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How to Write Academic Reviews

  • What is a review?
  • Common problems with academic reviews
  • Getting started: approaches to reading and notetaking
  • Understanding and analyzing the work
  • Organizing and writing the review

What Is a Review?

A scholarly review describes, analyzes, and evaluates an article, book, film, or performance (through this guide we will use the term “work” to refer to the text or piece to be reviewed).  A review also shows how a work fits into its disciplines and explains the value or contribution of the work to the field.

Reviews play an important role in scholarship. They give scholars the opportunity to respond to one another’s research, ideas and interpretations. They also provide an up-to-date view of a discipline. We recommend you seek out reviews in current scholarly journals to become familiar with recent scholarship on a topic and to understand the forms review writing takes in your discipline. Published scholarly reviews are helpful models for beginner review-writers. However, we remind you that you are to write your own assessment of the work, not rely on the assessment from a review you found in a journal or on a blog.

As a review-writer, your objective is to:

  • understand a work on its own terms (analyze it)
  • bring your own knowledge to bear on a work (respond to it)
  • critique the work while considering validity, truth, and slant (evaluate it)
  • place the work in context (compare it to other works).

Common Problems with Academic Reviews

A review is not a research paper.

Rather than a research paper on the subject of the work,an academic review is an evaluation about the work’s message, strengths, and value. For example, a review of Finis Dunaway’s Seeing Green would not include your own research about media coverage of the environmental movement; instead, your review would assess Dunaway’s argument and its significance to the field.

A review is not a summary

It is important to synthesize the contents and significance of the work you review, but the main purpose of a review is to evaluate, critically analyze, or comment on the text. Keep your summary of the work brief, and make specific references to its message and evidence in your assessment of the work.

A review is not an off-the-cuff, unfair personal response

An effective review must be fair and accurate. It is important to see what is actually in front of you when your first reaction to the tone, argument, or subject of what you are reviewing is extremely negative or positive.

You will present your personal views on the work, but they must be explained and supported with evidence. Rather than writing, “I thought the book was interesting,” you can explain why the book was interesting and how it might offer new insights or important ideas. Further, you can expand on a statement such as “The movie was boring,” by explaining how it failed to interest you and pointing toward specific disappointing moments.

Getting Started: Approaches to Reading and Notetaking

Pre-reading.

Pre-reading helps a reader to see a book as a whole. Often, the acknowledgments, preface, and table of contents of a book offer insights about the book’s purpose and direction. Take time before you begin chapter one to read the introduction and conclusion, examine chapter titles, and to explore the index or references pages.

Read more about strategies for critical and efficient reading

Reverse outline

A reverse outline helps a reader analyze the content and argument of a work of non-fiction. Read each section of a text carefully and write down two things: 1) the main point or idea, and 2) its function in the text. In other words, write down what each section says and what it does. This will help you to see how the author develops their argument and uses evidence for support.

Double-entry notebook

In its simplest form, the double-entry notebook separates a page into two columns. In one column, you make observations about the work. In the other, you note your responses to the work. This notetaking method has two advantages. It forces you to make both sorts of notes — notes about the work and notes about your reaction to the work — and it helps you to distinguish between the two.

Whatever method of notetaking you choose, do take notes, even if these are scribbles in the margin. If you don’t, you might rely too heavily on the words, argument, or order of what you are reviewing when you come to write your review.                                              

Understand and Analyze the Work

It is extremely important to work toward seeing a clear and accurate picture of a work. One approach is to try to suspend your judgment for a while, focusing instead on describing or outlining a text. A student once described this as listening to the author’s voice rather than to their own.

Ask questions to support your understanding of the work.

Questions for Works of Non-Fiction

  • What is the subject/topic of the work? What key ideas do you think you should describe in your review?
  • What is the thesis, main theme, or main point?
  • What major claims or conclusions does the author make? What issues does the work illuminate?
  • What is the structure of the work? How does the author build their argument?
  • What sources does the author consult? What evidence is used to support claims? Do these sources in any way “predetermine” certain conclusions?
  • Is there any claim for which the evidence presented is insufficient or slight? Do any conclusions rest on evidence that may be atypical?
  • How is the argument developed? How do the claims relate? What does the conclusion reveal?

Questions for Works of Fiction

  • What is the main theme or message? What issues does the book illuminate?
  • How does the work proceed? How does the author build their plot?
  • What kind of language, descriptions, or sections of plot alert you to the themes and significance of the book?
  • What does the conclusion reveal when compared with the beginning?

Read Critically

Being critical does not mean criticizing. It means asking questions and formulating answers. Critical reading is not reading with a “bad attitude.” Critical readers do not reject a text or take a negative approach to it; they inquire about a text, an author, themselves, and the context surrounding all three, and they attempt to understand how and why the author has made the particular choices they have.

Think about the Author

You can often tell a lot about an author by examining a text closely, but sometimes it helps to do a little extra research. Here are some questions about the author that would be useful to keep in mind when you are reading a text critically:

  • Who is the author? What else has the author written?
  • What does the author do? What experiences of the author’s might influence the writing of this book?
  • What is the author’s main purpose or goal for the text? Why did they write it and what do they want to achieve?
  • Does the author indicate what contribution the text makes to scholarship or literature? What does the author say about their point of view or method of approaching the subject? In other words, what position does the author take?

Think about Yourself

Because you are doing the interpreting and evaluating of a text, it is important to examine your own perspective, assumptions, and knowledge (positionality) in relation to the text. One way to do this is by writing a position statement that outlines your view of the subject of the work you are reviewing. What do you know, believe, or assume about this subject? What in your life might influence your approach to this text?

Here are some prompts that might help you generate a personal response to a book:

  • I agree that ... because ...                    
  • I disagree that ... because ...
  • I don’t understand ...
  • This reminds me of …
  • I’m surprised by …                 

Another way to examine your thoughts in relation to a text is to note your initial response to the work. Consider your experience of the text – did you like it? Why or why not?

  • What did I feel when I read this book? Why?
  • How did I experience the style or tone of the author? How would I characterize each?
  • What questions would I ask this author if I could?
  • For me, what are the three best things about this book? The three worst things? Why?

Consider Context

A reviewer needs to examine the context of the book to arrive at a fair understanding and evaluation of its contents and importance. Context may include the scholarship to which this book responds or the author’s personal motive for writing. Or perhaps the context is simply contemporary society or today’s headlines. It is certainly important to consider how the work relates to the course that requires the review.

Here are some useful questions:

  • What are the connections between this work and others on similar subjects? How does it relate to core concepts in my course or my discipline?
  • What is the scholarly or social significance of this work? What contribution does it make to our understanding?
  • What, of relevance, is missing from the work: certain kinds of evidence or methods of analysis/development? A particular theoretical approach? The experiences of certain groups?
  • What other perspectives or conclusions are possible?

Once you have taken the time to thoroughly understand and analyze the work, you will have a clear perspective on its strengths and weaknesses and its value within the field. Take time to categorize your ideas and develop an outline; this will ensure your review is well organized and clear.

Organizing and Writing the Review

A review is organized around an assessment of the work or a focused message about its value to the field. Revisit your notes and consider your responses to your questions from critical reading to develop a clear statement that evaluates the work and provides an explanation for that evaluation.

For example:

X is an important work because it provides a new perspective on . . .

X’s argument is compelling because . . . ; however, it fails to address . . .

Although X claims to . . ., they make assumptions about . . . , which diminishes the impact . . .

This statement or evaluation is presented in the introduction. The body of the review works to support or explain your assessment; organize your key ideas or supporting arguments into paragraphs and use evidence from the book, article, or film to demonstrate how the work is (or is not) effective, compelling, provocative, novel, or informative.

As with all scholarly writing, a well-organized structure supports the clarity of your review. There is not a rigid formula for organization, but you may find the following guidelines to be helpful. Note that reviews do not typically include subheadings; the headings listed here serve to help you think about the main sections of your academic review.

Introduction

Introduce the work, the author (or director/producer), and the points you intend to make about this work. In addition, you should

  • give relevant bibliographic information
  • give the reader a clear idea of the nature, scope, and significance of the work
  • indicate your evaluation of the work in a clear 1-2 sentence thesis statement

Provide background information to help your readers understand the importance of the work or the reasons for your appraisal. Background information could include:

  • why the issue examined is of current interest
  • other scholarship about this subject
  • the author’s perspective, methodology, purpose
  • the circumstances under which the book was created

Sample Introduction

Within educational research, much attention has been given to the importance of diversity and equity, and the literature is rife with studies detailing the best ways to create environments that are supportive of diverse students. In “Guidance Matters,” however, Carpenter and Diem (2015) examined these concepts in a less-studied source: policy documents related to leadership training.  Using discourse analysis, they explored the ways in which government policies concerning the training of educational administrators discussed issues of diversity and equity. While their innovative methods allowed them to reveal the ways in which current policy promotes superficial platitudes to diversity rather than a deep commitment to promoting social justice, their data analysis left many of their identified themes vague and their discussion did not provide a clear explanation of the applications of their findings.

What works in this sample introduction:

  • The nature of the larger issue, how best to create diversity and equity within educational environments, is clearly laid out.
  • The paragraph clearly introduces the authors and study being reviewed and succinctly explains how they have addressed the larger issue of equity and diversity in a unique way.
  • The paragraph ends with a clear thesis that outlines the strengths and weaknesses of the work.

Summary of the Work

Keep the summary of the work short! A paragraph or two should be sufficient. Summarize its contents very briefly and focus on:

  • the purpose of the work
  • the main points of the work
  • the ideas, themes, or arguments that you will evaluate or discuss in the review

Analysis and Evaluation

Analyze and explain the significance of the main points of the work. Evaluate the work, answering questions such as the following:

  • Does the work do what its author claimed it would?
  • Is the work valid and accurate?
  • How does the work fit into scholarship in the field?
  • What are your reasons for agreeing, disagreeing, liking, disliking, believing, disbelieving?

Note that this section will take up the bulk of your review and should be organized into paragraphs. Because this form of writing typically does not use subheadings, strong paragraphing, particularly the use of clear topic sentences, is essential. Read more on paragraphing.

Reviews are informed by your critical reading or viewing of a work; therefore you need to include specific evidence from the work to support your claims about its message and its impact. Your writing and  your assessment of the work will be most effective if you paraphrase or summarize the evidence you use, rather than relying on direct quotations. Be sure to follow the rules for citation in your discipline. Read more on paraphrasing and summarizing.

Sample Body Paragraph

One of the strengths of Carpenter and Diem’s  (2015) study was innovative use of  and nuanced explanation of discourse analysis. Critiquing much of the research on policy for its positivist promises of “value neutral and empirically objective” (p. 518) findings, Carpenter and Diem (2015) argued that discourse theory can provide an important lens through which to view policy and its relationship to educational outcomes.  By interrogating the “inscribed discourses of policy making” (p. 518), they showed how policy language constructs particular social meanings of concepts such as diversity and equity. Significantly, this analysis was not simply about the language used within documents; instead, Carpenter and Diem (2015) argued that the language used was directly related to reality. Their “study examine[d] how dominant discourses related to equity, and their concretization within guiding policy documents, may shape the ways in which states, local school districts, and educational leaders are asked to consider these issues in their everyday practice” (Carpenter & Diem, 2015, p. 519). Thus, through the use of discourse theory, Carpenter and Diem (2015) framed policy language, which some might consider abstract or distant from daily life, as directly connected to the experience of educational leaders.

What works in this sample body paragraph:

  • The paragraph begins with a clear topic sentence that connects directly to a strength mentioned in the thesis of the review.
  • The paragraph provides specific details and examples to support how and why their methods are innovative.
  • The direct quotations used are short and properly integrated into the sentences.

The paragraph concludes by explaining the significance of the innovative methods to the larger work.

Conclusion and Recommendation

Give your overall assessment of the work. Explain the larger significance of your assessment. Consider who would benefit from engaging with this work.

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How to Write an Article Review: Tips and Examples

essay review term

Did you know that article reviews are not just academic exercises but also a valuable skill in today's information age? In a world inundated with content, being able to dissect and evaluate articles critically can help you separate the wheat from the chaff. Whether you're a student aiming to excel in your coursework or a professional looking to stay well-informed, mastering the art of writing article reviews is an invaluable skill.

Short Description

In this article, our research paper writing service experts will start by unraveling the concept of article reviews and discussing the various types. You'll also gain insights into the art of formatting your review effectively. To ensure you're well-prepared, we'll take you through the pre-writing process, offering tips on setting the stage for your review. But it doesn't stop there. You'll find a practical example of an article review to help you grasp the concepts in action. To complete your journey, we'll guide you through the post-writing process, equipping you with essential proofreading techniques to ensure your work shines with clarity and precision!

What Is an Article Review: Grasping the Concept 

A review article is a type of professional paper writing that demands a high level of in-depth analysis and a well-structured presentation of arguments. It is a critical, constructive evaluation of literature in a particular field through summary, classification, analysis, and comparison.

If you write a scientific review, you have to use database searches to portray the research. Your primary goal is to summarize everything and present a clear understanding of the topic you've been working on.

Writing Involves:

  • Summarization, classification, analysis, critiques, and comparison.
  • The analysis, evaluation, and comparison require the use of theories, ideas, and research relevant to the subject area of the article.
  • It is also worth nothing if a review does not introduce new information, but instead presents a response to another writer's work.
  • Check out other samples to gain a better understanding of how to review the article.

Types of Review

When it comes to article reviews, there's more than one way to approach the task. Understanding the various types of reviews is like having a versatile toolkit at your disposal. In this section, we'll walk you through the different dimensions of review types, each offering a unique perspective and purpose. Whether you're dissecting a scholarly article, critiquing a piece of literature, or evaluating a product, you'll discover the diverse landscape of article reviews and how to navigate it effectively.

types of article review

Journal Article Review

Just like other types of reviews, a journal article review assesses the merits and shortcomings of a published work. To illustrate, consider a review of an academic paper on climate change, where the writer meticulously analyzes and interprets the article's significance within the context of environmental science.

Research Article Review

Distinguished by its focus on research methodologies, a research article review scrutinizes the techniques used in a study and evaluates them in light of the subsequent analysis and critique. For instance, when reviewing a research article on the effects of a new drug, the reviewer would delve into the methods employed to gather data and assess their reliability.

Science Article Review

In the realm of scientific literature, a science article review encompasses a wide array of subjects. Scientific publications often provide extensive background information, which can be instrumental in conducting a comprehensive analysis. For example, when reviewing an article about the latest breakthroughs in genetics, the reviewer may draw upon the background knowledge provided to facilitate a more in-depth evaluation of the publication.

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Formatting an Article Review

The format of the article should always adhere to the citation style required by your professor. If you're not sure, seek clarification on the preferred format and ask him to clarify several other pointers to complete the formatting of an article review adequately.

How Many Publications Should You Review?

  • In what format should you cite your articles (MLA, APA, ASA, Chicago, etc.)?
  • What length should your review be?
  • Should you include a summary, critique, or personal opinion in your assignment?
  • Do you need to call attention to a theme or central idea within the articles?
  • Does your instructor require background information?

When you know the answers to these questions, you may start writing your assignment. Below are examples of MLA and APA formats, as those are the two most common citation styles.

Using the APA Format

Articles appear most commonly in academic journals, newspapers, and websites. If you write an article review in the APA format, you will need to write bibliographical entries for the sources you use:

  • Web : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year, Month, Date of Publication). Title. Retrieved from {link}
  • Journal : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Publication Year). Publication Title. Periodical Title, Volume(Issue), pp.-pp.
  • Newspaper : Author [last name], A.A [first and middle initial]. (Year, Month, Date of Publication). Publication Title. Magazine Title, pp. xx-xx.

Using MLA Format

  • Web : Last, First Middle Initial. “Publication Title.” Website Title. Website Publisher, Date Month Year Published. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.
  • Newspaper : Last, First M. “Publication Title.” Newspaper Title [City] Date, Month, Year Published: Page(s). Print.
  • Journal : Last, First M. “Publication Title.” Journal Title Series Volume. Issue (Year Published): Page(s). Database Name. Web. Date Month Year Accessed.

