As a result, this method did not gain significant success among blind students.

Louis Braille was bound to be influenced by his school’s founder, but the most influential pre-Braille tactile reading system was Charles Barbier’s night writing. A soldier in Napoleon’s army, Barbier developed a system in 1819 that used 12 dots with a five line musical staff (Kersten, 1997). His intention was to develop a system that would allow the military to communicate at night without the need for light (Herron, 2009). The code developed by Barbier was phonetic (Jimenez et al., 2009); in other words, the code was designed for sighted people and was based on the sounds of words, not on an actual alphabet. Barbier discovered that variants of raised dots within a square were the easiest method of reading by touch (Jimenez et al., 2009). This system proved effective for the transmission of short messages between military personnel, but the symbols were too large for the fingertip, greatly reducing the speed at which a message could be read (Herron, 2009). For this reason, it was unsuitable for daily use and was not widely adopted in the blind community.

Nevertheless, Barbier’s military dot system was more efficient than Hauy’s embossed letters, and it provided the framework within which Louis Braille developed his method. Barbier’s system, with its dashes and dots, could form over 4000 combinations (Jimenez et al., 2009). Compared to the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, this was an absurdly high number. Braille kept the raised dot form, but developed a more manageable system that would reflect the sighted alphabet. He replaced Barbier’s dashes and dots with just six dots in a rectangular configuration (Jimenez et al., 2009). The result was that the blind population in France had a tactile reading system using dots (like Barbier’s) that was based on the structure of the sighted alphabet (like Hauy’s); crucially, this system was the first developed specifically for the purposes of the blind.

While the Braille system gained immediate popularity with the blind students at the Institute in Paris, it had to gain acceptance among the sighted before its adoption throughout France. This support was necessary because sighted teachers and leaders had ultimate control over the propagation of Braille resources. Many of the teachers at the Royal Institute for Blind Youth resisted learning Braille’s system because they found the tactile method of reading difficult to learn (Bullock & Galst, 2009). This resistance was symptomatic of the prevalent attitude that the blind population had to adapt to the sighted world rather than develop their own tools and methods. Over time, however, with the increasing impetus to make social contribution possible for all, teachers began to appreciate the usefulness of Braille’s system (Bullock & Galst, 2009), realizing that access to reading could help improve the productivity and integration of people with vision loss. It took approximately 30 years, but the French government eventually approved the Braille system, and it was established throughout the country (Bullock & Galst, 2009).

Although Blind people remained marginalized throughout the nineteenth century, the Braille system granted them growing opportunities for social participation. Most obviously, Braille allowed people with vision loss to read the same alphabet used by sighted people (Bullock & Galst, 2009), allowing them to participate in certain cultural experiences previously unavailable to them. Written works, such as books and poetry, had previously been inaccessible to the blind population without the aid of a reader, limiting their autonomy. As books began to be distributed in Braille, this barrier was reduced, enabling people with vision loss to access information autonomously. The closing of the gap between the abilities of blind and the sighted contributed to a gradual shift in blind people’s status, lessening the cultural perception of the blind as essentially different and facilitating greater social integration.

The Braille system also had important cultural effects beyond the sphere of written culture. Its invention later led to the development of a music notation system for the blind, although Louis Braille did not develop this system himself (Jimenez, et al., 2009). This development helped remove a cultural obstacle that had been introduced by the popularization of written musical notation in the early 1500s. While music had previously been an arena in which the blind could participate on equal footing, the transition from memory-based performance to notation-based performance meant that blind musicians were no longer able to compete with sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997). As a result, a tactile musical notation system became necessary for professional equality between blind and sighted musicians (Kersten, 1997).

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.

Bullock, J. D., & Galst, J. M. (2009). The Story of Louis Braille. Archives of Ophthalmology , 127(11), 1532. https://​doi.org/10.1001/​archophthalmol.2009.286.

Herron, M. (2009, May 6). Blind visionary. Retrieved from https://​eandt.theiet.org/​content/​articles/2009/05/​blind-visionary/.

