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Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay | Tips & Examples

Published on August 6, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

Comparing and contrasting is an important skill in academic writing . It involves taking two or more subjects and analyzing the differences and similarities between them.

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Table of contents

When should i compare and contrast, making effective comparisons, comparing and contrasting as a brainstorming tool, structuring your comparisons, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about comparing and contrasting.

Many assignments will invite you to make comparisons quite explicitly, as in these prompts.

  • Compare the treatment of the theme of beauty in the poetry of William Wordsworth and John Keats.
  • Compare and contrast in-class and distance learning. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach?

Some other prompts may not directly ask you to compare and contrast, but present you with a topic where comparing and contrasting could be a good approach.

One way to approach this essay might be to contrast the situation before the Great Depression with the situation during it, to highlight how large a difference it made.

Comparing and contrasting is also used in all kinds of academic contexts where it’s not explicitly prompted. For example, a literature review involves comparing and contrasting different studies on your topic, and an argumentative essay may involve weighing up the pros and cons of different arguments.

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psychology essays on differences and similarities

As the name suggests, comparing and contrasting is about identifying both similarities and differences. You might focus on contrasting quite different subjects or comparing subjects with a lot in common—but there must be some grounds for comparison in the first place.

For example, you might contrast French society before and after the French Revolution; you’d likely find many differences, but there would be a valid basis for comparison. However, if you contrasted pre-revolutionary France with Han-dynasty China, your reader might wonder why you chose to compare these two societies.

This is why it’s important to clarify the point of your comparisons by writing a focused thesis statement . Every element of an essay should serve your central argument in some way. Consider what you’re trying to accomplish with any comparisons you make, and be sure to make this clear to the reader.

Comparing and contrasting can be a useful tool to help organize your thoughts before you begin writing any type of academic text. You might use it to compare different theories and approaches you’ve encountered in your preliminary research, for example.

Let’s say your research involves the competing psychological approaches of behaviorism and cognitive psychology. You might make a table to summarize the key differences between them.

Or say you’re writing about the major global conflicts of the twentieth century. You might visualize the key similarities and differences in a Venn diagram.

A Venn diagram showing the similarities and differences between World War I, World War II, and the Cold War.

These visualizations wouldn’t make it into your actual writing, so they don’t have to be very formal in terms of phrasing or presentation. The point of comparing and contrasting at this stage is to help you organize and shape your ideas to aid you in structuring your arguments.

When comparing and contrasting in an essay, there are two main ways to structure your comparisons: the alternating method and the block method.

The alternating method

In the alternating method, you structure your text according to what aspect you’re comparing. You cover both your subjects side by side in terms of a specific point of comparison. Your text is structured like this:

Mouse over the example paragraph below to see how this approach works.

One challenge teachers face is identifying and assisting students who are struggling without disrupting the rest of the class. In a traditional classroom environment, the teacher can easily identify when a student is struggling based on their demeanor in class or simply by regularly checking on students during exercises. They can then offer assistance quietly during the exercise or discuss it further after class. Meanwhile, in a Zoom-based class, the lack of physical presence makes it more difficult to pay attention to individual students’ responses and notice frustrations, and there is less flexibility to speak with students privately to offer assistance. In this case, therefore, the traditional classroom environment holds the advantage, although it appears likely that aiding students in a virtual classroom environment will become easier as the technology, and teachers’ familiarity with it, improves.

The block method

In the block method, you cover each of the overall subjects you’re comparing in a block. You say everything you have to say about your first subject, then discuss your second subject, making comparisons and contrasts back to the things you’ve already said about the first. Your text is structured like this:

  • Point of comparison A
  • Point of comparison B

The most commonly cited advantage of distance learning is the flexibility and accessibility it offers. Rather than being required to travel to a specific location every week (and to live near enough to feasibly do so), students can participate from anywhere with an internet connection. This allows not only for a wider geographical spread of students but for the possibility of studying while travelling. However, distance learning presents its own accessibility challenges; not all students have a stable internet connection and a computer or other device with which to participate in online classes, and less technologically literate students and teachers may struggle with the technical aspects of class participation. Furthermore, discomfort and distractions can hinder an individual student’s ability to engage with the class from home, creating divergent learning experiences for different students. Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while representing a step backwards in others.

Note that these two methods can be combined; these two example paragraphs could both be part of the same essay, but it’s wise to use an essay outline to plan out which approach you’re taking in each paragraph.

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Some essay prompts include the keywords “compare” and/or “contrast.” In these cases, an essay structured around comparing and contrasting is the appropriate response.

Comparing and contrasting is also a useful approach in all kinds of academic writing : You might compare different studies in a literature review , weigh up different arguments in an argumentative essay , or consider different theoretical approaches in a theoretical framework .

Your subjects might be very different or quite similar, but it’s important that there be meaningful grounds for comparison . You can probably describe many differences between a cat and a bicycle, but there isn’t really any connection between them to justify the comparison.

You’ll have to write a thesis statement explaining the central point you want to make in your essay , so be sure to know in advance what connects your subjects and makes them worth comparing.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

  • The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
  • The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

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  • A-Level Psychology >

Comparison of approaches -A-Level Psychology

Comparison of approaches:, views on development.