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The Pre-Writing Process

Facing this task for the first time can really get confusing and can leave you unsure of where to begin. To create a top-notch article review, start with a few preparatory steps. Here are the two main stages from our dissertation services to get you started:

Step 1: Define the right organization for your review. Knowing the future setup of your paper will help you define how you should read the article. Here are the steps to follow:

  • Summarize the article — seek out the main points, ideas, claims, and general information presented in the article.
  • Define the positive points — identify the strong aspects, ideas, and insightful observations the author has made.
  • Find the gaps —- determine whether or not the author has any contradictions, gaps, or inconsistencies in the article and evaluate whether or not he or she used a sufficient amount of arguments and information to support his or her ideas.
  • Identify unanswered questions — finally, identify if there are any questions left unanswered after reading the piece.

Step 2: Move on and review the article. Here is a small and simple guide to help you do it right:

  • Start off by looking at and assessing the title of the piece, its abstract, introductory part, headings and subheadings, opening sentences in its paragraphs, and its conclusion.
  • First, read only the beginning and the ending of the piece (introduction and conclusion). These are the parts where authors include all of their key arguments and points. Therefore, if you start with reading these parts, it will give you a good sense of the author's main points.
  • Finally, read the article fully.

These three steps make up most of the prewriting process. After you are done with them, you can move on to writing your own review—and we are going to guide you through the writing process as well.

Outline and Template

As you progress with reading your article, organize your thoughts into coherent sections in an outline. As you read, jot down important facts, contributions, or contradictions. Identify the shortcomings and strengths of your publication. Begin to map your outline accordingly.

If your professor does not want a summary section or a personal critique section, then you must alleviate those parts from your writing. Much like other assignments, an article review must contain an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Thus, you might consider dividing your outline according to these sections as well as subheadings within the body. If you find yourself troubled with the pre-writing and the brainstorming process for this assignment, seek out a sample outline.

Your custom essay must contain these constituent parts:

  • Pre-Title Page - Before diving into your review, start with essential details: article type, publication title, and author names with affiliations (position, department, institution, location, and email). Include corresponding author info if needed.
  • Running Head - In APA format, use a concise title (under 40 characters) to ensure consistent formatting.
  • Summary Page - Optional but useful. Summarize the article in 800 words, covering background, purpose, results, and methodology, avoiding verbatim text or references.
  • Title Page - Include the full title, a 250-word abstract, and 4-6 keywords for discoverability.
  • Introduction - Set the stage with an engaging overview of the article.
  • Body - Organize your analysis with headings and subheadings.
  • Works Cited/References - Properly cite all sources used in your review.
  • Optional Suggested Reading Page - If permitted, suggest further readings for in-depth exploration.
  • Tables and Figure Legends (if instructed by the professor) - Include visuals when requested by your professor for clarity.

Example of an Article Review

You might wonder why we've dedicated a section of this article to discuss an article review sample. Not everyone may realize it, but examining multiple well-constructed examples of review articles is a crucial step in the writing process. In the following section, our essay writing service experts will explain why.

Looking through relevant article review examples can be beneficial for you in the following ways:

  • To get you introduced to the key works of experts in your field.
  • To help you identify the key people engaged in a particular field of science.
  • To help you define what significant discoveries and advances were made in your field.
  • To help you unveil the major gaps within the existing knowledge of your field—which contributes to finding fresh solutions.
  • To help you find solid references and arguments for your own review.
  • To help you generate some ideas about any further field of research.
  • To help you gain a better understanding of the area and become an expert in this specific field.
  • To get a clear idea of how to write a good review.

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Steps for Writing an Article Review

Here is a guide with critique paper format on how to write a review paper:

steps for article review

Step 1: Write the Title

First of all, you need to write a title that reflects the main focus of your work. Respectively, the title can be either interrogative, descriptive, or declarative.

Step 2: Cite the Article

Next, create a proper citation for the reviewed article and input it following the title. At this step, the most important thing to keep in mind is the style of citation specified by your instructor in the requirements for the paper. For example, an article citation in the MLA style should look as follows:

Author's last and first name. "The title of the article." Journal's title and issue(publication date): page(s). Print

Abraham John. "The World of Dreams." Virginia Quarterly 60.2(1991): 125-67. Print.

Step 3: Article Identification

After your citation, you need to include the identification of your reviewed article:

  • Title of the article
  • Title of the journal
  • Year of publication

All of this information should be included in the first paragraph of your paper.

The report "Poverty increases school drop-outs" was written by Brian Faith – a Health officer – in 2000.

Step 4: Introduction

Your organization in an assignment like this is of the utmost importance. Before embarking on your writing process, you should outline your assignment or use an article review template to organize your thoughts coherently.

  • If you are wondering how to start an article review, begin with an introduction that mentions the article and your thesis for the review.
  • Follow up with a summary of the main points of the article.
  • Highlight the positive aspects and facts presented in the publication.
  • Critique the publication by identifying gaps, contradictions, disparities in the text, and unanswered questions.

Step 5: Summarize the Article

Make a summary of the article by revisiting what the author has written about. Note any relevant facts and findings from the article. Include the author's conclusions in this section.

Step 6: Critique It

Present the strengths and weaknesses you have found in the publication. Highlight the knowledge that the author has contributed to the field. Also, write about any gaps and/or contradictions you have found in the article. Take a standpoint of either supporting or not supporting the author's assertions, but back up your arguments with facts and relevant theories that are pertinent to that area of knowledge. Rubrics and templates can also be used to evaluate and grade the person who wrote the article.

Step 7: Craft a Conclusion

In this section, revisit the critical points of your piece, your findings in the article, and your critique. Also, write about the accuracy, validity, and relevance of the results of the article review. Present a way forward for future research in the field of study. Before submitting your article, keep these pointers in mind:

  • As you read the article, highlight the key points. This will help you pinpoint the article's main argument and the evidence that they used to support that argument.
  • While you write your review, use evidence from your sources to make a point. This is best done using direct quotations.
  • Select quotes and supporting evidence adequately and use direct quotations sparingly. Take time to analyze the article adequately.
  • Every time you reference a publication or use a direct quotation, use a parenthetical citation to avoid accidentally plagiarizing your article.
  • Re-read your piece a day after you finish writing it. This will help you to spot grammar mistakes and to notice any flaws in your organization.
  • Use a spell-checker and get a second opinion on your paper.

The Post-Writing Process: Proofread Your Work

Finally, when all of the parts of your article review are set and ready, you have one last thing to take care of — proofreading. Although students often neglect this step, proofreading is a vital part of the writing process and will help you polish your paper to ensure that there are no mistakes or inconsistencies.

To proofread your paper properly, start by reading it fully and checking the following points:

  • Punctuation
  • Other mistakes

Afterward, take a moment to check for any unnecessary information in your paper and, if found, consider removing it to streamline your content. Finally, double-check that you've covered at least 3-4 key points in your discussion.

And remember, if you ever need help with proofreading, rewriting your essay, or even want to buy essay , our friendly team is always here to assist you.

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The Modes of Discourse—Exposition, Description, Narration, Argumentation (EDNA)—are common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these genres have been criticized by some composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these approaches and students’ need to understand and produce them.

This resource begins with a general description of essay writing and moves to a discussion of common essay genres students may encounter across the curriculum. The four genres of essays (description, narration, exposition, and argumentation) are common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these genres, also known as the modes of discourse, have been criticized by some composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these genres and students’ need to understand and produce these types of essays. We hope these resources will help.

The essay is a commonly assigned form of writing that every student will encounter while in academia. Therefore, it is wise for the student to become capable and comfortable with this type of writing early on in her training.

Essays can be a rewarding and challenging type of writing and are often assigned either to be done in class, which requires previous planning and practice (and a bit of creativity) on the part of the student, or as homework, which likewise demands a certain amount of preparation. Many poorly crafted essays have been produced on account of a lack of preparation and confidence. However, students can avoid the discomfort often associated with essay writing by understanding some common genres.

Before delving into its various genres, let’s begin with a basic definition of the essay.

What is an essay?

Though the word essay has come to be understood as a type of writing in Modern English, its origins provide us with some useful insights. The word comes into the English language through the French influence on Middle English; tracing it back further, we find that the French form of the word comes from the Latin verb exigere , which means "to examine, test, or (literally) to drive out." Through the excavation of this ancient word, we are able to unearth the essence of the academic essay: to encourage students to test or examine their ideas concerning a particular topic.

Essays are shorter pieces of writing that often require the student to hone a number of skills such as close reading, analysis, comparison and contrast, persuasion, conciseness, clarity, and exposition. As is evidenced by this list of attributes, there is much to be gained by the student who strives to succeed at essay writing.

The purpose of an essay is to encourage students to develop ideas and concepts in their writing with the direction of little more than their own thoughts (it may be helpful to view the essay as the converse of a research paper). Therefore, essays are (by nature) concise and require clarity in purpose and direction. This means that there is no room for the student’s thoughts to wander or stray from his or her purpose; the writing must be deliberate and interesting.

This handout should help students become familiar and comfortable with the process of essay composition through the introduction of some common essay genres.

This handout includes a brief introduction to the following genres of essay writing:

  • Expository essays
  • Descriptive essays
  • Narrative essays
  • Argumentative (Persuasive) essays

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200 Term Paper Topics in Different Fields

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Table of contents

  • Writing Metier

Welcome to a treasure trove of term paper topics thoughtfully crafted by the expert team of term paper writers  at Writing Metier. 

As a co-founder of this dynamic company, I’ve witnessed the struggles many students face when choosing the right topic for their term paper. That’s why we’ve rolled up our sleeves to provide you with an arsenal of ideas that are not only academically enriching but also incredibly engaging.

In this article, you’ll find a rich array of topics to start with while writing your term paper , handpicked to ignite your curiosity and fuel your academic pursuits. 

From the persuasive depth required in argumentative papers to the innovative angles needed for experimental research, our collection is a kaleidoscope of possibilities. 

Whether you’re in search of easy term paper topics to get you over the line or you’re hunting for something more challenging to showcase your analytical prowess, this list is your starting point on the path to academic success.

I’ll break our term paper topic suggestions list into such types:

  • Argumentative Papers – c ommon in many disciplines, they develop critical thinking and persuasion skills.
  • Analytical Papers –  widely assigned, these papers help students develop analytical and interpretive skills.
  • Compare and Contrast Papers –  regularly used across subjects, they teach students to identify similarities and differences in concepts, theories, or works.
  • Cause and Effect Papers –  often found in social sciences, they help students understand the relationship between different events or phenomena.
  • Definition Papers –  useful in explaining complex concepts or terms, especially in technical or specialized fields.
  • Interpretive Papers –  common in literature, history, and arts, these papers require a deep understanding of the material and the ability to interpret underlying meanings.
  • Reports –  these are fundamental in many scientific and technical courses, focusing on clear, structured presentation of information.
  • Survey Research Papers –  particularly common in social sciences, they involve data collection and analysis skills.
  • Experimental Research Papers –  a staple in natural and applied sciences, these papers are crucial for understanding scientific methodologies and processes.
  • Review Papers –  often found in graduate studies, they require a comprehensive understanding of existing research in a particular field.

Term Paper Topic and Question Ideas

examples of term paper topics

Let’s begin with what you all have been waiting for – topic suggestions!

Argumentative Term Paper Topics

When it comes to crafting a compelling argumentative term paper, the choice of topic is crucial. In this section, we present some of the best topics for term papers that challenge you to take a stand, defend your viewpoint, and persuade your audience. 

These topics are not just good term paper topics; they are gateways to exploring contemporary issues with depth and clarity.

  • Social Media Influence : Does social media do more harm than good in shaping young people’s worldviews?
  • Climate Change Policies : Should governments enforce stricter regulations to combat climate change?
  • Artificial Intelligence Ethics : Is the rapid development of AI technology a threat to human employment?
  • Vaccination Mandates : Should vaccinations be mandatory for public health safety?
  • Online Education vs Traditional : Is online education as effective as traditional classroom learning?
  • Animal Testing in Research : Should animal testing be banned in scientific research?
  • Genetic Engineering : Are the benefits of genetic engineering worth the ethical concerns?
  • Privacy in the Digital Age : Is government surveillance a necessary tool for national security or an invasion of privacy?
  • Renewable Energy : Should governments invest more in renewable energy sources over fossil fuels?
  • Minimum Wage Increase : Does increasing the minimum wage help or hurt the economy?
  • Gun Control Laws : Do stricter gun control laws reduce gun violence?
  • Legalization of Marijuana : Should marijuana be legalized for recreational use?
  • Death Penalty : Is the death penalty an effective deterrent for major crimes?
  • School Uniforms : Do school uniforms contribute to a better learning environment?
  • Universal Basic Income : Can a universal basic income solve economic inequality?
  • Space Exploration Funding : Should space exploration be prioritized over addressing Earth’s issues?
  • Plastic Ban : Would a global ban on single-use plastics be environmentally beneficial?
  • Affirmative Action in Education : Is affirmative action still necessary in education admissions?
  • Euthanasia : Should euthanasia be legalized to allow people with terminal illnesses to die with dignity?
  • Censorship in Media : Is censorship necessary to protect society, or does it infringe on freedom of expression?

While argumentative papers test your persuasive skills, the realm of analytical papers requires a different approach. Let’s shift our focus to topics that demand a detailed examination and critical analysis .

Analytical Term Paper Topics

If dissecting complex topics and examining them from multiple angles excites you, our list of analytical term paper topics is tailor-made for you. 

Ranging from easy term paper topics to more intricate ones, these themes allow you to showcase your analytical prowess and turn a critical eye on a variety of subjects.

  • Impact of COVID-19 on Global Economy : Analyze the long-term economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic globally.
  • Social Impacts of Remote Work : Examine how remote work has changed social interactions and workplace dynamics.
  • Cryptocurrency’s Role in Finance : Analyze the potential impacts of cryptocurrency on traditional banking systems.
  • Psychological Effects of Social Media : Evaluate how social media platforms impact mental health and self-esteem.
  • Climate Change and Migration : Investigate the relationship between climate change and patterns of human migration.
  • Rise of Streaming Services : Analyze the impact of streaming services on the traditional television and movie industries.
  • Gender Pay Gap : Examine the factors contributing to the gender pay gap in different industries.
  • Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare : Analyze the benefits and challenges of implementing AI in healthcare systems.
  • Cybersecurity in the Digital Age : Evaluate the effectiveness of current cybersecurity measures in protecting data privacy.
  • Impact of Electric Vehicles on the Auto Industry : Investigate how electric vehicles are reshaping the future of the automotive industry.
  • Effects of Urbanization on Environment : Analyze the environmental consequences of rapid urbanization.
  • Mental Health in the Workplace : Examine the role of workplace culture in employee mental health and wellbeing.
  • Renewable Energy’s Economic Feasibility : Analyze the economic sustainability of transitioning to renewable energy sources.
  • Influence of Advertising on Consumer Behavior : Evaluate how advertising strategies affect consumer choices and spending habits.
  • Gentrification and Community Displacement : Investigate the social and economic impacts of gentrification on local communities.
  • Sustainable Fashion Industry : Analyze the challenges and opportunities in making the fashion industry more sustainable.
  • Impact of Globalization on Local Cultures : Examine how globalization affects the preservation and evolution of local cultural identities.
  • E-Sports and Gaming Culture : Analyze the rise of e-sports and its impact on mainstream sports and entertainment.
  • Food Security and Climate Change : Investigate the relationship between climate change and global food security challenges.
  • Technology and Education Reform : Analyze how technological advancements are shaping modern education methods and accessibility.

From the precision of analysis, we now move to the art of comparison and contrast, where you will juxtapose differing views or phenomena to shed new light on your subject.

Compare and Contrast Term Paper Topics

Finding the perfect balance between two subjects is at the heart of a great compare and contrast term paper . 

This section offers a range of topics that serve as excellent examples of term paper topics, inviting you to explore and contrast diverse ideas, theories, or events, enriching your understanding of both.