Jiménez, J., Olea, J., Torres, J., Alonso, I., Harder, D., & Fischer, K. (2009). Biography of Louis Braille and Invention of the Braille Alphabet. Survey of Ophthalmology , 54(1), 142–149. https://​doi.org/10.1016/​j.survophthal.2008.10.006.

Kersten, F.G. (1997). The history and development of Braille music methodology. The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education , 18(2). Retrieved from https://​www.jstor.org/​stable/40214926.

Mellor, C.M. (2006). Louis Braille: A touch of genius . Boston: National Braille Press.

Tombs, R. (1996). France: 1814-1914 . London: Pearson Education Ltd.

Weygand, Z. (2009). The blind in French society from the Middle Ages to the century of Louis Braille . Stanford: Stanford University Press.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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Attitude is the mental state of individuals, which tends to act or respond or is ready to respond for or against objects, situations, etc. with which their vested feelings or effect, interest, liking, desire and so on are directly or indirectly linked or associated.During the course of development the person acquires tendencies to respond to objects. These learned cognitive mechanisms are called attitudes.

Attitude is an enduring evaluation—positive or negative—of people, objects, and ideas. Thus, attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. Attitude has three components—cognition, affection, and behaviour of people. A particular attitude of a person can be based on one component or the other.

Cognitive-based attitude is primarily based on beliefs and properties of an attitudinal object. Cognitive component of an attitude is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. Cognitive dissonance theory helps us to trace any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes.

Affection-based attitude stems from people’s feelings (e.g., attitudes towards political candidates). Affective component is the emotion or feeling segment of an attitude. Behaviour-based attitude is based on the self-perception of one’s own behaviour when the initial attitude is weak or ambiguous.

Behavioural component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something. The affection-behaviour (A- B) relationship acts as moderating variables (i.e., importance, specificity, accessibility, social pressures, and direct experience). The self-perception theory uses attitudes after the event, to make sense out of an action taken. For organizational behaviour, the people’s attitude is especially significant, as job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment largely stem from an individual employee’s attitude.

Job satisfaction refers to the general attitude of employees towards their job. Job involvement helps in psychological identification of people with their job, while organizational commitment is the degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. In an organization, people seek consistency among their attitudes and seek to reconcile with divergent attitudes in order to appear rational and consistent.

An attitudinal change in a person takes place with change in the behaviour. The cognitive dissonance theory facilitates change of attitude through behavioural reinforcement. Persuasive communication and focus on a particular issue facilitate such change of attitude.

Haviland et al. proposed the Yale Attitude Change Model, which suggests study of conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes. (The Yale Attitude Change Model focuses on effectiveness of persuasive communication, which depends on the credibility and attractiveness of the speakers.)

These conditions are source of communication (i.e., credible speaker), nature of communication, and the nature of audience, etc. Communication between a doctor and a patient on a medical issue (communication source), communication that does not intend to influence people (nature of communication), and persuasive communication to distract an audience within the age group of 18-25 are likely to yield better results in attitudinal changes.

Elaboration-likelihood model (Petty and Cacioppo 1981), on the other hand, shows that people change their attitudes in two ways—concept (central route to persuasion) and conditions for central route to persuasion (motivation). Central route to persuasion motivates people to pay attention to the facts in a communicated message. When facts are logical and compelling, attitudinal changes take place promptly.

Therefore, the contents of the messages are especially important. On the contrary, when facts are not compelling, people get swayed only by peripheral cues such as mood, emotion, attractiveness of the speaker, etc. Such peripheral cues may facilitate to enhance motivation but not the attitudinal changes. The conditions for central route to persuasion are reinforcing motivation by focusing on personal relevance so that people can pay attention to the arguments.

Emotion’s influence on attitude changes depends on the routes to persuasion. Emotion or mood manipulation is only effective for peripheral route to persuasion. People pay more attention to a speech when the argument is strong and effective in changing their attitudes. People in a sad mood take the central route to persuasion, while in a happy mood they take the peripheral route to persuasion.

Therefore, attitudinal changes take place when people take the central route to persuasion, such as fear, greatness of harm, etc., which give better results in inducing attitudinal changes. Therefore, managers should use the central route to persuasion, duly inducing the arousal of fear and combining it with a persuasive and appealing message.