Behaviourist approach and social learning theory do not offer coherent stage theories of development and see learning as continuous in comparison to other approaches e.g biological and cognitive(schema).

Nature vs nurture

For nature:biological approach

For nurture:social learning theory and behaviourist approach

Reductionism

Reductionism refers to the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into constituent parts.(behaviourist approach,biological approach,psychodynamic approach)

The cognitive approach has been accused of machine reductionism by presenting people as information processing systems and ignoring the influence of emotion on behaviour.

Humanistic approach supports the opposing view of holism which investigates all aspects of the individual ,including the effects of interaction with others and wider society.

Determinism

Suggests that all behaviour has an external or internal cause and is thus predictable.

Hard determinism- behaviorism and biological approach

Soft determinism-humanistic approach

Explanation and treatment of abnormal behaviour

Behaviourist approach-arises from faulty learning and  treated by systematic desensitisation

Social learning theory-arises from modelling and vicarious reinforcement

Cognitive-CBT

Humanistic therapy-counselling

Biological theory-drug therapy

The purpose of comparing different approaches in A-Level Psychology is to understand the different theories, methods, and applications that psychologists use to study human behavior and mental processes. By comparing and contrasting these approaches, students can gain a deeper understanding of the strengths and limitations of each approach and develop a more comprehensive understanding of psychology as a whole.

The major approaches in A-Level Psychology include behaviorism, cognitive psychology, humanistic psychology, psychodynamic psychology, and biological psychology.

The major approaches in A-Level Psychology are different from each other in terms of their underlying assumptions, theories, and methods. For example, behaviorism focuses on observable behavior and uses conditioning to explain learning, while cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes such as perception, attention, and memory. Humanistic psychology emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, while psychodynamic psychology focuses on unconscious motives and conflicts. Biological psychology looks at the role of biology and genetics in behavior and mental processes.

Yes, for example, behaviorism might explain a behavior such as smoking as a learned behavior that has been reinforced over time through conditioning. Cognitive psychology might explain smoking as a result of cognitive processes such as attentional bias or beliefs about smoking. Humanistic psychology might explain smoking as a response to unmet needs for self-actualization or personal growth. Psychodynamic psychology might explain smoking as a way of coping with unconscious conflicts or unresolved issues from childhood. Biological psychology might explain smoking as a result of genetic or physiological factors such as addiction or brain chemistry.

You can use the knowledge of different approaches in A-Level Psychology to analyze and evaluate research studies, develop your own theories and hypotheses, and apply psychological principles to real-world problems. By understanding the strengths and limitations of each approach, you can develop a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of psychology as a whole and be better prepared for your A-Level Psychology exams.

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Sociology Group: Welcome to Social Sciences Blog

Psychology and Sociology: Similarities and Differences

The Coexistence of Psychology and Sociology

An individual’s identity is determined by how they identify themselves and their social identity. Identity is a crucial aspect of an individual’s life as it creates a sense of being aware of oneself as well as establishing belongingness and status in society. The two common factors influencing identity are psychological factors and social factors. Sociology and Psychology determine the existence of humanity. While psychology caters to an individual’s mind and how they express themselves through personality and behaviour, sociology looks at the communities the individual is part of and the influence of the communal identity on the individual. Psychology and sociology may be different fields, wherein psychology focuses on studying humans as individuals, while sociology examines humans as collective members of their culture and society. While the two fields focus on different notions of understanding human behaviour, there are overlaps within the two fields in areas such as social psychology which looks at behaviour individual in culture and society. To develop a further understanding and distinction between the two areas of study, it is crucial to create a basic knowledge of the fields by looking at objectives and core elements. The following article aims to develop an understanding of a basic overview of the two areas Psychology and Sociology and examine similarities and differences, which helps understand the coexistence and codependence of the two fields in the field of social sciences.

Understanding Psychology

The term “psychology” is derived from Greek roots which are psyche, the soul and logia, the study of or the branch of a concept. Psychology, by definition, is the scientific study of mind and behaviour. Psychology was built based on four primary goals which are:

  • Describe: Describing the behaviour of humans help understand the notion of normal and abnormal behaviour by comparing an individuals behaviour with other members of the individual’s culture. This helps understand abnormality when a deviation to the norms and expectations of an individual.
  • Explain: Explaining behaviour creates an understanding of why a particular behaviour occurs. The observations and descriptions of behaviour help develop theories as a means of explanation. Explanation through theories helps create a definitive reason behind behaviour which can be generalised to the general population.
  • Predict: Once the theories are developed through explanation, the theories can be used as a reference to the expected behaviour from an individual which can predict future behaviour based on the theoretical data.
  • Control: Controlling behaviour ensures stability. It can also be a means of changing behaviour by using the knowledge derived from previous research. In cases of mental illnesses, this aspect plays a crucial role as it focuses on changing and controlling the illness in order to restore normality in an individual.