  • Online Learning vs. Traditional Classroom : Compare and contrast the effectiveness of online learning with traditional classroom settings.
  • Capitalism vs. Socialism : Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of capitalism compared to socialism.
  • Renewable Energy vs. Fossil Fuels : Compare the environmental impacts and sustainability of renewable energy sources versus fossil fuels.
  • Modern Art vs. Classical Art : Contrast the themes and techniques of modern art with those of classical art.
  • Public Healthcare vs. Private Healthcare : Compare the efficiency and quality of public healthcare systems to private healthcare systems.
  • E-books vs. Printed Books : Analyze the differences in user experience and environmental impact between e-books and traditional printed books.
  • Western Diet vs. Mediterranean Diet : Contrast the health impacts of a typical Western diet with the Mediterranean diet.
  • Android vs. iOS : Compare the functionality, user interface, and customization options of Android and iOS platforms.
  • Traditional Marketing vs. Digital Marketing : Analyze the effectiveness and reach of traditional marketing methods compared to digital marketing strategies.
  • Democracy vs. Authoritarianism : Contrast the political, social, and economic outcomes in democratic versus authoritarian regimes.
  • Organic Farming vs. Conventional Farming : Compare the environmental impact and productivity of organic farming methods to conventional farming practices.
  • Freudian Psychoanalysis vs. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy : Analyze the methodologies and effectiveness of Freudian psychoanalysis compared to cognitive behavioral therapy.
  • Remote Work vs. Office Work : Contrast the impacts on productivity and work-life balance between remote work and traditional office settings.
  • Vegetarian Diet vs. Meat-Inclusive Diet : Compare the health benefits and environmental impacts of a vegetarian diet versus a diet that includes meat.
  • Classical Music vs. Pop Music : Analyze the differences in structure, audience, and cultural impact between classical music and contemporary pop music.
  • Electric Cars vs. Gasoline Cars : Contrast the environmental impact, cost, and performance of electric cars with traditional gasoline cars.
  • Public Schools vs. Private Schools : Compare the educational outcomes and resources available in public schools versus private schools.
  • Social Networking vs. Traditional Networking : Analyze the effectiveness and depth of connections made through social networking sites compared to traditional networking methods.
  • Modern Architecture vs. Gothic Architecture : Contrast the design principles, materials, and cultural significance of modern architecture with that of Gothic architecture.
  • Globalization vs. Nationalism : Compare the economic, cultural, and political impacts of globalization against the principles of nationalism.

As we transition from the balance of comparison to the cause and effect dynamics, prepare to delve into topics that explore the relationship between various factors and their consequences.

Cause and Effect Term Paper Topics

Understanding the intricate relationship between cause and effect is essential for any academic exploration. 

This list provides a range of interesting term paper topics that will help you unravel the connections between causes and their subsequent effects, offering a fascinating journey into the why and how of various phenomena.

  • Technology Advancements and Job Market : Analyze the effect of technological advancements on the job market and employment trends.
  • Global Warming and Weather Patterns : Examine the causal relationship between global warming and extreme weather patterns.
  • Social Media and Youth Mental Health : Investigate the effects of social media usage on the mental health of young people.
  • Economic Recession and Small Businesses : Analyze the impact of economic recessions on the survival and growth of small businesses.
  • Urbanization and Wildlife Habitats : Explore the effects of urbanization on local wildlife habitats and biodiversity.
  • Education System Reforms and Student Performance : Examine how recent reforms in the education system have impacted student performance and learning outcomes.
  • Parenting Styles and Child Development : Investigate the effect of different parenting styles on the emotional and psychological development of children.
  • Air Pollution and Respiratory Health : Analyze the causal relationship between air pollution levels and respiratory health issues in urban areas.
  • Diet and Physical Health : Examine the effects of different dietary habits on physical health and wellness.
  • Political Policies and Economic Growth : Investigate the impact of various political policies on a country’s economic growth and stability.
  • Stress and Workplace Productivity : Analyze the effects of workplace stress on employee productivity and job satisfaction.
  • Deforestation and Climate Change : Explore the causal relationship between deforestation and climate change.
  • Exercise and Mental Wellbeing : Examine the effect of regular physical exercise on mental health and mood stability.
  • Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategies : Investigate how marketing strategies cause shifts in consumer buying behavior.
  • Immigration Policies and Labor Markets : Analyze the impact of immigration policies on the labor market and workforce demographics.
  • Mobile Technology and Social Interaction : Examine the effects of mobile technology on face-to-face social interactions and communication.
  • Sleep Patterns and Academic Performance : Investigate the causal relationship between sleep patterns and academic performance in students.
  • Cultural Globalization and National Identities : Analyze the effect of cultural globalization on the preservation of national identities and traditions.
  • Government Regulations and Entrepreneurship : Examine the impact of government regulations on entrepreneurship and business innovation.
  • Online Retail and Brick-and-Mortar Stores : Explore the effects of the rise of online retail on traditional brick-and-mortar stores.

Moving from the causality of events, let’s turn our attention to the essence of specific concepts and ideas, where definition term papers allow you to articulate and explore in-depth.

Definition Term Paper Topics

The art of defining a concept or a term goes beyond mere description. 

In this section, you’ll find term paper topics for students that revolve around defining and explicating complex ideas or phenomena, challenging you to crystallize your understanding into clear, concise language.

  • Defining Artificial Intelligence : Explore the various dimensions and implications of artificial intelligence in the modern world.
  • Understanding Blockchain Technology : Provide a comprehensive definition and examine the potential impacts of blockchain technology.
  • Concept of Sustainability : Define sustainability in the context of environmental, economic, and social dimensions.
  • Defining Modern Feminism : Explore the evolution and current meaning of feminism in contemporary society.
  • Understanding Cultural Appropriation : Define cultural appropriation and discuss its implications in arts, fashion, and media.
  • The Gig Economy : Provide a detailed definition and explore the rise and impact of the gig economy on traditional work structures.
  • Defining Cybersecurity : Examine the scope and importance of cybersecurity in the digital age.
  • Understanding Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) : Define GMOs and discuss their role and controversy in food production.
  • Concept of Globalization : Offer a comprehensive definition and explore the multifaceted impacts of globalization.
  • Mental Health Awareness : Define mental health and discuss the importance of awareness and de-stigmatization in society.
  • Defining Renewable Energy : Explore the concept of renewable energy and its role in combating climate change.
  • The Digital Divide : Define the digital divide and examine its implications in various socio-economic contexts.
  • Understanding Euthanasia : Provide a comprehensive definition and discuss the ethical implications of euthanasia.
  • Concept of Social Justice : Define social justice and explore its significance in modern societal structures.
  • Understanding Quantum Computing : Define quantum computing and discuss its potential impacts on the future of technology.
  • Defining Urbanization : Explore the process of urbanization and its impacts on societies and environments.
  • Concept of Virtual Reality : Provide a comprehensive definition and explore the applications and implications of virtual reality.
  • Understanding Nutrigenomics : Define nutrigenomics and discuss its role in personalized nutrition and health.
  • Defining Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) : Examine the concept of CSR and its importance in the modern business world.
  • Understanding Telemedicine : Define telemedicine and discuss its growing role in the healthcare system.

With definitions well in hand, we now venture into the territory of interpretive term papers, where your insight and personal perspective bring unique interpretations to the forefront.

Interpretive Term Paper Topics

Interpretive term papers provide a canvas for your thoughts and analyses, allowing you to delve into texts, artworks, or phenomena with a subjective lens. 

Here, we offer term paper topics easy for engagement yet rich in potential for deep, personal interpretation, perfect for those looking to add their unique voice to academic discourse .

  • Interpreting Shakespeare’s Hamlet : Explore the themes of madness, revenge, and morality in Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”.
  • The Great Gatsby and the American Dream : Interpret F. Scott Fitzgerald’s representation of the American Dream in “The Great Gatsby”.
  • Picasso’s Guernica : Analyze the symbolism and political commentary in Picasso’s masterpiece “Guernica”.
  • Orwell’s 1984 and Modern Surveillance : Interpret the relevance of George Orwell’s “1984” in the context of today’s digital surveillance society.
  • Symbolism in Dante’s Inferno : Explore the use of symbolism in Dante Alighieri’s “Inferno” and its representation of sin and redemption.
  • Jane Austen’s Critique of Social Class : Interpret the social class critique in Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”.
  • Van Gogh’s Starry Night and Emotional Expression : Analyze the expression of emotion and meaning in Vincent van Gogh’s “Starry Night”.
  • To Kill a Mockingbird and Racial Injustice : Interpret Harper Lee’s depiction of racial injustice and moral growth in “To Kill a Mockingbird”.
  • Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9 and Its Historical Context : Analyze the historical context and musical innovation of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9.
  • Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis and Alienation : Explore themes of alienation and identity in Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis”.
  • The Symbolism in Salvador Dali’s Surrealist Art : Interpret the symbolism and psychological depth in Salvador Dali’s surrealist paintings.
  • Homer’s Odyssey and the Hero’s Journey : Analyze the elements of the hero’s journey in Homer’s “Odyssey”.
  • Frida Kahlo’s Self-Portraits and Personal Struggle : Interpret the expression of personal struggle and identity in Frida Kahlo’s self-portraits.
  • Mark Twain’s Satire in Huckleberry Finn : Analyze Mark Twain’s use of satire in “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” to critique society.
  • The Tragic Hero in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex : Interpret the concept of the tragic hero in Sophocles’ “Oedipus Rex”.
  • Joyce’s Ulysses and Stream of Consciousness : Explore the use of stream of consciousness in James Joyce’s “Ulysses”.
  • Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings and Mythology : Analyze J.R.R. Tolkien’s use of mythology and folklore in “The Lord of the Rings”.
  • Michelangelo’s David and Renaissance Ideals : Interpret the representation of Renaissance ideals in Michelangelo’s statue of David.
  • Emily Dickinson’s Poetry and Themes of Death : Explore the recurring themes of death and immortality in Emily Dickinson’s poetry.
  • The Matrix and Philosophical Symbolism : Analyze the philosophical themes and symbolism in the film “The Matrix”.

From the subjective nuances of interpretation, we shift gears to the objective and structured world of report papers, focusing on presenting information in a clear, organized manner.

Report Term Paper Topics

Report term papers demand precision, structure, and clarity in presenting information and analysis. 

This section provides you with a range of term paper research topics that are ideal for crafting detailed and informative reports, covering a spectrum of subjects that are both current and engaging.

  • COVID-19’s Impact on Global Health Systems : Report on how different health systems worldwide have responded to the COVID-19 pandemic.
  • Renewable Energy Progress Report : Analyze the current state and future prospects of renewable energy technologies globally.
  • Urbanization and Its Environmental Impact : Report on the environmental consequences of rapid urbanization in major cities.
  • Technological Advancements in Education : Explore the integration and impact of technology in modern educational systems.
  • Climate Change and Agricultural Practices : Analyze how climate change is affecting agricultural practices and food production.
  • Mental Health Services Accessibility : Report on the accessibility and quality of mental health services in various countries.
  • Consumer Trends in E-commerce : Analyze the evolving consumer behavior trends in the e-commerce industry.
  • Public Transportation Systems Comparison : Compare and evaluate public transportation systems across major global cities.
  • Plastic Pollution and Marine Life : Report on the impact of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
  • Digital Divide and Internet Access : Explore the current state of the digital divide and its impact on internet access globally.
  • Advancements in Cancer Research : Report on the latest developments and challenges in cancer research and treatment.
  • Impact of Social Media on Politics : Analyze how social media platforms are influencing political discourse and elections.
  • Sustainable Tourism Practices : Report on the adoption and effectiveness of sustainable practices in the tourism industry.
  • Artificial Intelligence in Business : Explore the use and impact of AI technologies in various business sectors.
  • Effects of Urban Green Spaces : Analyze the social and environmental effects of green spaces in urban areas.
  • Childhood Obesity Trends and Policies : Report on the trends and public health policies addressing childhood obesity.
  • Gender Equality in the Workforce : Analyze the progress and challenges of achieving gender equality in the workplace.
  • Impact of GMOs on Agriculture and Environment : Report on the benefits and risks associated with the use of GMOs in agriculture.
  • Cybersecurity Threats and Prevention Measures : Explore current cybersecurity threats and the effectiveness of various prevention strategies.
  • Affordable Housing Crisis Analysis : Report on the state of the affordable housing crisis and the effectiveness of measures taken to address it.

As we move from structured reports to the dynamic world of survey research, prepare to engage with topics that require you to gather and analyze data from real-world sources.

Survey Research Term Paper Topics

Survey research term papers are your gateway to exploring the opinions, behaviors, and trends that shape our world. 

This list of term paper topics help you design, conduct, and analyze surveys, providing valuable insights into various aspects of human behavior and societal trends.

  • Student Perceptions of Online Learning : Conduct a survey to understand student experiences and perceptions of online learning environments.
  • Consumer Attitudes Towards Green Products : Survey consumer attitudes and purchasing behaviors regarding environmentally friendly products.
  • Impact of Work-from-Home on Productivity : Survey employees across different sectors to analyze the impact of remote work on productivity.
  • Social Media’s Role in Mental Health : Conduct a survey to explore the relationship between social media use and mental health among adolescents.
  • Public Opinion on Climate Change Policies : Survey public opinion on various climate change policies and their perceived effectiveness.
  • Healthcare Accessibility and Satisfaction : Conduct a survey to assess public satisfaction with healthcare services and accessibility.
  • Attitudes Toward Vaccination in Different Communities : Survey different communities to understand attitudes towards vaccinations and their reasons.
  • Consumer Behavior in the Fashion Industry : Conduct a survey to analyze consumer buying patterns and trends in the fashion industry.
  • Employee Satisfaction and Workplace Culture : Survey employees in various organizations to assess the impact of workplace culture on job satisfaction.
  • Dietary Habits and Health Outcomes : Conduct a survey to explore the relationship between dietary habits and health outcomes.
  • Public Perception of Police and Law Enforcement : Survey the public’s perception and trust in police and law enforcement agencies.
  • Influence of Influencer Marketing on Purchasing Decisions : Survey consumers to analyze the impact of influencer marketing on their purchasing decisions.
  • Attitudes Towards Renewable Energy Adoption : Conduct a survey to understand public attitudes and barriers to adopting renewable energy sources.
  • Effects of Music on Concentration and Productivity : Survey a group of individuals to assess how different genres of music affect their concentration and productivity.
  • Cultural Participation and Its Social Impact : Conduct a survey to explore the impact of cultural participation on social cohesion and community engagement.
  • Perceptions of Online Privacy and Data Security : Survey internet users to understand their concerns and perceptions about online privacy and data security.
  • Trends in Fitness and Exercise Habits : Conduct a survey to analyze current trends and attitudes towards fitness and exercise routines.
  • Reading Habits and Preferences : Survey a demographic to understand their reading habits and preferences in the digital age.
  • Public Attitudes Towards Space Exploration : Conduct a survey to gauge public interest and opinions on space exploration and its funding.
  • Consumer Attitudes Towards Sustainable Packaging : Survey consumer opinions and behaviors related to sustainable packaging and its importance.

From the practical applications of survey research, we now dive into the experimental realm, where hypotheses and scientific methods lead the way.

Experimental Research Term Paper Topics

For those fascinated by the scientific method, this collection of experimental research term paper topics offers a playground of inquiry and discovery. 

These topics encourage you to design experiments, test hypotheses, and explore the intricacies of scientific phenomena, making them some of the best topics for term paper in English for aspiring scientists.