In managing organizational behaviour, like personality and emotional intelligence, an individual employee also differs in terms of attitude. Eagly and Chaiken (1993) defined attitude as ‘a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or dis-favour’. Yet, from another perspective, attitude is defined as the way we reflect our values. For example, innate value systems of employees may make them optimistic, always looking at the brighter side and working smartly to get a positive outcome.

They not only nurture such value-laden attitudes in their own behaviour but also view others from the same perspective. The concept of attitude has a rich history (Fleming 1967). Once used to describe the spatial orientation of physical objects such as statues, the concept has evolved to refer to a person’s mental and neural state of readiness (Allport 1935).

The function of attitudes is to guide the formation of behavioural intentions. Attitude formation and change is viewed as a process of deliberative evaluation and belief updating. Attitudes are thought to impact behaviour indirectly via behavioural intentions.

Definition and Concepts :

Attitude is the mental state of individuals, which tends to act or respond or is ready to respond for or against objects, situations, etc. with which their vested feelings or effect, interest, liking, desire and so on are directly or indirectly linked or associated. During the course of development the person acquires tendencies to respond to objects. These learned cognitive mechanisms are called attitudes. Changes in knowledge are followed by the change in attitudes.

Attitudes are different from knowledge in the sense that attitudes are emotion-laden. Knowledge reinforces attitudes and reinforced attitudes in the long run reinforce individual and group behaviour. Hence, attitude is neither behaviour nor cause of behaviour but it relates to an intervening pre­disposition or a frame of reference that influences the behaviour of an individual.

When the interest, feeling, etc. of individuals are not connected in any way with the object or situation, their responses (towards the said object or situation) will then constitute their opinions and not their attitudes. In many research works, especially by CIPD, UK, employee attitudes and commitments were found to be strongly associated with business perfor­mance, and managers saw employee voice as contributing to performance via better employee contributions and productivity gains.

The informal cli­mate of involvement and consultation appears to be more strongly associated with employee satisfaction and commitment than the collective machinery for negotiation and consultation. Mechanisms in use for employee voice in­clude two-way communications, project teams, and joint consultation, but there is a growing interest in the electronic media, attitude surveys, and part­nership schemes.

The major constraints on employee voice are lack of skills and enthusiasm by managers and employees. The psychological contract model, validated by successive employee attitude surveys, suggests that HR practices strongly affect the way people feel about their work.

Employees’ trust in the organization, their sense of being fairly treated, and the extent to which they believe their employer has delivered on the implicit deal between them affects their attitudes towards job satisfaction, commitment, work-life balance, and the state of employee relations. Attitude essentially stems from three underlying components: the cognitive component, affective component, and behavioural component.

Social psychologists differentiate between these attitudinal components as under:

1. Cognitive component of an attitude is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude. Attitudinal responses of people, which stem from cognitive component, mainly reflect expression of beliefs (e.g., expectancy-value judgments) and nonverbal reactions.

2. Affective component is the emotion or feeling segment of an attitude, and it manifests in verbal expressions of feelings and physiological changes in the organism (e.g., increase of arousal).

3. Behavioural component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a cer­tain way towards someone or something. It is reflected through behavioural intentions and actions.

Attitude theory and research deals with the structure, function, formation, and change of attitudes, and is also concerned with the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. For example, the model of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975) provides a comprehensive approach to all of these aspects.

In this model, the internal structure of an attitude is described in terms of beliefs (expectations), which relate the attitude object (a behavioural alternative) to evaluated attributes. The function of attitudes is to guide the formation of behavioural intentions.

Attitude formation and change is viewed as a process of deliberative evaluation and belief updating. Attitudes are thought to impact behaviour indirectly via behavioural intentions. More recent approaches, however, assume that a deliberative calculation of expectancy and values is not a necessary condition for either intention formation or attitude formation and change.

According to a study conducted by Zajonc in 1980, there is ample evidence to suggest that liking of an attitude object can be enhanced simply by increasing its presentation frequency. Furthermore, attitudes, if they are frequently activated from memory, tend to become activated automatically in the presence of the attitude object and then directly impact behavioural decisions (Fazio 1990).