Psychology is divided into subfields in order to classify and study behaviour associated with the broad classifications such as personality psychology, clinical psychology, social psychology developmental psychology and several others. Each of the sub-classifications for theory and research which makes understanding and application of the findings of the research and theories more organised. Studying psychology helps individuals in various areas, such as counselling and developing programs. Psychology also creates an understanding of the mind where the conscious and unconscious help gage knowledge of common factors such as memory, instincts and appropriate behaviour.

Understanding Sociology

Sociology is defined as a discipline dealing with the interpretation and explanation of social action. It deals with human interaction and understanding factors determining these. Sociology aims to understand the creation and maintenance of organisations influencing social structures. The field looks at society as a space created for the human need for belonging, and aspects in the society such as social stratification, social movements and social change.

Sociology aims to look at societal organisations and institutions that influence human behaviour. Sociology began as a study after the french Philosopher Aguste Comte, who wanted the creation of a systematic science to study society. The society which is mentioned has several aspects to it, such as politics, economy. Society is the collective set of people that share a similar culture and physical location. Sociology views physical commodities and anything that is not created by the individual are products of society. This is the link between sociology and economics, where the economy is dependent on societal consumption while society is dependant on the economy to buy commodities. Sociology also looks at an individual and exposure to environments, individuals and objects that influence an individual’s social identity. Social identity is the individual’s knowledge about themselves in respect to the ingroups they belong to in society such as class, caste, and ethnicity. The need for a social identity is driven by the need to belong in a group for safety, self-esteem, socialisation. Formation of groups creates a comparison which boosts and influences the self-esteem of an individual when their group is superior. This is also the reason for the development of prejudices which are created by string negative attitudes towards another group.

Outlining Similarities between Psychology and Sociology

While sociology and psychology are different areas of study, they have overlapping features that create similarities between the two. When looking at sociology and psychology, a key feature common to them is studying patterns of recurring behaviour characteristics. The study of patterns promotes better understanding and fixed criteria. Sociology acknowledges the individual’s choices and behaviour as a role in society which is determined by the individual’s ability to make decisions which are influenced by psychology. The society of the individual influences the individual choices as the psychological theory states that individuals have the instinct to belong. In order to study these similarities, the field of social psychology looks at an individual and influence of the society on the individual. Social psychology is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed within a social context by the actual or imagined interactions with others. Social psychology looks at attributes such as prejudice, attitudes, aggression, which are psychological concepts that play a role in determining the grouping and social acceptance of an individual.

Outlining Differences between Psychology and Sociology

While the overlaps between psychology and psychology are evident, there are differences between the two which resulted in the separation of the fields. The most noticeable difference is in the area of study. While psychology looks at the behaviour of an individual concerning culture and society, sociology looks at collective individuals who belong to a culture or society. Despite the influence of society on an individual, the psychological functioning of an individual is determined by the individual’s functioning as a result of physiology and environmental factors. While sociology creates social norms and expected behaviours, variation in an individual’s behaviour, concerning these norms are viewed as abnormal behaviour in the individual, hence prompting psychological intervention. While the common overlapping field is social psychology, social psychology focuses on individual behaviours in society and defines normality and abnormality based on societal norms. Sociology, however, aims to understand social behaviour through a broader social context and by looking at the combined population rather than individuals. The variation in the influences also helps distinguish between psychology and sociology. Sociology looks at influences of an individual only from external factors class, family, gender, while psychology looks at external factors such as family, culture, class as well as internal factors such as genetics, personality as influences of individual behaviour.

The field of social sciences is crucial in understanding human interaction and factors that influence it. Looking at psychology and sociology as individual fields, the most prominent difference is the contrast between the study on individuals in society and the study of societies as a concept. Psychology focuses on an individual’s behaviour which is influenced by both internal as well as external factors (nature and nurture). Sociology, on the other hand, looks at collectives such as cultures and social circles and studies individuals as a part of the collective rather than as individuals. While this prompts the need for separate fields as a result of the prominent differences, the fields also have similarities. While the subjects of study vary, both fields aim to understand patterns of behaviour. The overlapping concept of the fields can be observed in social psychology which looks at influences of society on an individual. This calls for the understanding of sociological concepts of culture, class, groups while also looking at understanding at individual behaviours in the social context. While the differences between the two fields are prominent, the fields exist in co-dependency of each other. While it may be noted that they are different fields, the need for understanding human behaviour in order to define culture and society are important aspects of consideration in sociology. Similarly, the need for understanding external influences on behaviour such as culture, family and society for understanding individual behaviour are essential aspects of understanding psychology. It can be stated that both fields study human behaviour but from different aspects. Despite differences being more defined between the two areas of study, the overlapping similarities create co-dependency between the fields of psychology and sociology.