  • Effect of Light on Plant Growth : Conduct an experiment to determine how different light conditions affect the growth rate of plants.
  • Memory Recall in Different Environments : Investigate how environmental factors influence memory recall in individuals.
  • Water Quality and Plant Health : Experiment to analyze the effects of various water qualities on the health of a specific plant species.
  • Caffeine’s Effect on Cognitive Performance : Conduct a study to assess how caffeine consumption impacts cognitive tasks and reaction times.
  • Behavioral Changes in Animals Due to Environmental Stimuli : Observe and record behavioral changes in animals in response to different environmental stimuli.
  • Impact of Diet on Athletic Performance : Experiment to evaluate how different diets affect the physical performance of athletes.
  • Air Pollution’s Effect on Respiratory Health : Conduct an experiment to explore the impacts of air pollution on respiratory health indicators.
  • Sound Frequencies and Plant Growth : Investigate the effect of different sound frequencies on the growth rate of plants.
  • Sleep Patterns and Academic Performance : Study the correlation between varying sleep patterns and academic performance in students.
  • Effectiveness of Natural vs. Chemical Fertilizers : Experiment to compare the effectiveness of natural and chemical fertilizers on plant growth.
  • Temperature Effects on Battery Performance : Assess how different temperatures affect the performance and efficiency of various types of batteries.
  • Social Media Use and Attention Span : Conduct a study to explore the relationship between social media usage and attention span in individuals.
  • Impact of Exercise on Mental Health : Experiment to analyze the effects of regular physical exercise on mental health and stress levels.
  • Plastic Degradation in Different Environments : Investigate the rate of plastic degradation in various environmental conditions.
  • Influence of Music on Cognitive Task Performance : Study how listening to different genres of music affects performance on cognitive tasks.
  • Effects of Urban Noise on Bird Behavior : Observe and record changes in bird behavior and communication in urban environments with high noise levels.
  • Antibacterial Properties of Natural Substances : Experiment to evaluate the antibacterial properties of various natural substances.
  • Color Psychology and Consumer Behavior : Study how different colors influence consumer behavior and decision-making in marketing.
  • Effect of Video Games on Reflexes and Decision Making : Assess the impact of playing video games on the reflexes and decision-making skills of individuals.
  • Microplastics’ Impact on Marine Life : Conduct an experiment to observe the effects of microplastics on the health and behavior of marine organisms.

Finally, we arrive at review papers, where synthesizing and critiquing existing literature becomes your path to academic exploration.

Review Term Paper Topics

Review term papers are an opportunity to engage with and reflect upon existing literature in a meaningful way. 

This list offers a variety of term paper title ideas, inviting you to synthesize, critique, and discuss existing research and literature, placing you at the heart of the academic conversation.

  • Literature Review on Climate Change Mitigation Strategies : Review and synthesize current research on various strategies to mitigate climate change.
  • Technological Advancements in Renewable Energy : A review of the latest technological innovations in renewable energy and their potential impacts.
  • Review of Mental Health Interventions in Schools : Evaluate the effectiveness of different mental health interventions implemented in educational settings.
  • Impact of Social Media on Society : A comprehensive review of research examining the social, psychological, and cultural impacts of social media.
  • Economic Consequences of Global Pandemics : Review the economic impacts of global pandemics, with a focus on COVID-19.
  • Advancements in Artificial Intelligence and Ethics : Analyze current literature on the advancements in AI and the surrounding ethical considerations.
  • Sustainable Urban Planning Practices : Review of sustainable urban planning strategies and their effectiveness in various global cities.
  • Trends in Global Obesity and Public Health Strategies : Synthesize research on the trends in global obesity and evaluate public health strategies.
  • Evolution of Cybersecurity Threats and Defenses : A review of how cybersecurity threats have evolved over time and the responses developed.
  • Nutritional Science and Chronic Disease Prevention : Review current research on the role of nutrition in preventing chronic diseases.
  • The Psychology of Advertising : Analyze literature on how advertising tactics psychologically influence consumer behavior.
  • Innovations in Water Purification Technology : Review recent advancements in water purification technologies and their global implications.
  • Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Transportation : Evaluate research on the potential impacts of autonomous vehicles on transportation systems.
  • The Role of Microfinance in Poverty Reduction : Review the effectiveness of microfinance initiatives in reducing poverty in various regions.
  • Developments in Cancer Treatment : Synthesize recent developments in cancer treatment, including breakthrough therapies and drugs.
  • The Effectiveness of Renewable Energy Subsidies : Review the economic and environmental impacts of subsidies for renewable energy sources.
  • Mental Health Effects of Climate Change : Analyze literature on the psychological effects of climate change on different populations.
  • Blockchain Technology and Financial Services : Review the implications of blockchain technology in reshaping financial services.
  • Genetic Engineering in Agriculture : Evaluate the benefits and risks associated with the use of genetic engineering in agriculture.
  • Telemedicine and Healthcare Accessibility : Review the impact of telemedicine on improving healthcare accessibility and efficiency.

As you reach the end of this list, remember that choosing the right topic is the first step in the dance of academic writing. Each topic here is a window into a new world of ideas and discoveries, waiting for you to open it. 

Your term paper is an opportunity to not just meet academic expectations, but to express your thoughts, analyze critically , and contribute to a broader conversation in your field. 

If you need assistance with more specific topic suggestions from our experts, you can fill out our “Free topic suggestions” form. Moreover, our term paper writers are at your service if you need writing or editing assistance.

essay review term

So, pick a topic that resonates with you, let your curiosity guide your research, and create a term paper that stands out. At Writing Metier , we’re excited to see where your choice will take you, and we’re here to support you every step of the way.

Free topic suggestions

Vasy kafidoff.

Vasyl Kafidoff is a co-founder and CEO at WritingMetier. He is interested in education and how modern technology makes it more accessible. He wants to bring awareness about new learning possibilities as an educational specialist. When Vasy is not working, he’s found behind a drum kit.

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How To Write a Term Paper: A Guide That Works

30 June, 2020

16 minutes read

Author:  Mathieu Johnson

Once you’ve started your university career, you are going to be asked to present a term paper. What’s the difference between a term paper and a research paper? How can you write a good term? What’s the best way to structure it? Where can you find some tips to make the writing process faster? In this article, we’ll discuss a few tips to help you prepare a term paper quickly and professionally.

term paper

What Is a Term Paper… And What Is The First Step?

A term paper is a critical and analytical report on the topic or subject that you covered within the course of studies. It usually consists of two separate but equally important aspects: your own thoughts about the topic and a demonstration of your understanding of the existing literature. The main goal of this assignment is to summarize the material you learned and showcase your understanding of the topic. This aspect makes the term paper a universal instrument for assessing a student’s proficiency. It also explains why term papers cost so many points of your course grade.

We usually associate a term paper with a research paper , but although the concepts are quite similar, a research paper requires a more academic approach and a deeper investigation into the literature of your field of study.

To write an outstanding college term paper, you must understand that your professor has requested it in order to test your analytical thinking skills. You must collect relevant data, analyze it, and then make a summary or solve a particular problem. Such skills are highly relevant to the business world, so this type of the task is as practical as it is educational.

So, let’s start the preparation!

Before you begin writing

Dip into the topics and make a research

Unfortunately, there is no magical recipe that allows you to get everything done fast. You will need to choose the best way forward in whatever situation you find yourself, but here are some tips to help you prepare for the assignment.

To begin with, take the research stage seriously . Sometimes, when students are really interested in a topic, they only want to present their personal ideas about the problem. Unfortunately, if you’re not completely familiar with all the data from the various sources, you will need to reinvent the bicycle.

Term paper writing was never an easy ride. Well, not for our expert writers. Place an order with our term paper writing service and secure yourself an “A!”

In the initial stages of your research, investigate everything you can find on the topic . This may sound like a tall order, but you’ll find that it doesn’t actually entail that much reading. At this point you are only compiling the research, so you will be skimming through numerous prospects rather than reading them completely. Bear in mind that your aim is to get acquainted with the various aspects of your problem. The term paper summarizes the knowledge you gained within a course and requires to familiarize yourself with the research that other people have already made on your topic.

Thinking that your opinions are completely original and unique is quite egocentric, and it can get you into trouble. So, “your” thoughts about the problem are usually just somebody else’s statements that you have rephrased (or even a well-established academic concept!). Remember that your professor will be familiar with all the literature surrounding the issue: if you merely rewrite someone else’s thoughts and present them as your own (even if you don’t realize doing it), be prepared for criticism!

Applying a Structure To Your Term Paper

Term paper structure

Once you have read all the leading authors and their approaches to your problem, it’s time to create a structure for your work. This is not yet an outline; you just need to decide what to write about. Sketch out the topic for the theoretical portion of your work and think about practical aspects and how you can approach the research in the best possible way.

At this point, you really need to call or email your supervisor . Your professor will have seen hundreds of term papers like yours (i.e., they have not yet been written, but a definite idea exists!) and will be prepared to give you feedback and advice. He or she will tell you what literature you have omitted, offer suggestions about what you should read, and give you feedback about your paper. It may well be that your approach has already occurred to somebody else, in which case there is no need to repeat it.

Choosing a Topic: Easy as Riding a Bike?

When you choose your topic, make sure you choose something that you are interested in . That’s our advice if you want a painless term paper. If you prefer to investigate a field that you’ve never really explored before, you can challenge yourself to do that, too. That might be sophisticated, but why not?

If you decide to investigate a topic or a problem that you are pretty familiar with, your writing will be more fluid. You will focus your attention on a specific aspect of the chosen field and expand your knowledge within that scope. On the contrary, choosing an unfamiliar subject matter can wash out your expertise.

Be prepared to change the topic if you find out that your research isn’t going anywhere. It might occur that you presuppose that your topic has a potential but somewhere at the stage of initial research, you find that it just won’t work. It’s always a good idea to consider two or three topics when you kick off the term paper writing – even if they are just different ways of examining the same problem. By doing this, you will be able to choose the best version, which may not be the one you started with at all!

Related Post: 100 Persuasive essay topics

Formulating a Thesis statement

Term paper thesis statement

Writing a proper thesis statement can also be challenging. To begin with, write down a couple of prominent ideas or concepts, then try to make rough drafts of them to see how they’ll work in the structural framework. You will probably find that one idea fits your style, interests, and knowledge base: you can choose that one as your thesis statement.

Remember that the thesis statement is the skeleton, the central concept of your paper. It is the elemental attribute of almost any academic paper – from master’s thesis to a simple five paragraph essay. If you do a thorough job on it, you will find that writing (and defending!) your argument is much easier.

Be aware that all of these stages are parts of a procedure – one leads to another. When writing a term paper, you should collect the material and wrap it up at the same time.

Planning – The Key To Success

Some people claim that they can write a term paper without any planning. In our opinion, this is impossible. If you don’t have a postgraduate degree and you aren’t a certified genius, you need to prepare an outline for your project. It may come as a surprise, but even people who claim otherwise actually prepare outlines – in their heads. But if you don’t have that much experience, use a pencil and your notebook to ensure that you don’t forget anything.

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That’s when we get to preparing your first draft . There’s only one thing to add here: do as many drafts as you need in order to achieve your goal. Understand that your aim is to create an excellent term paper and keep working at it until you are satisfied.

Term Paper Outline: Write Everything In The Proper Section!

Term paper outline

In the Introduction , state the topic that you are going to investigate and the context of your work. This is the critical ‘selling’ moment of your work. In a nutshell, your introduction combined with a conclusion should give a sneak peek into what the whole paper is about. If your introduction is well-prepared, it will be quite complacent about the body of your project. The introduction must include an abstract that presents your thesis statement . You should explain your motivation (why should the reader be concerned about this problem?) , your methods (what scientific tools did you use?) , and the results (what you achieved) .

The Literature Review totally corresponds to its name – it is here to review the literature you compiled. Your professor will double check it to make sure that you understand the context of your argument. One more thing to add is: collect all the information you can! Ideally, you should read or at least glance through every book and author that you can find on the topic. Think of your task as a fascinating journey: if you approach it like that, reading hundreds of pages won’t seem like that much of a challenge.

In the Discussion , you must present the interpretations of the problem. Be honest, explain what you pieces of data you don’t agree with and what ideas and concepts you support. This section connects the dots between theory and practice when writing a term paper. Wherever possible, provide several interpretations of the subject matter, then choose the one(s) that are most relevant to the case you are presenting.

In the Body , focus on those arguments that prove your thesis statement. This section must be absolutely logical. If you have chosen a more complicated topic, use heading and sub-headings to improve the appearance of this section. While writing the body, keep your target audience (your professors) in mind. In other words, don’t just record the obvious causes/effects/solutions but also showcase your own findings – what you have discovered and how that proves your thesis statement. Demonstrate that you are familiar with the details and you will stun your readers with the prolific mastery of the topic.

Now, the Conclusion   is her to summarize both the content and the purpose of the paper. The most challenging part is not to make it too dry. Reiterate your thesis statement and briefly show how your results justified your proposition. At the very end, you can suggest a call to action or pose a rhetorical question or statement that leaves your reader wanting more.

What to do next?

When you have finished, reread your work a couple of times. You will almost certainly find a few faults, whether they are contextual, factual, syntactical, grammatical, or even simple spelling mistakes. A very useful tip is to wait for two or three days after writing your final draft to proofread it afterward. Your brain will have time to process the information, and you’ll be able to look at it with a fresh view.

How to write a good term paper

When proofreading, take care to polish the structural problems. The skeleton (the logic and the thesis statement) should make sense. If they don’t, try to approach the problem from another perspective. The changes may take some time, but bear in mind that your objective is to produce professional work. Be patient!

After that, print the term paper. The human eye processes information differently on the paper than on a computer screen; that’s why you need to print it and take one final look for any possible mistakes. Even if you don’t see any serious defects, pay attention to formatting, punctuation, and synonyms. It’s an academic text, so make it shine!

Term Paper Sample

Be sure to check the sample of a term paper, completed by our writers. Use it as an example to perfect your own writing. Link:  Term Paper Sample: Consumer Buying Behavior .

The Do’s and Don’ts of Term Paper Writing

There you have the most important tips to help you succeed in writing a term paper. Now it’s up to you to stop reading and start writing!

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Everything You Need to Know to Write an A+ Term Paper

Last Updated: February 20, 2024 Fact Checked

Sample Term Papers

Researching & outlining.

  • Drafting Your Paper
  • Revising Your Paper

Expert Q&A

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,219,287 times.

A term paper is a written assignment given to students at the end of a course to gauge their understanding of the material. Term papers typically count for a good percentage of your overall grade, so of course, you’ll want to write the best paper possible. Luckily, we’ve got you covered. In this article, we’ll teach you everything you need to know to write an A+ term paper, from researching and outlining to drafting and revising.

Quick Steps to Write a Term Paper

  • Hook your readers with an interesting and informative intro paragraph. State your thesis and your main points.
  • Support your thesis by providing quotes and evidence that back your claim in your body paragraphs.
  • Summarize your main points and leave your readers with a thought-provoking question in your conclusion.

essay review term

  • Think of your term paper as the bridge between what you’ve learned in class and how you apply that knowledge to real-world topics.
  • For example, a history term paper may require you to explore the consequences of a significant historical event, like the Civil War. An environmental science class, on the other hand, may have you examine the effects of climate change on a certain region.
  • Your guidelines should tell you the paper’s word count and formatting style, like whether to use in-text citations or footnotes and whether to use single- or double-spacing. If these things aren’t specified, be sure to reach out to your instructor.

Step 2 Choose an interesting topic.

  • Make sure your topic isn’t too broad. For example, if you want to write about Shakespeare’s work, first narrow it down to a specific play, like Macbeth , then choose something even more specific like Lady Macbeth’s role in the plot.
  • If the topic is already chosen for you, explore unique angles that can set your content and information apart from the more obvious approaches many others will probably take. [3] X Research source
  • Try not to have a specific outcome in mind, as this will close you off to new ideas and avenues of thinking. Rather than trying to mold your research to fit your desired outcome, allow the outcome to reflect a genuine analysis of the discoveries you made. Ask yourself questions throughout the process and be open to having your beliefs challenged.
  • Reading other people's comments, opinions, and entries on a topic can often help you to refine your own, especially where they comment that "further research" is required or where they posit challenging questions but leave them unanswered.

Step 3 Do your research.

  • For example, if you’re writing a term paper about Macbeth , your primary source would be the play itself. Then, look for other research papers and analyses written by academics and scholars to understand how they interpret the text.

Step 4 Craft your thesis statement.

  • For example, if you’re writing a paper about Lady Macbeth, your thesis could be something like “Shakespeare’s characterization of Lady Macbeth reveals how desire for power can control someone’s life.”
  • Remember, your research and thesis development doesn’t stop here. As you continue working through both the research and writing, you may want to make changes that align with the ideas forming in your mind and the discoveries you continue to unearth.
  • On the other hand, don’t keep looking for new ideas and angles for fear of feeling confined. At some point, you’re going to have to say enough is enough and make your point. You may have other opportunities to explore these questions in future studies, but for now, remember your term paper has a finite word length and an approaching due date!