Related Articles:

• Attitude and Social Cognition (FAQ)
• Attitude: Nature, Components and Formation

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Gratitude Essay

500 words essay on gratitude.

Gratitude is a beautiful way of enriching our lives. It refers to the feeling and attitude of appreciation and thankfulness for the good which we receive in life. It has been proven scientifically that when we express our gratefulness to other people, we feel happier and calmer. Thus, it allows goodness to enter our lives. For instance, when a stranger holds the door for you or greets you, it makes you feel happy. Thus, a gratitude essay will teach us how advantageous gratitude is.

Advantages of Gratitude

Gratitude can have a lot of advantages to our personal as well as social life. First of all, it strengthens our relationship with others. When you have a thankful feeling, it will strengthen the bond with the other party and enhance the trust factor and feeling of respect and love .

Moreover, it also makes us happy. When we express gratitude or receive it, we feel happy either way. As a result, people who have gratitude do not stress out a lot. Similarly, being full of gratitude makes society sensible.

In other words, people become considerate and never leave a chance to say thank you to others. Thus, it helps society to progress in the right direction with the right tools needed for the development of it.

Most importantly, gratitude reduces comparisons and promotes acknowledgement. When we become thankful, we do not compare ourselves to others. Thus, it helps us acknowledge our own achievements and blessings and remain content.

How to Practice Gratitude

There are a lot of ways through which we can practice gratitude. Some of the most effective ones include making a note of every good thing which happens to us every day. Moreover, also note the people behind it.

This will help you to return the favour at an appropriate time. Never forget to return this favour as they deserve it too. Moreover, always make sure to appreciate everything in life ranging from nature to animals .

We are lucky enough to have animals, green plants, fresh air and much more. Thus, never stop acknowledging the importance of these essential things. Moreover, always remember to say thank you to different community helpers.

It can be anyone, whether your gardener or sweeper or even the police officers. Make sure you thank them for their service whenever it is possible for you. Remember that to wake up every day is no less than a blessing itself.

So, make sure to be grateful for a new day and thank the almighty for making you wiser and stronger with each passing day. Most importantly, try to avoid complaining about things when they don’t go your way. You don’t know about the blessing behind it.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conclusion of Gratitude Essay

All in all, gratitude is the most essential human expression which proves that humans are sensible and have emotions. Moreover, this emotion does not just limit to humans but also animals. Often, we see then express their gratitude and return the favour. Thus, we must always express our gratitude.

FAQ of Gratitude Essay

Question 1: Why is gratitude important?

Answer 1: Gratitude is strongly and constantly connected with greater happiness. It is what helps people feel more positive emotions, appreciate good experiences, advance their health, deal with adversity, and build strong relationships.

Question 2: How can gratitude change your life?

Answer 2: Gratitude can change your life as it makes you appreciate what you have rather than what you don’t have. It can change your life  because it is the single most powerful source of inspiration that any individual can tap into if they simply stop and pay attention to the simplistic beauty and miracle of life.

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Essays on Attitude

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My intended topic is attitudes about Learning Behaviors. The independent variable are students from (K-12) with a dependent variable of attitudes toward Learning Behaviors. (The cumulative best score is out of 39, a child scoring points depending on evaluation of their attitudes) 1. How does your child get organized for school? 1....

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The book 'On the World of Literature' by Norman Spencer contextualizes Clarice of The Body's writings. This narrative, explored by Spencer between pages 786 and 790 of the book, employs an allegory of past divine experience, as recorded in most biblical early writings, to portray concepts and beliefs as they...

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Importance of Cultivating a Positive Attitude Towards Semester Topics For any student, it is a responsibility to cultivate a positive attitude towards the topics discussed in a semester. Some students, however, find some subjects enjoyable while finding others to be too hard to understand. Personally, my favorite subjects were sex/gender, culture/ethnicity,...

The Changing Attitude Towards Serious Relationships with Divorced Individuals The theme for this essay is: I have a serious relationship with a divorced guy. I deny that I am open to a serious relationship with a divorced person. In the last 50 years the American attitude towards a serious relationship with...

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