Cherry, K., & Morin, A. (2019). How the Goals of Psychology Are Used to Study Behavior. Retrieved 3 August 2020, from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-are-the-four-major-goals-of-psychology-2795603#

Cherry, K., & Susman, D. (2020). What You Should Know About Psychology. Retrieved 3 August 2020, from https://www.verywellmind.com/psychology-4014660

CrashCourse. (2017). What Is Sociology?: Crash Course Sociology #1 [Video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YnCJU6PaCio

Faris, R., & Form, W. (2020). Sociology. Retrieved 3 August 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/sociology

Nisbet, R. (2019). Social science. Retrieved 3 August 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science

McLeod, S. A. (2019). Social identity theory . Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-identity-theory.html

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Social science. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary . Retrieved August 3, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social%20science

psychology essays on differences and similarities

Shubha Arvind

Shubha Arvind is currently pursuing a degree in Psychology with an Open Minor at FLAME University. Her passion for culture studies, sociology and film and she aims to focus her minor around them. She actively participates in discussions and hopes to make a change. Her hobbies include playing the violin, swimming and art.

What Is The Difference Between Sociology And Psychology

Julia Simkus

Editor at Simply Psychology

BA (Hons) Psychology, Princeton University

Julia Simkus is a graduate of Princeton University with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology. She is currently studying for a Master's Degree in Counseling for Mental Health and Wellness in September 2023. Julia's research has been published in peer reviewed journals.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Sociology and psychology are closely related disciplines that complement each other in understanding human behavior and social phenomena.

Psychology studies the mind of an individual to understand human behavior and social and emotional reactions. In contrast, sociology looks beyond individuals and studies society, social behavior, and social institutions.

Sociology provides a broader perspective by examining the influence of social structures, cultural norms, and societal factors on individuals and groups. It investigates how social interactions, institutions, and systems shape behavior, beliefs, and identities.

Psychology focuses on the individual level, studying the internal processes, cognitive functioning, emotions, and motivations that drive behavior. It explores how individual experiences, personality traits, and mental processes contribute to social interactions and influence societal outcomes.

Both disciplines share a common interest in understanding human behavior, albeit from different angles. They often intersect in areas such as social psychology , which explores the interplay between individual psychology and social influences, and in studying topics like group dynamics, social cognition, and identity formation.

Differences Between Psychology and Sociology

  • Psychology is the study of the emotions and behavior of an individual whereas sociologists look beyond the individual to examine societal institutions and groups of people.
  • Psychologists typically need to pass a test to become licensed, while sociologists have no licensing requirements.
  • Psychologists can diagnose and treat mental health disorders whereas sociologists cannot.
  • Psychologists must understand basic medical science, such as the biological processes of the brain, whereas sociologists must have a strong understanding of social theory and public policy.
  • Sociologists tend to work in social work, social justice, and social services while psychologists are usually better equipped to work in human resources, health clinics, or counseling.

Similarities Between Psychology and Sociology

  • Both psychology and sociology are social sciences that involve the study of human thought processes and behaviors.
  • Both fields are concerned with improving people’s lives and bettering society.
  • Both professions utilize communication, interpersonal, analytical, research, listening, observational, and problem-solving skills.
  • Both psychology and sociology degrees are versatile and can lead to a wide range of career opportunities.

What is Psychology?

According to the American Psychological Association, psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior of individual people. Psychologists aim to understand the mental processes behind the behavior of individuals, or groups.

They study the mind, how it works, and how it affects behavior. Psychologists focus on social and emotional factors like anger, intelligence, aging, anxiety, depression, and stress.

psychology

What You Study in Psychology

Psychologists look into the cognitive and emotional processes of individuals and try to understand how they influence human behavior.

Coursework in psychology might include topics such as human development, psychopathology, statistics, mental illness, and personality.

Psychologists are involved in research such as cognition, attention, emotion, brain functioning, motivation, and perception.

There are a number of specific disciplines within the field of psychology that students can study including behavioral neuroscience, clinical psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, quantitative psychology, and abnormal psychology.

Career Paths in Psychology

Similarly, there is a plethora of potential careers that someone with a psychology degree can pursue.

Psychologists can work in outpatient facilities or offices, either as an individual practitioner in a private practice or as part of a group practice.

They can also work in hospitals, health clinics, schools and universities, sports teams, rehabilitation centers, or for large corporations as organizational psychologists.

While many psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, such as  practicing psychotherapy in clinical, counseling, or school settings, other psychologists conduct scientific research in academic settings on a variety of topics relating to mental processes and behavior.

What is Sociology?

Sociology is a social science that studies human social relationships and institutions. Sociology looks past individual differences to examine groups of people – families, nations, companies, communities, etc.

sociology

Sociologists strive to understand how human action and consciousness are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures.

Sociologists are concerned with people’s reactions to certain physical characteristics and how these reactions affect individuals in society.

Sociology’s subject matter can range from the social causes and consequences of love, racial and gender identity, family conflict, aging, poverty, crime, and religious faith to phenomena such as population growth and migration, war and peace, and economic development.

What You Study in Sociology

Sociologists try to answer questions about current social issues and learn about the ways diverse communities interact with each other.

Coursework in sociology might focus on globalization, race and ethnicity, diversity and inequality, methods of research, and social problems.

The research methods sociologists use are varied but include conducting large-scale surveys, interpreting historical documents, analyzing census data, studying video-taped interactions, interviewing participants of groups, or conducting laboratory experiments.