Step 5 Develop an outline for the paper.

  • Abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that informs readers of your topic, its significance, and the key points you’ll explore. It must stand on its own and make sense without referencing outside sources or your actual paper.
  • Introduction: The introduction establishes the main idea of your paper and directly states the thesis. Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing sentence to intrigue your readers, and provide any necessary background information to establish your paper’s purpose and direction.
  • Body paragraphs: Each body paragraph focuses on a different argument supporting your thesis. List specific evidence from your sources to back up your arguments. Provide detailed information about your topic to enhance your readers’ understanding. In your outline, write down the main ideas for each body paragraph and any outstanding questions or points you’re not yet sure about.
  • Results: Depending on the type of term paper you’re writing, your results may be incorporated into your body paragraphs or conclusion. These are the insights that your research led you to. Here you can discuss how your perspective and understanding of your topic shifted throughout your writing process.
  • Conclusion: Your conclusion summarizes your argument and findings. You may restate your thesis and major points as you wrap up your paper.

Drafting Your Term Paper

Step 1 Make your point in the introduction.

  • Writing an introduction can be challenging, but don’t get too caught up on it. As you write the rest of your paper, your arguments might change and develop, so you’ll likely need to rewrite your intro at the end, anyway. Writing your intro is simply a means of getting started and you can always revise it later. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
  • Be sure to define any words your readers might not understand. For example, words like “globalization” have many different meanings depending on context, and it’s important to state which ones you’ll be using as part of your introductory paragraph.

Step 2 Persuade your readers with your body paragraphs.

  • Try to relate the subject of the essay (say, Plato’s Symposium ) to a tangentially related issue you happen to know something about (say, the growing trend of free-wheeling hookups in frat parties). Slowly bring the paragraph around to your actual subject and make a few generalizations about why this aspect of the book/subject is so fascinating and worthy of study (such as how different the expectations for physical intimacy were then compared to now).

Step 3 Summarize your argument with your conclusion.

  • You can also reflect on your own experience of researching and writing your term paper. Discuss how your understanding of your topic evolved and any unexpected findings you came across.
  • 4 Write your abstract. Because the abstract is a summary of your entire paper, it’s usually best to write it after you complete your first draft. Typically, an abstract is only 150-250 words, so focus on highlighting the key elements of your term paper like your thesis, main supporting evidence, and findings. Avoid lengthy explanations and jargon or technical terms a casual reader might not understand. [13] X Research source

Step 5 Create your bibliography page and cite your sources.

  • While peppering quotes throughout your text is a good way to help make your point, don’t overdo it. If you use too many quotes, you’re basically allowing other authors to make the point and write the paper for you. When you do use a quote, be sure to explain why it is relevant in your own words.
  • Try to sort out your bibliography at the beginning of your writing process to avoid having a last-minute scramble. When you have all the information beforehand (like the source’s title, author, publication date, etc.), it’s easier to plug them into the correct format.

Step 6 Come up with a good title.

Revising & Finalizing Your Term Paper

Step 1 Make your writing as concise as possible.

  • Trade in weak “to-be” verbs for stronger “action” verbs. For example: “I was writing my term paper” becomes “I wrote my term paper.”

Step 2 Check for grammar and spelling errors.

  • It’s extremely important to proofread your term paper. If your writing is full of mistakes, your instructor will assume you didn’t put much effort into your paper. If you have too many errors, your message will be lost in the confusion of trying to understand what you’ve written.
  • If you add or change information to make things clearer for your readers, it’s a good idea to look over your paper one more time to catch any new typos that may have come up in the process.

Matthew Snipp, PhD

  • The best essays are like grass court tennis—the argument should flow in a "rally" style, building persuasively to the conclusion. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
  • If you get stuck, consider giving your professor a visit. Whether you're still struggling for a thesis or you want to go over your conclusion, most instructors are delighted to help and they'll remember your initiative when grading time rolls around. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
  • At least 2 hours for 3-5 pages.
  • At least 4 hours for 8-10 pages.
  • At least 6 hours for 12-15 pages.
  • Double those hours if you haven't done any homework and you haven't attended class.
  • For papers that are primarily research-based, add about two hours to those times (although you'll need to know how to research quickly and effectively, beyond the purview of this brief guide).

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  • ↑ https://www.binghamton.edu/counseling/self-help/term-paper.html
  • ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Research Fellow, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.
  • ↑ https://emory.libanswers.com/faq/44525
  • ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
  • ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html
  • ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/outline
  • ↑ https://gallaudet.edu/student-success/tutorial-center/english-center/writing/guide-to-writing-introductions-and-conclusions/
  • ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26731827
  • ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/
  • ↑ https://www.ivcc.edu/stylesite/Essay_Title.pdf
  • ↑ https://www.uni-flensburg.de/fileadmin/content/institute/anglistik/dokumente/downloads/how-to-write-a-term-paper-daewes.pdf
  • ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185937
  • ↑ https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/six-steps-to-really-edit-your-paper/

About This Article

Matthew Snipp, PhD

If you need to write a term paper, choose your topic, then start researching that topic. Use your research to craft a thesis statement which states the main idea of your paper, then organize all of your facts into an outline that supports your thesis. Once you start writing, state your thesis in the first paragraph, then use the body of the paper to present the points that support your argument. End the paper with a strong conclusion that restates your thesis. For tips on improving your term paper through active voice, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Home » Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

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Definition:

Term paper is a type of academic writing assignment that is typically assigned to students at the end of a semester or term. It is usually a research-based paper that is meant to demonstrate the student’s understanding of a particular topic, as well as their ability to analyze and synthesize information from various sources.

Term papers are usually longer than other types of academic writing assignments and can range anywhere from 5 to 20 pages or more, depending on the level of study and the specific requirements of the assignment. They often require extensive research and the use of a variety of sources, including books, articles, and other academic publications.

Term Paper Format

The format of a term paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of your professor or institution. However, a typical term paper usually consists of the following sections:

  • Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the date.
  • Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should provide an overview of your topic, the research question or hypothesis, your methodology, and your main findings or conclusions.
  • Introduction : This section should introduce your topic and provide background information on the subject. You should also state your research question or hypothesis and explain the importance of your research.
  • Literature review : This section should review the existing literature on your topic. You should summarize the key findings and arguments made by other scholars and identify any gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
  • Methodology: This section should describe the methods you used to collect and analyze your data. You should explain your research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
  • Results : This section should present your findings. You can use tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate your data.
  • Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and explain what they mean in relation to your research question or hypothesis. You should also discuss any limitations of your study and suggest areas for future research.
  • Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and conclusions. You should also restate the importance of your research and its implications for the field.
  • References : This section should list all the sources you cited in your paper using a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
  • Appendices : This section should include any additional materials that are relevant to your study but not essential to your main argument (e.g., survey questions, interview transcripts).

Structure of Term Paper

Here’s an example structure for a term paper:

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the topic

B. Thesis statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of current literature on the topic

B. Discussion of key themes and findings from literature

C. Identification of gaps in current literature

III. Methodology

A. Description of research design

B. Discussion of data collection methods

C. Explanation of data analysis techniques

IV. Results

A. Presentation of findings

B. Analysis and interpretation of results

C. Comparison of results with previous studies

V. Discussion

A. Summary of key findings

B. Explanation of how results address the research questions

C. Implications of results for the field

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of key points

B. Significance of findings

C. Future directions for research

VII. References

A. List of sources cited in the paper

How to Write Term Paper

Here are some steps to help you write a term paper:

  • Choose a topic: Choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your course. If your professor has assigned a topic, make sure you understand it and clarify any doubts before you start.
  • Research : Conduct research on your topic by gathering information from various sources such as books, academic journals, and online resources. Take notes and organize your information systematically.
  • Create an outline : Create an outline of your term paper by arranging your ideas and information in a logical sequence. Your outline should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
  • Write a thesis statement: Write a clear and concise thesis statement that states the main idea of your paper. Your thesis statement should be included in your introduction.
  • Write the introduction: The introduction should grab the reader’s attention, provide background information on your topic, and introduce your thesis statement.
  • Write the body : The body of your paper should provide supporting evidence for your thesis statement. Use your research to provide details and examples to support your argument. Make sure to organize your ideas logically and use transition words to connect paragraphs.
  • Write the conclusion : The conclusion should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
  • Edit and proofread: Edit and proofread your term paper carefully to ensure that it is free of errors and flows smoothly. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
  • Format and cite your sources: Follow the formatting guidelines provided by your professor and cite your sources properly using the appropriate citation style.
  • Submit your paper : Submit your paper on time and according to the instructions provided by your professor.

Term Paper Example

Here’s an example of a term paper:

Title : The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity

As the world becomes more digitally interconnected, cybersecurity threats are increasing in frequency and sophistication. Traditional security measures are no longer enough to protect against these threats. This paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in cybersecurity, including how AI can be used to detect and respond to threats in real-time, the challenges of implementing AI in cybersecurity, and the potential ethical implications of AI-powered security systems. The paper concludes with recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their cybersecurity strategies.

Introduction :

The increasing number of cybersecurity threats in recent years has led to a growing interest in the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve cybersecurity. AI has the ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and anomalies that may indicate a security breach. Additionally, AI can automate responses to threats, allowing for faster and more effective mitigation of security incidents. However, there are also challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for large amounts of high-quality data, the potential for AI systems to make mistakes, and the ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI in security.

Literature Review:

This section of the paper reviews existing research on the use of AI in cybersecurity. It begins by discussing the types of AI techniques used in cybersecurity, including machine learning, natural language processing, and neural networks. The literature review then explores the advantages of using AI in cybersecurity, such as its ability to detect previously unknown threats and its potential to reduce the workload of security analysts. However, the review also highlights some of the challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for high-quality training data and the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks.

Methodology :

To better understand the challenges and opportunities associated with using AI in cybersecurity, this paper conducted a survey of cybersecurity professionals working in a variety of industries. The survey included questions about the types of AI techniques used in their organizations, the challenges they faced when implementing AI in cybersecurity, and their perceptions of the ethical implications of using AI in security.

The results of the survey showed that while many organizations are interested in using AI in cybersecurity, they face several challenges when implementing these systems. These challenges include the need for high-quality training data, the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks, and the difficulty of integrating AI with existing security systems. Additionally, many respondents expressed concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in security, such as the potential for AI to be biased or to make decisions that are harmful to individuals or society as a whole.

Discussion :

Based on the results of the survey and the existing literature, this paper discusses the potential benefits and risks of using AI in cybersecurity. It also provides recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their security strategies, such as the need to prioritize data quality and to ensure that AI systems are transparent and accountable.

Conclusion :

While there are challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, the potential benefits of using these systems are significant. AI can help organizations detect and respond to threats more quickly and effectively, reducing the risk of security breaches. However, it is important for organizations to be aware of the potential ethical implications of using AI in security and to take steps to ensure that these systems are transparent and accountable.

References:

  • Alkhaldi, S., Al-Daraiseh, A., & Lutfiyya, H. (2019). A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Cyber Security. Journal of Information Security, 10(03), 191-207.
  • Gartner. (2019). Gartner Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2020. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartner-top-10-strategic-technology-trends-for-2020/
  • Kshetri, N. (2018). Blockchain’s roles in meeting key supply chain management objectives. International Journal of Information Management, 39, 80-89.
  • Lipton, Z. C. (2018). The mythos of model interpretability. arXiv preprint arXiv:1606.03490.
  • Schneier, B. (2019). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-Connected World. WW Norton & Company.
  • Wahab, M. A., Rahman, M. S., & Islam, M. R. (2020). A Survey on AI Techniques in Cybersecurity. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11(2), 22-27.

When to Write Term Paper

A term paper is usually a lengthy research paper that is assigned to students at the end of a term or semester. There are several situations when writing a term paper may be required, including:

  • As a course requirement: In most cases, a term paper is required as part of the coursework for a particular course. It may be assigned by the instructor as a way of assessing the student’s understanding of the course material.
  • To explore a specific topic : A term paper can be an excellent opportunity for students to explore a specific topic of interest in-depth. It allows them to conduct extensive research on the topic and develop their understanding of it.
  • To develop critical thinking skills : Writing a term paper requires students to engage in critical thinking and analysis. It helps them to develop their ability to evaluate and interpret information, as well as to present their ideas in a clear and coherent manner.
  • To prepare for future academic or professional pursuits: Writing a term paper can be an excellent way for students to prepare for future academic or professional pursuits. It can help them to develop the research and writing skills necessary for success in higher education or in a professional career.

Purpose of Term Paper

The main purposes of a term paper are:

  • Demonstrate mastery of a subject: A term paper provides an opportunity for students to showcase their knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. It requires students to research and analyze the topic, and then present their findings in a clear and organized manner.
  • Develop critical thinking skills: Writing a term paper requires students to think critically about their subject matter, analyzing various sources and viewpoints, and evaluating evidence to support their arguments.
  • Improve writing skills : Writing a term paper helps students improve their writing skills, including organization, clarity, and coherence. It also requires them to follow specific formatting and citation guidelines, which can be valuable skills for future academic and professional endeavors.
  • Contribute to academic discourse : A well-written term paper can contribute to academic discourse by presenting new insights, ideas, and arguments that add to the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.
  • Prepare for future research : Writing a term paper can help prepare students for future research, by teaching them how to conduct a literature review, evaluate sources, and formulate research questions and hypotheses. It can also help them develop research skills that they can apply in future academic or professional endeavors.

Advantages of Term Paper

There are several advantages of writing a term paper, including:

  • In-depth exploration: Writing a term paper allows you to delve deeper into a specific topic, allowing you to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
  • Improved writing skills: Writing a term paper involves extensive research, critical thinking, and the organization of ideas into a cohesive written document. As a result, writing a term paper can improve your writing skills significantly.
  • Demonstration of knowledge: A well-written term paper demonstrates your knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, which can be beneficial for academic or professional purposes.
  • Development of research skills : Writing a term paper requires conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and synthesizing information from various sources. This process can help you develop essential research skills that can be applied in many other areas.
  • Enhancement of critical thinking : Writing a term paper encourages you to think critically, evaluate information, and develop well-supported arguments. These skills can be useful in many areas of life, including personal and professional decision-making.
  • Preparation for further academic work : Writing a term paper is excellent preparation for more extensive academic projects, such as a thesis or dissertation.

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Examining the short and long-term impacts of child sexual abuse: a review study

  • Review Paper
  • Open access
  • Published: 15 February 2024
  • Volume 4 , article number  56 , ( 2024 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

  • Sana Ali   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3474-000X 1 , 2 ,
  • Saadia Anwar Pasha   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6416-7358 3 ,
  • Ann Cox   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8399-8050 4 &
  • Enaam Youssef 5  

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Child sexual abuse is a growing problem, representing an egregious abuse of power, trust, and authority with far-reaching implications for the victims. This review study highlights the intricate psychological impacts of child sexual abuse, addressing both short and long-term consequences. Existing literature highlights the deep impacts on the victims’ psychological health and well-being, necessitating an in-depth examination of the subject. Drawing from a sample of n = 19 research articles selected through stringent inclusion and exclusion criteria and the PRISMA approach, this study synthesizes results from publications spanning 2010 to 2022. The review reveals various detrimental impacts on the victims’ psychological well-being, including short-term consequences, i.e., isolation, bullying, stress, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Long-term effects encompass PTSD in later life, disrupted intimate relationships, social and emotional health concerns, revictimization, and more. In conclusion, the study emphasizes the lack of a definitive number of impacts, highlighting the need to discuss and raise awareness about child sexual abuse. This increased awareness is important for parents, guardians, and responsible authorities to effectively counteract these crimes against children. Also, providing emotional support to victims is important to mitigate the long-term impacts. The researchers offer implications and discuss limitations, providing an extensive overview and foundation for future research and interventions.

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Introduction

Child sexual abuse is prevalent across class, race, and ethnicity, with both short-term and long-term impacts. It mainly involves an interaction between the abuser and the child, in which the child is the focus of the sexual stimulation of an observer or the offender (Wagenmans et al. 2018 ). Child sexual abuse is anticipated as silencing the minor, and consequently, reporting such incidents is much less. Even without knowing the full ratio of the relevant incidents, experts agree that 500,000 children face sexual abuse yearly (YWCA.org 2017 ). This sexual offence against children has always been an existing phenomenon in all societies and historical eras. For instance, ancient civilizations openly adopted child sexual abuse as a normal, cultural, and social practice aimed at the learning and development of children (Ali 2019 ). Despite the perceptions about child sexual abuse historically varied, we found varying perceptions ranging from acceptance (justifiable) to rejection (children’s rights violation) (DiLillo et al. 2014 ). Child sexual abuse is not limited only to penetration; instead, showing a child pornographic photos, voyeurism, touching a child’s genitals, and even making the child touch or see the perpetrator’s private body parts is also considered sexual abuse (National Sexual Violence Resource Center 2011 ). It is also notable that both boys and girls are strongly susceptible to sexual abuse. However, girls are more vulnerable as they confront sexual abuse three times more than boys, while boys are more likely to be severely injured or die after sexual molestation (National Sexual Violence Resource Center 2011 ). A report by the World Health Organization in 2006 revealed that more than 20% of women and 8% of men in 39 countries reported that they had faced sexual abuse during childhood.

Similarly, data from 2012 to 2013 shows that 2% of boys and 4% of girls experience some sexual abuse every year (Chan et al. 2013 ). Another report (UNICEF 2020a ) revealed that more than 120 million individuals worldwide face forced sexual acts during their childhood. Most are females (89%), and 11% are males. Globally, this statistic is much higher as every one out of four girls and one in every six boys during the early years of their lives (YWCA.org 2017 ).

Similarly, sexual abuse of children is possible in almost every social setting and location, i.e., schools, roads, justice institutions, and homes. Also, it is prevalent equally among all socio-economic classes and age groups; children facing sexual abuse sometimes cannot realize their molestation (Selengia et al. 2020 ). Around 92.0 of the reported incidents were linked by acquittances (closed relatives), indicating the prevalence of incestuous abuse (Ali et al. 2021 ). Notably, there are three dynamic factors behind child sexual abuse, i.e., psychological, economic, and social. For instance, social factors involve one’s personal experience of sexual exploitation during childhood (Middleton et al. 2017 ). Economic factors involve poverty. For example, parents may ask their girl child to look for a capable man to take care of her primary needs, which may further lead to engaging in sexual activities in return for monetary support (Simuforosa 2015 , p. 1792).

On the other hand, psychological factors are mainly defined as sexual interest in children due to a mental disorder (Tenbergen et al. 2015 ). However, the economic factors responsible for perpetuating child sexual abuse mainly involve forcibly engaging children in sexual acts, selling or buying children pornography, and all the other relevant factors that lead to the economic benefits for the perpetrators (Ali 2019 ). Notably, the impacts of child sexual use are detrimental from different aspects. For instance, these impacts are immediate yet prolonged, indicating their severity during adulthood. According to (Downing et al. 2021 ), stress-induced variations in the pro-inflammatory substances, i.e., alterations in gene expression and cortisol, mediate these detrimental impacts.

Additionally, risky sexual behaviours against children and the opposite gender are further attributed to the impacts of child sexual abuse (Fisher et al. 2017 , p. 11). Child sexual abuse poses an influential societal challenge, demanding careful examination to understand its complexities fully.

Aim and purpose

This research aims to scrutinize the role of Child Sexual Abuse as a risk factor for causing several psychological concerns among the victims. The researcher has reviewed some studies on Child Sexual Abuse and its impacts. Drawing on the aims of this article, the study aims to examine (1) the short-term psychological impacts of Child Sexual Abuse and (2) the long-term psychological impacts of Child Sexual Abuse according to studies conducted during the past twelve years (2010–2022). The overarching goal is to provide a comprehensive synthesis of existing literature, shedding light on the multifaceted consequences of child sexual abuse over both short and long-term durations. By systematically analyzing and assessing a selected set of articles, this study seeks to contribute to the understanding of prevalent themes, methodologies, and gaps in the existing literature surrounding the psychological impacts of child sexual abuse. The significance of this work extends to informing future research, interventions, and policymaking related to child protection and well-being. Finally, the aim is to facilitate the development of targeted and effective strategies for preventing, intervening, and supporting individuals affected by children.

In response to the urgent need for a comprehensive understanding, this review study uses the PRISMA approach to navigate existing literature. Addressing the CSA in current knowledge, we highlight the major difficulties associated with unravelling the complexities of child sexual abuse. This review not only synthesizes an extensive body of research but also discusses their findings and insights to overcome the inherent challenges in comprehending the short and long-term impacts of child sexual abuse. Our study seeks to make a distinctive contribution by explaining the intercity of this fragile subject matter, thus laying the groundwork for more effective interventions and support systems. It addresses the following research questions based on the aims and purposes of current research.

RQ1. What constitutes Child Sexual Abuse, and how can it be accurately defined within the current literature?

RQ2. How does Child Sexual Abuse affect the mental health and overall well-being of individuals, considering both short-term and long-term impacts?

This study is based on the systematic literature review approach. The review-based studies are a significant part of the existing literature as they closely witness the ongoing trends and complexities in the field under study (Ali and Pasha 2022 ). Besides, the relevant studies also highlight the major findings to further the gap and conduct an in-depth analysis of the other aspects of the same concern.

Assumptions and justifications

In the context of this systematic literature review, certain assumptions were made to facilitate the synthesis and analysis of the selected studies. These assumptions are integral to the nature of the review process. First, it was deemed that the definitions of key terms, i.e., “child sexual abuse” and “psychological impacts,” were relatively consistent across the selected studies. This assumption is grounded in the anticipation that researchers within the field comply with widely accepted definitions and classifications. While variations in terminologies exist, a comprehensive screening process and compliance with inclusion criteria mitigated possible discrepancies. The study focused on articles with clear and relevant definitions, assuring homogeneity in the selected literature.

Further, the decision to include articles published from 2010 onwards was based on the assumption that recent research mirrors current trends and developments in comprehending the psychological impacts of child sexual abuse. The rationale is rooted in the dynamic nature of research, focusing on current perspectives. This assumption allows for analyzing the most recent insights into the subject matter and recognizing the evolving nature of societal attitudes and academic discourse.

Evaluation of assumptions

While these assumptions were important for the systematic review process, it is important to acknowledge their probable impact on the results. A few considerations emphasize how these assumptions may affect the outcomes. For example, despite efforts to ensure consistency, variations in definitions across studies may introduce complexities in interpreting psychological impacts. This could influence the synthesis of results, and readers should be aware of the potential heterogeneity in conceptualizing key terms. Besides, the focus on recent publications assumes that newer research accurately represents the current landscape. However, this may bias contemporary perspectives, potentially bypassing practical insights from earlier studies.

Thus, considering the problem’s complexity and continuous research, the researcher selected three specialized platforms: PubMed, Science Direct, and APA PsycNet. However, the selection criteria were not restricted to any age, gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, and language. The keywords for the search were “impacts of child sexual abuse, child sexual abuse, psychological effects of child sexual abuse, short-term effects of child sexual abuse, and long-term effects of child sexual abuse. Later the researcher tabulated the data using Microsoft Excel, which further helped calculate the included articles’ percentages and frequencies. The researcher used the PRISMA method for systematic review, as suggested by (Page and McKenzie 2021 ). Table  1 summarizes the inclusion and exclusion criteria used in the current study:

Based on the PRISMA method of screening, evaluation and Selection, the researchers gathered a total of 113 records from the selected database. After removing the duplicates, 106 total articles were further screened for full-text availability (93). Finally, the researchers selected n  = 19 articles adhering to the selection criteria (See Fig.  1 ).

figure 1

PRISMA flow chart for the articles selection process

Table  2 summarizes the frequencies and percentages of the literature according to their database. It is observable that most of the articles were from PubMed (n = 11 or 57.8). APA PsyNet provided n = 7 or 36.8% articles, while n  = 1 (5.2%) article was obtained from Science Direct.

Table  3 summarizes the frequencies and percentages of the selected literature according to their publication years. As visible, most of the studies ( n  = 12, 63.1%) were published from 2015 to 2020, indicating that these years focused mainly on research scholars in psychology, communication, sociology, criminology, and other fields. These results also reflect the prevalence of the relevant concern demanding a strong consideration towards children’s rights and health protection (Ali and Pasha 2022 ). Followed by 04 or 21.0% of studies published between 2010–2015, n  = 03 or 1.7% of studies published until the end of November 2022.

Concerning the frequencies and percentages of the cited literature according to their designs, most studies (09 or 47.3%) were based on a review approach. Followed by experimental design ( n  = 06 or 31.5%), 03 or 15.7% of studies were based on the perspective method. Finally, online n  = 1 (5.2%) of the study was based on the case study method, and the same number of studies ( n  = 1, 5.2%) was categorized as “other” (See Table  4 ). Additionally, n  = 11 or 7.8% of studies were based on a qualitative approach, n = 11 or 57.8% were based on the quantitative approach, and only one study was based on the mixed method approach (See Table  5 ).

The researchers calculated the frequencies and percentages of the cited literature according to the data-gathering approaches used by the relevant researchers (See Table  3 ). Most studies ( n  = 13, 68.4%) were based on the survey method. Besides, the interview approach was preferred in 04% of studies. While n  = 1 (5.2%) study was based on the literature review approach, and the same number of literature ( n  = 1, 5.2%) was categorized as “other”.

Validation of selected methodology

The methodology used in this systematic literature review underwent a thorough validation process to ensure its reliability and comprehensiveness. Key elements of the validation process are.

Adherence to PRISMA Guidelines: The systematic review methodology rigorously adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, as Page and McKenzie ( 2021 ) recommended. PRISMA guidelines are widely recognized and accepted standards for conducting systematic reviews, assuring a systematic and transparent approach to literature synthesis.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: Establishing clear and strict inclusion and exclusion criteria contributed to the robustness of the methodology. These criteria were designed to select studies that specifically addressed the psychological impacts of child sexual abuse, enhancing the relevance and reliability of the synthesized literature.

Search Strategy: The search strategy employed in selecting articles was exhaustive, using three specialized platforms—PubMed, Science Direct, and APA PsycNet. The chosen keywords were carefully selected to encompass diverse dimensions of child sexual abuse and its psychological impacts, minimizing the risk of overlooking pertinent studies.

Data Tabulation and Analysis: Using Microsoft Excel for data tabulation provided a structured and organized approach to handling the extensive information extracted from the selected articles. This facilitated a systematic calculation of frequencies and percentages, assuring accuracy and consistency in reporting.

PRISMA Flow Chart: A PRISMA flow chart (Fig.  1 ) visually represents the systematic article selection, screening, and inclusion process. This chart improves transparency and serves as a visual validation of the methodological stringency applied in the study.

While this systematic review does not involve the same type of validation as experimental or modelling studies, the validation lies in compliance with established guidelines, rigorous criteria for article selection, and transparent reporting of the review process. These elements collectively contribute to the robustness and credibility of the methodology used in this study.

Review of literature

Defining child sexual abuse.

According to (Pulverman et al. 2018 ), the definition of child sexual abuse has been a major concern for many researchers since the 1970s. The prevalent cases and recent concerns indicate that providing and establishing the definition of child sexual abuse is urgent and needs strong consideration. Notably, it is important to keep the complexity and sensitivity of the relevant issue under consideration when providing a potential definition of child sexual abuse (Pulverman et al. 2018 ) theoretically defined child sexual abuse as the unconscionability of the acts, which further indicates four types of activities such as the relationship of power between an adult and child, the child in the lower position facing inequality, the child’s susceptibility is exploited based on their detriment, and truancy of true consent (Table 6 ).

Defining sexual abuse can vary on a different basis. For instance, (Vaillancourt-Morel et al. 2016 ) argue that child sexual abuse mainly relies on the legal definition. Several self-reported cases of child sexual abuse remained affirmed, leading to further legal actions, yet some cases indicate doubtful accusations. As in the empirical study (Vaillancourt-Morel et al. 2016 ), results indicated 21.3% sexual abuse among females and 19.6% among males. At the same time, 7.1% of females and 3.8% remained consistent with self-defined child sexual abuse. However, (Ma 2018 ) stated that the relevant definition could vary according to the prevalence estimation. Besides, this definition is based on five criteria, including the age of the childhood, the age of the perpetrator or the age difference between the victim and the perpetrator, the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator, the type of sexual acts performed by the perpetrator, and the extension of the coercion. According to (Pulverman et al. 2018 ), child sexual abuse can be defined as unwanted sexual activities between an adult and a child, including vaginal, oral, and anal penetration. Besides, online child sexual abuse, including online sex, child pornography, and others, is also considered a vital type of child sexual abuse.

Impacts of child sexual abuse

Child sexual abuse is strongly detrimental to children’s physical and psychological health. In this regard, researchers and medical experts claim physical consequences as serious as brain damage and immediate death. Minor injuries are also found in some cases. However, death is the most common physical outcome of child sexual abuse (Habes et al. 2022 ). As noted by (Beltran 2010 ), no single impact patterns exist. Sometimes, a victim does not show any prominent impacts that may impede the development of a psychological syndrome that adversely affects a child’s social, emotional and cognitive abilities. Some researchers claim that only 20–30% of children remain emotionally and physically stable after sexual molestation. However, although they remain normal, internally, they develop latent effects of sexual abuse. The short-term and immediate psychological impacts of sexual abuse may involve painful emotions, Post-traumatic stress disorder, cognitive distortions, and disturbed mood. These victims respond to sexual abuse in diverse ways that can be changed over time. However, the psychological harm is still severe and can result in even adverse consequences. During sexual abuse, victims can feel fear, anxiety, self-blame, guilt, confusion, and anger. They feel self-conscious and humiliated, unable to talk about what happened, which can result in stress and frustration (Pulverman et al. 2018 ). Table  1 below provides a summary of studies witnessing the physical and psychological consequences of child sexual abuse (Table 7 ).

(Batool and Abtahi 2017 ) named short-term effects “initial effects”, as these reactions mainly occur during the first two years of abuse. Previous studies revealed that 66.0% of children were emotionally disturbed due to sexual abuse, 5.2% were mild to moderately disturbed, and 24.0% remained stable after the sexual abuse. Similarly, a study conducted by (Fontes et al. 2017 ) also witnessed the short-term impacts of sexual abuse on the mental health of the victims. Results gathered by using the Propensity Score Matching technique revealed that 13.3% of sexually abused children reported a greater feeling of loneliness, 7.5% were having difficulty in making friends, and 9.5% reported insomnia. Despite these effects differing among male and female children, both were equally confronting to the relevant mental disturbances.

Further, regarding the long-term effects of child sexual abuse, (Petersen et al. 2014 ) stated that it results in both short and long-term effects. A survivor may feel peer rejection, confusion, lack of self-confidence, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and aggression. Similarly, in the later years, the survivor may also develop other extreme psychiatric disorders such as depression, low economic productivity, drug addiction and even severe medical illness. According to (Hodder and Gow 2012 ), long-term child sexual abuse can also result in substance abuse, long-term depression, negative attributions, and even eating disorders. Most recently, practitioners also found even more chronic mental disorders such as delusions, schizophrenia, and personality disorders. However, children who have experienced abuse involving penetration are more likely to develop these chronic psychotic and schizophrenic disorders. Likewise, sexually abused children also have low self-esteem and overly sexualized behaviour, which, in many cases, results in teen pregnancy and motherhood and even an increased vulnerability to another victimization (Townsend 2013 ). Besides, socially isolated children with a disability or emotional disorder are comparatively more vulnerable to victimization. Once the abuse has happened, they also face threats to end the relationship if they refuse to perform sex or threats to publicly share their sexual images (UNICEF 2020b ) (Table 8 ).