Students learn to think critically about human social life and know how to help others understand the way the social world works.

Career Paths in Sociology

Careers in sociology are essentially limitless. Sociologists can be employed by research institutes, criminal justice systems, public health and welfare organizations, private businesses, law firms, international agencies, medical centers, educational institutions, advertising firms, and more.

They often work as social researchers, case workers, paralegals, public relations workers, administrators, community organizers, public policy researchers, or data analysts.

According to the American Sociological Association, about a quarter of those with a bachelor’s degree in sociology work in social services, as either counselors or psychologists.

Prout, T. (2021, June 24). Sociology vs. psychology. National University. Retrieved from https://www.nu.edu/resources/sociology-vs-psychology/

Saint Leo University. (2015, December 17). Psychology vs. sociology: What’s the difference? Saint Leo University. Retrieved from https://www.saintleo.edu/blog/online-psychology-degree-vs.-sociology-what-s-the-difference-infographic

University of North Carolina. (n.d.). What is sociology? Department of Sociology. Retrieved from https://sociology.unc.edu/undergraduate-program/sociology-major/what-is-sociology/

What is the difference between ethnomethodology and sociology?

Sociology encompasses broad studies of social interactions and structures, including the symbolic interactionism framework that focuses on interpersonal symbols and meanings.

Ethnomethodology , a subset of sociology, specifically examines the daily methods people use to perceive and construct social reality, diverging from broader sociological analyses.

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Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis as Personality Theories Essay

Introduction, similarities, differences.

Personality theories enhance the understanding of human behaviors and attempt to explain their origins or causes. In reference to Hiriyappa (2012), many scholars developed personality theories in the 1900’s. Moreover, different scholars modified individual theories over time. While some of the theories are still applied today, others are no longer in use. The aim of the current research is to assess behaviorism and psychoanalytic personality theories.

The research analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories. In this regard, two major similarities are identified. First, the theories are both deterministic as they seek to establish the causes of certain human behaviors. Secondly, the theories pay regard to the role of experiences in shaping human behavior. The differences lie in the fundamental concepts of the theories and the scientific nature of the investigations undertaken by Sigmund and Skinner in an effort to prove their perspectives. Although the theories have been described as polar opposites, this research reveals some similarities.

According to Hiriyappa (2012), personality theories attempt to understand the nature of human beings. There are many theories that have been developed by different scholars to understand human behavior and the motives behind their actions. This essay focuses on the psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Feud, and behaviorism by Skinner. Patterson and Joseph (2007) explain that John B. Watson initially developed the concept of behaviorism in the early 1900’s.

Later, Skinner modified the theory and focused on the principles of operant behavior. In reference to Skinner (1976), the environment plays a critical role in shaping human behavior, and human beings have specific response tendencies. The theory also recognizes time as an important factor in changing behavioral patterns. On the contrary, psychoanalytic theory notes that personality is determined by various conflicts between the conscious and subconscious mind (Schultz & Schultz, 2013).

Sigmund developed the theory in the 19th century, and it recognizes the presence of inner desires and experiences in life, which shape personalities. Generally, both theories seem to identify varying concepts that are responsible for the differences in personalities among human beings. The aim of the current research is to assess the differences and similarities between behaviorism and psychoanalytic theories.

The two approaches are deterministic. This means that Feud and Skinner believed that other factors were responsible for human behavior (either internal or external factors). Specifically, behaviorism tends to focus on the environment as an external factor that affects human behavior. Additionally, Skinner recognized the fact that a negative environment results in negative behavior while a positive environment stimulates positive behavior.

Hiriyappa (2012) notes that behaviorism looks at the effects of consequences in shaping the behavior of human beings. Based on Skinner’s experiments, such consequences encompassed punishment or reinforcement. Consequently, the psychoanalytic theory is based on internal forces in the minds of human beings. These forces are conflicting and determine how people behave. Trimboli, Marshall, and Keenan (2013) note that the id, ego, and the superego are the forces identified by Feud, and are recognized as ‘energy systems’ within the human mind. These forces have been described as conflicting as they have contradicting roles.

Hiriyappa (2012) notes that behaviorism and psychoanalytic theories acknowledge the role of experiences in shaping human behavior. According to Schultz and Schultz (2013), behaviorists believe that past conditioning determines the personalities of humans in the present. Patterson and Joseph (2007) acknowledge that punishments and reinforcements can be used in behavior modification. In his experiment, Skinner was able to study operant behavior in rats.

Despite his efforts to reduce the number of reinforcements, the rats retained the conditioned behavior. Additionally, psychoanalysts believe that experiences are found in the unconscious level and determine behavioral patterns. Trimboli et al. (2013) note that the conscious and preconscious minds, as described by Feud, harbor positive experiences that affect future behaviors. Additionally, the unconscious mind is inaccessible and harbors negative motives, immoral thoughts, and selfishness. In reference to Freud (1997), the images in the unconscious mind present in the form of dreams and mannerisms. In summary, it is clear that experiences determine the future actions of human beings, as explained by both theories.