Wagenmans et al. ( 2018 ) highlighted the occurrence of prolonged and severe psychological disorders among individuals who previously experienced child sexual abuse. As noted, the prolonged effects are more common when there is a repetitive and interpersonal nature of abuse, mostly leading to develop Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in later years. Those with a history of Child Sexual Abuse risk developing issues in interpersonal relationships, emotional regulation, and self-concept that result in “Complex PTSD” (p. 2). As (Gupta and Garg 2020 ) noted, child sexual abuse indicates an increased self-harming behaviour, fear, depression, impaired brain development, and others that are criteria for developing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Notably, this sexual abuse is not limited to physical and sexual harm; it also involves emotional abuse that further indicates the severity of the relevant issue today. It is also worth mentioning that most victims report sexual abuse in their later life. These victims also indicate their revictimization as one of the most consistent outcomes of child sexual abuse (Papalia et al. 2021 ). The term revictimization is also defined as any further victimization even during childhood, adolescence, or adulthood after the first incident of sexual abuse during childhood (P.1). However, there can be different factors, including sex, mental health issues, age at initial abuse, and others as different determinants of revictimization (Papalia et al. 2021 ). (MacIntosh and Ménard 2021 ) synthesized the status of research witnessing the long-term impacts of child sexual abuse over the past thirty years. As noted, different researchers have witnessed different impacts. Disturbed academic functioning, substance abuse and alcoholism in later years, revictimization and developing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Besides, sexual disorders, sex-related cognitions, disturbed intimate relationships, and emotional aspects of sexuality remain highlighted, witnessed, and still need much more consideration. Finally, the study by (Schreier et al. 2017 ) highlighted another important dimension regarding the impacts of child sexual abuse, as their focus was on the victims’ siblings as an important factor to determine in post-abuse scenarios. As noted, siblings can confront several emotional responses after disclosing the child’s sexual abuse. Siblings’ reactions are important as negative behaviour can increase the post-abuse stress among the victim and the family. Thus, it is concluded that the siblings should also be provided clinical services to reduce the negative impacts of child sexual abuse. Siblings also indicate symptoms of distress on an average level that needs strong consideration.

The gathered evidence unequivocally highlights the pervasive and profound negative impacts of child sexual abuse on the psychological health, cognitive development, and overall well-being of victims. The complex dynamics of the relationship between the abuser and the child, initially built on trust and affection, morph into a distressing paradigm of power, domination, victimization, and, in some examples, revictimization. The susceptibility of children in such situations places their psychological health at considerable risk, necessitating urgent and effective preventive measures to protect their well-being. This study serves to highlight the enduring and detrimental repercussions of child sexual abuse that can persist throughout a child’s life. The complexities of the psychological toll highlight the need for targeted interventions and support mechanisms. Our findings indicate that discussions and heightened awareness surrounding child sexual abuse are imperative. It is not merely a matter of quantifying impacts but a call to action to proactively empower parents, guardians, and responsible authorities to counteract these blatant crimes against children. Thus, our study affirms the critical importance of providing emotional support to victims, recognizing it as an integral component in mitigating the long-term impacts of child sexual abuse. By shedding light on the deep consequences and supporting awareness, we aim to contribute to the collective efforts toward a safer environment for children, free from the effects of sexual abuse.

Implications

Incidents of child sexual abuse are prevalent, especially since access to vulnerable children is even more feasible due to social media and other digital platforms (Ali et al. 2021 ). Consequently, children are at increased risk of maltreatment, particularly sexual abuse. Consequently, this research has some implications for the service and police departments, parents, and mental healthcare practitioners across the globe.

Families should receive prevention support and guidance through proper risk assessment and multi-level parent education (Tener et al. 2020 ). Parents informing the children about the protection measures can also help them prevent any detrimental incident that may further nullify the impacts of sexual abuse.

Providing mental healthcare services to the victims, their families, and their siblings, as also emphasized by (Schreier et al. 2017 ), also ensures the children’s mental well-being and development, especially among those who have been through any abusive exposure.

Besides psychological impacts, there are other detrimental impacts that child faces after sexual abuse that necessitate the provision of adequate healthcare services. These healthcare services aim to ensure the different consequences of abuse and that the victim may overcome the incident (Rahnavardi et al. 2022 ).

Medical healthcare providers, including staff, should also support and guide the victim and their families. Although exposure to a CSA victim can be traumatizing for healthcare practitioners, their behaviour and support patterns can help the victims cope with the challenges, especially with the psychological impacts (Pérez-Fuentes et al. 2013 ).

A victim can also face other consequences that may further worsen the impact of sexual abuse, including bullying. Schools and teachers can also effectively nullify these impacts by supporting and scrutinizing the victims. The focus should be on avoiding any further outcomes on their mental health (Sawyerr and Bagley 2017 ).

Implementing laws and active consideration towards welfare programs and training sessions for children, parents, and teachers as caregivers can also mitigate the impacts of child sexual abuse (Batool and Abtahi 2017 ).

Limitations and recommendations

Although this study synthesized the findings of recent literature witnessing both short-term and long-term impacts of child sexual abuse, it also contains some primary limitations. First, this study does not involve human subjects or clinical trials that may witness the impacts under study in a particular setting. Second, the Selection of the cited articles was strict and based on only three databases, limiting its scope. Third, the research does not provide any country-specific evidence. Instead, the cited literature is scattered and based on studies from around the world. Finally, although the study empirically witnesses the impacts of child sexual abuse, there are many regions where empirical research on child sexual abuse, its impacts, and causes are understudied. Consequently, this study emphasizes conducting more research on the impacts of child sexual abuse, its prevalence, and causal factors that may further provide strong insights regarding the relevant issue and help propose implications and nullify its impacts.

Data availability

No data is associated with this research project.

Code availability

No codes are available for this study.

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Ali, S., Pasha, S., Cox, A. et al. Examining the short and long-term impacts of child sexual abuse: a review study. SN Soc Sci 4 , 56 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-024-00852-6

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OpenAI teases an amazing new generative video model called Sora

The firm is sharing Sora with a small group of safety testers but the rest of us will have to wait to learn more.

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OpenAI has built a striking new generative video model called Sora that can take a short text description and turn it into a detailed, high-definition film clip up to a minute long.

Based on four sample videos that OpenAI shared with MIT Technology Review ahead of today’s announcement, the San Francisco–based firm has pushed the envelope of what’s possible with text-to-video generation (a hot new research direction that we flagged as a trend to watch in 2024 ).

“We think building models that can understand video, and understand all these very complex interactions of our world, is an important step for all future AI systems,” says Tim Brooks, a scientist at OpenAI.

But there’s a disclaimer. OpenAI gave us a preview of Sora (which means sky in Japanese) under conditions of strict secrecy. In an unusual move, the firm would only share information about Sora if we agreed to wait until after news of the model was made public to seek the opinions of outside experts. [Editor’s note: We’ve updated this story with outside comment below.] OpenAI has not yet released a technical report or demonstrated the model actually working. And it says it won’t be releasing Sora anytime soon. [ Update: OpenAI has now shared more technical details on its website.]

The first generative models that could produce video from snippets of text appeared in late 2022. But early examples from Meta , Google, and a startup called Runway were glitchy and grainy. Since then, the tech has been getting better fast. Runway’s gen-2 model, released last year, can produce short clips that come close to matching big-studio animation in their quality. But most of these examples are still only a few seconds long.  

The sample videos from OpenAI’s Sora are high-definition and full of detail. OpenAI also says it can generate videos up to a minute long. One video of a Tokyo street scene shows that Sora has learned how objects fit together in 3D: the camera swoops into the scene to follow a couple as they walk past a row of shops.

OpenAI also claims that Sora handles occlusion well. One problem with existing models is that they can fail to keep track of objects when they drop out of view. For example, if a truck passes in front of a street sign, the sign might not reappear afterward.  

In a video of a papercraft underwater scene, Sora has added what look like cuts between different pieces of footage, and the model has maintained a consistent style between them.

It’s not perfect. In the Tokyo video, cars to the left look smaller than the people walking beside them. They also pop in and out between the tree branches. “There’s definitely some work to be done in terms of long-term coherence,” says Brooks. “For example, if someone goes out of view for a long time, they won’t come back. The model kind of forgets that they were supposed to be there.”

Impressive as they are, the sample videos shown here were no doubt cherry-picked to show Sora at its best. Without more information, it is hard to know how representative they are of the model’s typical output.   

It may be some time before we find out. OpenAI’s announcement of Sora today is a tech tease, and the company says it has no current plans to release it to the public. Instead, OpenAI will today begin sharing the model with third-party safety testers for the first time.

In particular, the firm is worried about the potential misuses of fake but photorealistic video . “We’re being careful about deployment here and making sure we have all our bases covered before we put this in the hands of the general public,” says Aditya Ramesh, a scientist at OpenAI, who created the firm’s text-to-image model DALL-E .

But OpenAI is eyeing a product launch sometime in the future. As well as safety testers, the company is also sharing the model with a select group of video makers and artists to get feedback on how to make Sora as useful as possible to creative professionals. “The other goal is to show everyone what is on the horizon, to give a preview of what these models will be capable of,” says Ramesh.

To build Sora, the team adapted the tech behind DALL-E 3, the latest version of OpenAI’s flagship text-to-image model. Like most text-to-image models, DALL-E 3 uses what’s known as a diffusion model. These are trained to turn a fuzz of random pixels into a picture.

Sora takes this approach and applies it to videos rather than still images. But the researchers also added another technique to the mix. Unlike DALL-E or most other generative video models, Sora combines its diffusion model with a type of neural network called a transformer.

Transformers are great at processing long sequences of data, like words. That has made them the special sauce inside large language models like OpenAI’s GPT-4 and Google DeepMind’s Gemini . But videos are not made of words. Instead, the researchers had to find a way to cut videos into chunks that could be treated as if they were. The approach they came up with was to dice videos up across both space and time. “It’s like if you were to have a stack of all the video frames and you cut little cubes from it,” says Brooks.

The transformer inside Sora can then process these chunks of video data in much the same way that the transformer inside a large language model processes words in a block of text. The researchers say that this let them train Sora on many more types of video than other text-to-video models, varied in terms of resolution, duration, aspect ratio, and orientation. “It really helps the model,” says Brooks. “That is something that we’re not aware of any existing work on.”

“From a technical perspective it seems like a very significant leap forward,” says Sam Gregory, executive director at Witness, a human rights organization that specializes in the use and misuse of video technology. “But there are two sides to the coin,” he says. “The expressive capabilities offer the potential for many more people to be storytellers using video. And there are also real potential avenues for misuse.” 

OpenAI is well aware of the risks that come with a generative video model. We are already seeing the large-scale misuse of deepfake images . Photorealistic video takes this to another level.

Gregory notes that you could use technology like this to misinform people about conflict zones or protests. The range of styles is also interesting, he says. If you could generate shaky footage that looked like something shot with a phone, it would come across as more authentic.

The tech is not there yet, but generative video has gone from zero to Sora in just 18 months. “We’re going to be entering a universe where there will be fully synthetic content, human-generated content and a mix of the two,” says Gregory.

The OpenAI team plans to draw on the safety testing it did last year for DALL-E 3. Sora already includes a filter that runs on all prompts sent to the model that will block requests for violent, sexual, or hateful images, as well as images of known people. Another filter will look at frames of generated videos and block material that violates OpenAI’s safety policies.

OpenAI says it is also adapting a fake-image detector developed for DALL-E 3 to use with Sora. And the company will embed industry-standard C2PA tags , metadata that states how an image was generated, into all of Sora’s output. But these steps are far from foolproof. Fake-image detectors are hit-or-miss. Metadata is easy to remove, and most social media sites strip it from uploaded images by default.  

“We’ll definitely need to get more feedback and learn more about the types of risks that need to be addressed with video before it would make sense for us to release this,” says Ramesh.

Brooks agrees. “Part of the reason that we’re talking about this research now is so that we can start getting the input that we need to do the work necessary to figure out how it could be safely deployed,” he says.

Update 2/15: Comments from Sam Gregory were added .

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Beach: A Review of the Term Essay

The term ‘beach’ is a complex term to define because its mention invokes varied interpretations as well as mental images in people. Depending on the experiences that people have had regarding beaches, the definition of the term takes various forms. In its most basic interpretation, the term ‘beach’ refers to a land area that is adjacent to a sea or ocean. To other people, the term ‘beach’ may denote an expanse of land covered with natural particles such as sand, shingle, gravel, cobblestones, or gravel. A beach may also signify a land area that has various biological elements such as coral algae and shell particles. All in all, the mention of the term ‘beach’ invokes images of serenity and exquisite joy in the minds of people.

For example, by referring to a land area that lies next to a sea or an ocean, a beach signifies serenity. This feeling comes as people contemplate on the excellent surroundings of such scenery. For example, thoughts of the cool breeze that emanates from the sea are thrilling. On a personal note, I regard a beach as a truly enjoyable phenomenon owing to the experience I had when I visited Rio de Janeiro’s Ipanema Beach last July. I experienced exquisitely cool breezes as I lay on the beach in the evenings.

In addition, a beach may suggest a coastal expanse of land covered with abiotic elements such as gravel, pebbles, shingle, cobblestones, and sand. This definition also suggests joy and undisturbed serenity because it indicates that humanity has not had a great negative impact on such an environment. Personally, the term ‘beach’ also makes me create mental images of a coastal land area that has shingle and sand. This reaction emanates from a visit I had to the Man O’War Cove in England in 2007. I enjoyed walking barefoot on the soft sand of this quiet landscape. Again, ‘beach’ suggests joy and serenity.

Finally, beach may refer to a coastal land area that has great amount of biotic elements such as seashells as well as coral algae. The presence of these biological entities signifies an untouched and exquisite area for relaxation. Regarding this concept, I once made a tour to the east African coastal town of Mombasa. As I walked on the vast sandy beaches during low tide, I collected a great variety of beautiful seashells. Once more, a beach denotes enjoyment and serenity.

In conclusion, the term ‘beach’ has quite varied definitions depending on the interpretations of the various people based on their experiences. For instance, a beach may denote a vast expanse of coastal landscape covered with various abiotic elements such as sand and shingle. More basically, beaches refer to land masses located adjacent to seas or oceans. Further, a beach could indicate a coastal region with variety of biotic elements such as seashells and algae. What the three definitions have is the fact that they all denote joy and serenity.

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Mr. Silver writes the newsletter Silver Bulletin.

We look to be headed for what could be the most unpopular sequel since “ Home Alone 3 ”: Biden versus Trump 2.0.

One question goes to the heart of shaping expectations for that matchup: Why does everyone think the economy stinks? The answer is critical, given that this election is probably going to be close and that a variety of research suggests that the incumbent party’s chances are better when the economy is going well. President Biden, trailing Donald Trump in early polls , will need all the economic tailwind he can get.

Many commentators on the left have focused on a purported gap between what they see as objective data signaling a strong economy (in particular, persistently low unemployment ) and middling to poor consumer sentiment, as in the University of Michigan’s monthly survey . This gap is sometimes attributed to partisanship — Republican voters being unwilling to give any credit to Mr. Biden — and at other times to media bias or misinformation driven by social media .

But a more careful look at the numbers reveals a different answer, and it requires no great mystery to solve, no inexplicable gap in the data.

Consumers don’t think the economy stinks. Rather, they quite rationally have mixed feelings about this economy — and they’ll reveal different things depending on exactly what you ask them.

They are pessimistic about the future, but that’s a matter of prediction, not misinterpreting the current economic situation. And here’s the good news for Mr. Biden: They’ve noticed that the data has been improving.

The terms “consumer sentiment” and “consumer confidence” are sometimes used interchangeably, but in fact, they reflect two distinct, longstanding monthly surveys often cited by economists. First, there’s the University of Michigan’s Index of Consumer Sentiment and, second, the Conference Board’s Consumer Confidence Survey .

One is not inherently better than the other. The best approach, as I usually recommend with polls, is to average them. They actually show rather different things: The Michigan numbers are bearish (although growing less so), and the Conference Board’s are bullish. That’s because they focus on different parts of the economy .

The Michigan survey puts a lot of weight on voter assessment of pocketbook conditions , like whether it’s a good time to buy major household items. The Conference Board, meanwhile, asks consumers for their appraisal of the employment and business outlook but nothing that really gets directly at things like consumer prices.

Also, and this is often overlooked: In both surveys, the majority of the questions are about voters’ predictions about future economic conditions and not how they think the economy is doing at the moment. For example, the Michigan survey asks about the possibility of a severe economic downturn over the next five years — a question that is notoriously hard even for professional economists to answer.

Fortunately, instead of one measure of consumer confidence, Michigan and the Conference Board publish separate subindexes, one focused on consumers’ perceptions of current conditions and the other about their outlook for the future. So we actually have four measures: two major surveys each asking two varieties of big-picture questions.

In these surveys, from January 1978 to January 2021, consumers’ assessments of current conditions usually tracked each other well. But in summer 2021, they began to diverge — and not just a little but hugely.

For the graphic below, I’m normalizing these four data series such that they’re all on the same scale, with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 20. This just means we can make an apples-to-apples comparison. A score of 100 represents the average consumer outlook between 1978 and 2024.

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Consumer confidence in current conditions

Less confidence

More confidence

of Michigan

Consumer confidence was slow to recover following the 1990-91 recession

The mood reached record highs during the buoyant economic growth of the late '90s

An unprecedented combination of rapid job growth and high inflation has caused consumer confidence measures to diverge

Biden’s

inauguration

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The mood reached record highs during the buoyant economic growth of the late ’90s

business conditions

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Sources: University of Michigan’s Index of Consumer Sentiment, Conference Board’s Consumer Confidence Survey

Note: Survey results normalized to an average score of 100 and a standard deviation of 20 points.

Why the divergence? The Michigan survey’s questions are highly sensitive to inflation, whereas the Conference Board’s are not. And spring 2021 is when inflation really began to ramp up , as a white-hot-recovery summer ran headlong into supply chain disruptions, the Delta variant and an injection of stimulus cash that led people to splurge on everything from revenge travel to meme stocks . It was a deeply strange economy — good for businesses and good for job seekers but sometimes awful for consumers.

So while the Conference Board numbers have consistently been above average, at roughly a score of 120 on my normalized scale, the Michigan ones took longer to recover. However, they have rebounded recently, reflecting a deceleration of inflation since roughly mid-2023, perking up to 82 on my adjusted scale in the January 2024 reading after having bottomed out at 41 in June 2022.

If you’re wondering why a rebound took so long — or why the numbers are still below average — there are a lot of good explanations. First, although inflation numbers when reported in the news typically focus on the year-over-year change, that’s not necessarily how consumers see them. Prices in December 2023 were only 3 percent higher than they were a year earlier, but they were 10 percent higher than they were two years earlier and about 18 percent higher than three years ago.

It takes some time for consumers to adjust to the new normal. Historically, Michigan consumer sentiment is more closely correlated with the two-year change in inflation than the one-year shift. If so, the timing could work out well for Mr. Biden, since the period of peak inflation will be farther in the rearview mirror by the time people vote this November.

But it’s a mistake to assume that consumers have just been reacting to news accounts of high gasoline or fast-food prices instead of actually observing the impact on their bottom lines. People’s pocketbooks really aren’t in great shape — income growth has struggled to keep up with inflation.

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Per capita disposable income

COVID stimulus payments temporarily boosted disposable income

Inflation-adjusted income has barely grown during Biden’s term

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Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis

Note: Income shown in inflation-adjusted 2017 dollars

Per capita disposable income is historically one of the variables that most accurately predicts election outcomes. Although heavily affected by the timing of Covid stimulus payments, nothing about this data suggests that consumers have had a smooth economic ride under Mr. Biden. While corporate profits have soared to record levels , Americans quickly spent down the savings they built up during the pandemic.

It’s not just that goods have cost more; people have also been spending more on an inflation-adjusted basis. Often, that’s a sign of healthy economic demand. But consumers may be getting the short end of the stick as companies use algorithm-driven price discrimination to induce them to spend more on things they don’t necessarily want or need.

In short, consumers’ assessment of the current economic situation has been rational. They accurately report in the Conference Board survey that the business and labor outlook has been good. And they accurately report in the Michigan data that their pocketbooks were in bad shape because of inflation but are now recovering. But what about their future outlooks?

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Consumer confidence in future conditions

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The Michigan and Conference Board surveys closely overlap and tell the same story. Consumers were in an optimistic mood for roughly the first six months of Mr. Biden’s term, with both surveys usually showing above-average forward-looking numbers. Then the Delta variant and the period of extremely high inflation hit in midsummer 2021 and knocked the wind out of Mr. Biden’s promise of a rapid return to normalcy. Inflation was more persistent than economists were initially expecting, and the S&P 500 lost around a fifth of its value on an inflation-adjusted basis in 2022 .

Combined with the profound disruptions of the pandemic itself, there has been a lot of anxiety-inducing economic news for consumers. Although optimism is up in recent surveys, it’s not surprising that it’s taken some time to process everything.

There are other long-term factors pointing toward greater pessimism. For almost a quarter-century, a majority of voters have consistently thought the country is on the wrong track . There are many indications of a rise in poor mental health (and equally many hypotheses for why that’s happened). Many Americans have existential concerns about the long-term future for reasons ranging from environmental degradation to runaway artificial intelligence.

Fundamentally, Mr. Biden’s challenge is that it’s hard to persuade voters who are used to constant doomscrolling that it’s Morning in America again . The incumbency advantage seems to be declining ; it’s been 40 years since a president won re-election by a double-digit margin.

But there is good news for Mr. Biden: Voter perceptions about the economy are not just vibes — in fact, consumer sentiment has tracked the objective data well. That data, particularly the pocketbook numbers that were the weak point before, has begun to improve, and that leaves the door open for a potential second Biden term.

It will be a close call. His numbers against Mr. Trump haven’t improved yet — in fact, they’ve gotten slightly worse lately — even as consumers’ mood has become more buoyant. His age is still a big concern for voters (yes, Mr. Trump is old, too), and the Democratic coalition is bitterly divided over the Israel-Hamas war and other issues.

Polls show that Mr. Biden has lost the most ground with lower-income voters — even as the robust labor market has helped the working class. His campaign, however, has said it will replay its 2020 strategy, with a heavy emphasis on Mr. Trump and a lesser one on the economy. It’s plausible that this is a mistake. Mr. Trump is no longer the incumbent president. And working-class Democrats don’t necessarily have the instinctual dislike for Mr. Trump that college-educated progressives do.

Still, we ought not to take an overly deterministic view of the relationship between the economy and elections. With any sort of presidential election forecast, we’re limited in making reliable inferences because of small sample sizes. This is only the 12th presidential election, for instance, since Michigan began regularly publishing its consumer numbers. We’re in dangerous territory where models sometimes fail. No previous presidential incumbent has been as old as Mr. Biden — and no major-party challenger has been as old as Mr. Trump.

If Mr. Biden loses, it may be because the relationship between the economy and perceptions of the president has weakened — not because voters are mistaking a good economy for a bad one.

Graphics by Sara Chodosh .

Nate Silver, the founder and former editor of FiveThirtyEight and the author of the forthcoming book “ On the Edge : The Art of Risking Everything,” writes the newsletter Silver Bulletin .

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , X and Threads .

An earlier version of a graphic accompanying this article on the home page misstated the year of a sharp drop in consumer confidence. It was 2020, not 2018.

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Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Recent advances on metal–organic frameworks for deep purification of olefins.

ORCID logo

* Corresponding authors

a Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Advanced Catalysis Materials, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected]

b Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350007, P.R. China E-mail: [email protected]

The removal of trace impurities, such as alkynes and carbon dioxide, is critically important in the production of high-purity light hydrocarbon olefins, which are essential for a variety of downstream applications. However, hydrocarbon separation presents challenges due to their similarities. Traditional industrial technologies for olefin purification are often associated with high energy consumption, costs, and environmental concerns. As a result, physical adsorption using porous materials without a phase transition of gases has emerged as a promising alternative, offering lower energy requirements and operational simplicity. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), with expansive surface areas, significant porosity, and highly customizable pores, exhibit enormous potential for separating light hydrocarbon olefins. This review aims to provide an in-depth summary of the latest advancements in the separation of C 2 H 4 and C 3 H 6 from trace impurities using MOF materials. We will structure the progress of MOFs in this domain into four distinct sections based on the separation systems involved: (1) C 2 H 2 /C 2 H 4 separation, (2) C 3 H 4 /C 3 H 6 separation, (3) single-step C 2 H 4 purification from ternary mixture C 2 H 2 /CO 2 /C 2 H 4 , and (4) C 3 H 6 purification from ternary mixture C 3 H 4 (propyne/methylacetylene, MA)/C 3 H 4 (propadiene, PD)/C 3 H 6 . Additionally, the advantages of MOFs in the separation of ethylene and propylene, the innovation in material design, the integration of computer chemistry into reticular chemistry, the underlying separation mechanisms, and the strategies implemented to enhance separation performance will be discussed. Furthermore, this review will delineate the potential challenges encountered in transitioning MOF materials from the realm of academic research to industrial implementation, and summarize the prospects for this rapidly evolving field.

Graphical abstract: Recent advances on metal–organic frameworks for deep purification of olefins

  • This article is part of the themed collections: Journal of Materials Chemistry A Recent Review Articles and Journal of Materials Chemistry A HOT Papers

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Y. Jiang, W. Yang, Y. Zhang, L. Wang and B. Chen, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2024, Advance Article , DOI: 10.1039/D4TA00330F

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Supreme Court won’t review admissions at Va.’s Thomas Jefferson school

The Supreme Court will not review a challenge to the admissions system for a prestigious Northern Virginia magnet school, ending a years-long legal battle in the case and signaling a majority of justices may not be ready to quickly revisit the issue of what role race can play in the selection of a student body.

The high court’s decision Tuesday not to take the case involving the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology follows its ruling last term rejecting race-conscious admissions programs at Harvard and the University of North Carolina. That historic decision rolled back decades of precedent and has dramatically changed how the nation’s private and public universities select their students.

Tuesday’s ruling also comes weeks after the Supreme Court refused to immediately force the U.S. Military Academy at West Point to change its race-conscious admissions policies, an issue it left open after the cases last summer.

“I think the Supreme Court is where the American public is,” said Richard D. Kahlenberg of George Washington University, an expert witness in favor of socioeconomic admissions who testified on behalf of the group that successfully challenged the Harvard and UNC practices. “They don’t like racial preference, but they do want racial diversity. And that’s why I think we won’t see the Supreme Court saying that race-neutral alternatives are illegal when racial diversity is part of the motive.”

The legal battle in Virginia was between a group of parents and the Fairfax County School Board over an admissions policy approved in 2020 and designed to boost diversity at Thomas Jefferson high — known locally as TJ — a magnet school that is often ranked as the best school in the country. The revised process used a more holistic review of applicants by considering what admissions experts call “race-neutral” factors, such as what neighborhood a student lives in and their socioeconomic status.

The new process also removed a notoriously difficult admissions test and $100 application fee, and reserved a set number of seats for students from each of Fairfax County’s middle schools. Applicants must have an unweighted grade-point average of at least 3.5 while taking higher-level courses, complete a problem-solving essay and submit a “Student Portrait Sheet.”

The first admitted class saw boosts in Black and Latino enrollment, as well as more low-income students, English-language learners and girls. The percentage of Asian American students dropped from around 70 percent to 50 percent, sparking accusations that the changes were designed to drive down Asian American enrollment. The parents’ group Coalition for TJ opposed the changes and filed a lawsuit against the school board in 2021, alleging that the new process was discriminatory.

A District Court judge initially sided with the parent group in 2022, calling Thomas Jefferson’s new admissions process “racial balancing” and “patently unconstitutional.” Then in May, a divided panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 4th Circuit reversed the lower court’s decision , ruling in favor of the Fairfax school board and stating that the process did not discriminate against Asian American students — in part because a majority of admitted students still are Asian American.

On Tuesday, Fairfax County School Board Chair Karl Frisch again defended the updated admissions policy: “We have long believed that the new admissions process is both constitutional and in the best interest of all of our students. It guarantees that all qualified students from all neighborhoods in Fairfax County have a fair shot at attending this exceptional high school,” he said in a statement.

As is common in court orders, the Supreme Court majority did not provide a reason for allowing the appeals court’s decision to stand. But the case drew a sharp dissent from two conservatives — Justices Samuel A. Alito Jr. and Clarence Thomas — who said that the lower court was wrong to uphold the policy and that they would have reviewed the case.

What the lower court “held, in essence, is that intentional racial discrimination is constitutional so long as it is not too severe. This reasoning is indefensible, and it cries out for correction,” wrote Alito, joined by Thomas.

Alito took issue with the 4th Circuit’s reasoning, saying it “effectively licenses official actors to discriminate against any racial group with impunity as long as that group continues to perform at a higher rate than other groups.”

He characterized public magnet high schools as “engines of social mobility” for minorities and the children of immigrants, adding that the “majority’s fallacious reasoning works a grave injustice on diligent young people who yearn to make a better future for themselves, their families, and our society.”

How Supreme Court ruled on affirmative action in the past

Similar legal challenges to admissions-based high schools have been filed around the country and have been watched as a possible next frontier of admissions challenges after the Supreme Court’s decision in the Harvard and UNC cases in June. In his dissent, Alito wrote that Thomas Jefferson’s admissions policy could become a road map for other selective schools to evade last year’s Supreme Court decision.

The Pacific Legal Foundation, which represents the Coalition for TJ, said in a statement that it will continue to fight race-based admissions in public elementary, middle and high schools, with cases underway in Boston, New York City and Montgomery County, Md.

Asra Nomani, a co-founder of the Coalition for TJ and parent of a 2021 graduate of the school, said the court’s decision felt like a gut punch but would not be the end of their fight. Nomani said the coalition planned to continue supporting families around the country who want to challenge similar issues at their schools.

“We’ve been in this long battle and had a real faith in the American justice system,” Nomani said in an interview. “And so it’s shocking and devastating that the Supreme Court that ruled race couldn’t be used as a factor in admissions in colleges allows for this proxy discrimination that we see used in the admissions policy at TJ.”

Virginia Gov. Glenn Youngkin (R) also criticized the court’s decision, saying the TJ admissions policy “penalizes high-performing students in the name of equity. This nation was built on the idea of building a better future through hard work and determination, and we should recommit to those ideals.”

But for advocates of the new admissions process, the decision Tuesday was a victory. Jiunwei Chen, vice president of the TJ Alumni Action Group, an organization that pushed for the admission changes, said the decision felt like a “sigh of relief” that their legal fight had come to an end. Chen recognized, however, that the larger battle might not be over.

“There’s been a lot of back-and-forth around affirmative action. It is very much a hot topic and will continue to be so,” Chen said. “Even though it might be, knock on wood, over for TJ, it is definitely not over for other schools.”

Sonja Starr, a law professor at the University of Chicago who closely followed the TJ case, said it involved complicated legal questions that have yet to be answered over whether racial diversity could be a motivating factor in an admissions process. She anticipates more cases challenging “race-neutral” admissions, especially as universities and colleges look for ways to create diverse campuses without considering race in admissions.

“The big questions are, when a school tries to preserve racial diversity in a conscious way but using tools that don’t discriminate among applicants by race, is that going to be considered affirmative action in disguise of the sort that the Supreme Court warned against” in the Harvard and UNC decisions, Starr asked. “Or is that going to be considered the kind of routine and benign pursuit of diversity that schools have routinely engaged in?”

Tuesday’s ruling was the second time the high court had been asked to weigh in on the TJ case.

In 2022, when Fairfax schools appealed the district court’s ruling, the 4th Circuit granted a request for the school division to continue using the new admissions system while the legal battle continued. The Coalition for TJ then asked the Supreme Court in an emergency request to block school administrators from using the policy. The high court declined , but three justices indicated that they disagreed with the decision.

The Supreme Court subsequently issued its ruling in June in the Harvard and UNC cases. The high court could have sent the Thomas Jefferson case back to the 4th Circuit to review in light of that decision but chose not to do so.

The revised admissions process has been in place since the first class was admitted under it in 2021. In the last group of admission offers, economically disadvantaged students made up 11.64 percent of the class. About 43.4 percent were female, and 57.6 percent were male. Asian American students made up about 61.6 percent of the offers, with White students receiving 19 percent. Black students received 6.7 percent of offers, and Hispanic students 6.0 percent.

The case is Coalition for TJ v. Fairfax County School Board.

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  27. Opinion

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