In reference to Schultz and Schultz (2013), one of the major differences between the two theories is the source of evidence that the two scholars used to support their arguments. Skinner based all his analyses and perspectives on observable behavior. He performed experiments on both humans and animals in an effort to study the motives behind certain behaviors and responses. One of his most common experiments involved the application of operant conditioning on rats (Skinner, 1976).

The theory appears to be more scientific in comparison to the psychoanalytic perspective. Additionally, the observations in behaviorism focused on measurable responses, physical stimuli, and the interaction between the two factors. Skinner subjected rats to certain stimuli and then observed the effects. As a result of the scientific nature of Skinner’s experiments, behaviorism has played a significant role today in understanding human actions. It is important to note that Skinner did not deny the existence of the role of cognition within the human brain. In his experiments, the findings had to be observable and not mere speculations.

On the contrary, Trimboli et al. (2013) report that psychoanalytic theories are not scientific and seem to be based on mere speculations. Specifically, Feud developed various hypotheses on the preconscious, conscious, and unconscious forces present in the human mind and their role in determining behavior. He never performed any experiments to prove the existence of these forces. In summary, Skinner’s approach is more scientific compared to the psychoanalytic theory. Despite the absence of scientific experiments in the psychoanalytic theory, it formed the basis for further research on the psychodynamic approach that is used in understanding human behavior.

There are differences in the basic concepts of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. According to Hiriyappa (2012), psychoanalysts believe that human mental functions have both conscious and unconscious levels. Moreover, childhood experiences play a role in determining how an individual’s future will be (Freud, 1997). When children are exposed to psychological stress, they are likely to develop negative behaviors in the future.

Positive experiences are likely to trigger the development of positive behavior. Feud’s experiments involved the interpretation of his patient’s problems based on the information that they provided. Specifically, he tried to make the patients aware of the presence of the conscious and unconscious levels in their minds. In the case of patients who were depressed, Feud believed that investigating the unconscious mind would assist them in overcoming their internal conflicts (depression). A psychoanalyst believes that internal forces within the human brain determine a person’s state of mind (Schultz & Schultz, 2013).

On the contrary, behaviorism does not focus on the internal cognitive aspects of the human brain (Hiriyappa, 2012). The focus of behaviorism is based solely on external observable factors within the environment. Moreover, the id, ego, and the superego aspects are absent in behaviorism. According to Trimboli et al. (2013), the id structure was described by Feud as unconscious and requiring prompt gratification. The ego is also unconscious and relies on the id for satisfaction. Lastly, the superego was described by Feud as a conscious and morally upright structure that regulates the id.

The two theories are different based on the systems that are relied upon, to tell the truth. Behaviorism relies on observable evidence in telling the truth, while psychoanalysis relies on the unconscious mind. Schultz and Schultz (2013) note that the notion of truth in psychoanalysis is explained by the events preceding an action. However, behaviorism looks at the present to uncover the truth. In this regard, it is important to note that behaviorists perceive the truth as obvious and argue that the mind cannot unveil the truth, as it is not observable. Psychoanalysts believe that the subconscious mind has the ability to provide evidence that is likely to lead to the truth.

Patterson and Joseph (2007) indicate that the psychoanalytic theory is ambiguous and difficult to prove. Moreover, these authors note that the absence of scientific methods makes the theory weak, as the hypotheses are just mere assumptions. Additionally, Schultz and Schultz (2013) argue that many psychologists are still applying the notion of operant conditioning, as explained by Skinner. The presence of scientific models in proving behaviorism makes the theory sufficient in explaining human behavior and personality. However, this does not mean that Feud’s theory is entirely useless as some of its aspects are still used by psychologists today.

Personality theories are critical in understanding human behavior and the reasons behind certain actions. Hiriyappa (2012) recognizes the presence of many theories that explain human behavior. This paper focuses on behaviorism and psychoanalytic approaches as personality theories. The research reveals that Skinner is well known for his experiments in behaviorism, while Sigmund Feud was one of the scholars responsible for the psychoanalytic theory.

The psychoanalytic theory acknowledges the role of the conscious, preconscious, and subconscious minds in determining behavior, while behaviorism recognizes the role of the environment (Schultz & Schultz, 2013). While the two theories have been described as polar opposites, two major similarities exist between them. First, the theories are deterministic as they try to explain the factors that result in certain behaviors. Second, both theories acknowledge the important role that experiences play in shaping future behaviors.

Various differences exist between the two theories. One of the most recognized differences in the scientific nature of the methods used to prove the fundamental concepts of the theories. Skinner applied scientific methods while Feud based his analyses on mere hypotheses. Another difference is the concepts that explain the two theories. While behaviorism recognizes the role of the environment in determining behavior, psychoanalysis looks at the conscious and subconscious structures within the human mind. In summary, Skinner’s behavioral theory seems to be more acceptable among psychologists today due to its scientific nature in comparison to Feud’s perspective.

Freud, S. (1997). The interpretation of dreams. Hertfordshire, England: Wordsworth Editions.

Hiriyappa, B. (2012). Development of personality and its theories. Bloomington, Indiana: Booktago.

Patterson, T. G., & Joseph, S. (2007). Person-Centered personality theory: Support from self-determination theory and positive psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 47 (15), 117-139.

Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2013). Theories of personality. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Skinner, B. F. (1976). About behaviorism. New York: Vintage Books.

Trimboli, F., Marshall, R. L., & Keenan, C. W. (2013). Assessing psychopathology from a structural perspective: A psychodynamic model. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 77 (2), 132-160.

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Lydia Denworth

Friends Are Similar Deep in the Brain

New research suggests that friends process the world in the same way..

Posted May 11, 2018 | Reviewed by Abigail Fagan

Jacob Lund/Shutterstock

We tend to be similar to our friends. But you knew that. Aristotle recognized it thousands of years ago. And pretty much everyone is familiar with the cliché about birds, feathers and flocking together.

When scientists have tested the assumption over the years, they have found that, sure enough, people are more likely to befriend others of the same gender , age, ethnicity , and so on.

Still, it’s surprising when new research reveals just how deep the similarities between friends can be. Several years ago, it was reported that we resemble our friends at a genetic level that’s akin to being distant cousins. And now there’s news that the likeness between friends extends to how our brains process the world.

A first-of-its-kind report in Nature Communications earlier this year revealed that similar neural responses to movies predicted friendships. In other words, based on brain patterns alone, scientists could guess which participants in their study were friends and which were not. The further away from each other in a social network two people were, the less similar their brain responses were. The scientists concluded: “We are exceptionally similar to our friends in how we perceive and respond to the world around us.”

The study was done by Carolyn Parkinson , a neuroscientist at the University of California Los Angeles, and her colleagues at Dartmouth College, Adam Kleinbaum and Thalia Wheatley . First, they characterized the social network of every member of a graduate school program (279 in all) to work out the relationships of each student to every other student. Such an analysis produces a web of connections that’s a scientific version of the Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon game: It tells you how many steps removed each person is from every other person, or who is friends with whom, and whose friends are friends.

Then they put 42 members of the larger group into a functional magnetic resonance imaging machine. During the fMRI study, the participants watched a collection of video clips, in a manner akin to “channel surfing.” The videos were designed to be captivating and evoke a variety of responses. Because each person saw the same clips in the same order, any differences in their brain’s responses were theorized to be the result of differences in personality or perspective.

For the imaging part of the research, the scientists began by dividing the brain into 80 different anatomical regions of interest — for example, the amygdala, which is associated with threat response and emotion . For each defined region, “we [track] how the response rises and falls over time to varying degrees as they watch the video in the scanner,” Parkinson explains. “We have these sets of time series for each person and then we’re correlating the time series from corresponding brain regions for each pair of people to look at how similar their responses were within each brain region.”

Parkinson was surprised by how dramatic the effects were. “We found really strong similarities in areas that are involved in things like how you allocate your attention ,” she says. “Your friends might be paying attention to the same parts of the [video] or deploying their attention in similar ways.”

This was the first time anyone had tried such a technique, and Parkinson calls the study a “proof of concept.” Now that they know their technique can work, the scientists aim to answer much larger questions. Chief among them: What comes first? Are friends with similar brain patterns drawn to each other, or do their neural responses change because they’re friends and spend time together? “We can’t infer much about the direction of the effect from these data,” Parkinson says.

She and her colleagues are now launching a longitudinal study they hope will shed light on this question. This time around, they are recruiting a group of people entering an academic program and scanning some of their brains before they have the opportunity to meet any of their fellow students. Then they will follow the students to see who pairs up. After a few months, they will repeat the brain scans to see if they can pinpoint how an individual’s responses change after exposure to new friends. They’ll also assess whether those whose responses were more similar to begin with turn out to be drawn to each other. While she won’t be able to say much more until this study is complete in a year or two, Parkinson says, “It seems very likely that [the effect] must go both ways.”

psychology essays on differences and similarities

As to the significance of these findings, Parkinson can only speculate. “There are advantages to surrounding yourself with similar others,” she says. “Potentially, like people might share similar goals and assumptions and experiences, and that could help foster cohesion, empathy, and collection action. It’s interesting to think about. It’s such a pervasive tendency across so many eras and locations and societies to surround yourself with similar others.”

Parkinson, Carolyn, Adam M. Kleinbaum, and Thalia Wheatley. "Similar neural responses predict friendship." Nature communications 9.1 (2018): 332 .

Fowler, James H., Jaime E. Settle, and Nicholas A. Christakis. "Correlated genotypes in friendship networks." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108.5 (2011): 1993-1997.

Lydia Denworth

Lydia Denworth is a science journalist and author of Friendship: The Evolution, Biology, and Extraordinary Power of Life’s Fundamental Bond.

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Guest Essay

I’m a Neuroscientist. We’re Thinking About Biden’s Memory and Age in the Wrong Way.

President Biden seated in a chair holding a stack of what looks like index cards.

By Charan Ranganath

Dr. Ranganath is a professor of psychology and neuroscience and the director of the Dynamic Memory Lab at the University of California, Davis, and the author of the forthcoming book “Why We Remember: Unlocking Memory’s Power to Hold On to What Matters.”

The special counsel Robert K. Hur’s report, in which he declined to prosecute President Biden for his handling of classified documents, also included a much-debated assessment of Mr. Biden’s cognitive abilities.

“Mr. Biden would likely present himself to a jury, as he did during our interview with him, as a sympathetic, well-meaning, elderly man with a poor memory.”

As an expert on memory, I can assure you that everyone forgets. In fact, most of the details of our lives — the people we meet, the things we do and the places we go — will inevitably be reduced to memories that capture only a small fraction of those experiences.

It is normal to be more forgetful as you get older. Generally, memory functions begin to decline in our 30s and continue to fade into old age. However, age in and of itself doesn’t indicate the presence of memory deficits that would affect an individual’s ability to perform in a demanding leadership role. And an apparent memory lapse may or may not be consequential, depending on the reasons it occurred.

There is forgetting, and there is Forgetting. If you’re over the age of 40, you’ve most likely experienced the frustration of trying to grasp that slippery word on the tip of your tongue. Colloquially, this might be described as forgetting, but most memory scientists would call this retrieval failure, meaning that the memory is there but we just can’t pull it up when we need it. On the other hand, Forgetting (with a capital F) is when a memory is seemingly lost or gone altogether. Inattentively conflating the names of the leaders of two countries would fall in the first category, whereas being unable to remember that you had ever met the president of Egypt would fall into the second.

Over the course of typical aging, we see changes in the functioning of the prefrontal cortex, a brain area that plays a starring role in many of our day-to-day memory successes and failures. These changes mean that as we get older, we tend to be more distractible and often struggle to pull up words or names we’re looking for. Remembering events takes longer, and it requires more effort, and we can’t catch errors as quickly as we used to. This translates to a lot more forgetting and a little more Forgetting.

Many of the special counsel’s observations about Mr. Biden’s memory seem to fall in the category of forgetting, meaning that they are more indicative of a problem with finding the right information from memory than Forgetting. Calling up the date that an event occurred, like the last year of Mr. Biden’s vice presidency or the year of his son’s death, is a complex measure of memory. Remembering that an event took place is different from being able to put a date on when it happened, which is more challenging with increased age. The president very likely has many memories, even though he could not immediately pull up dates in the stressful (and more immediately pressing) context of the Oct. 7 attack on Israel.

Other “memory” issues highlighted in the media are not so much cases of forgetting as they are of difficulties in the articulation of facts and knowledge. For instance, in July 2023, Mr. Biden mistakenly stated in a speech that “we have over 100 people dead,” when he should have said, “over one million.” He has struggled with a stutter since childhood, and research suggests that managing a stutter demands prefrontal resources that would normally enable people to find the right word or at least quickly correct errors after the fact.

Americans are understandably concerned about the advanced age of the two top contenders in the coming presidential election (Mr. Biden is 81, and Donald Trump is 77), although some of these concerns are rooted in cultural stereotypes and fears around aging. The fact is that there is a huge degree of variability in cognitive aging. Age is, on average, associated with decreased memory, but studies that follow up the same person over several years have shown that although some older adults show precipitous declines over time, other super-agers remain as sharp as ever.

Mr. Biden is the same age as Harrison Ford, Paul McCartney and Martin Scorsese. He’s also a bit younger than Jane Fonda (86) and a lot younger than the Berkshire Hathaway C.E.O., Warren Buffett (93). All these individuals are considered to be at the top of their professions, and yet I would not be surprised if they are more forgetful and absent-minded than when they were younger. In other words, an individual’s age does not say anything definitive about the person’s cognitive status or where it will head in the near future.

I can’t speak to the cognitive status of any of the presidential candidates, but I can say that, rather than focus on candidates’ ages per se, we should consider whether they have the capabilities to do the job. Public perception of a person’s cognitive state is often determined by superficial factors, such as physical presence, confidence and verbal fluency, but these aren’t necessarily relevant to one’s capacity to make consequential decisions about the fate of this country. Memory is surely relevant, but other characteristics, such as knowledge of the relevant facts and emotion regulation — both of which are relatively preserved and might even improve with age — are likely to be of equal or greater importance.

Ultimately, we are due for a national conversation about what we should expect in terms of the cognitive and emotional health of our leaders.

And that should be informed by science, not politics.

Charan Ranganath is a professor of psychology and neuroscience and the director of the Dynamic Memory Lab at the University of California, Davis, and the author of “ Why We Remember: Unlocking Memory’s Power to Hold On to What Matters .”

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , X and Threads .

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Similarities and differences in the approaches to psychology

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

Disclaimer: This essay has been written and submitted by students and is not an example of our work. Please click this link to view samples of our professional work witten by our professional essay writers . Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of EssayCompany.

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour, which include study of humans and animals. Its origins can be traced to debates by Aristotle and Plato. However, in those days it was a part of philosophy and not a separate discipline, psychology came about as its own discipline during the mid-1800s, thanks to a German physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt. There are various methods used which have been tried and tested over the years as psychology has grown. This essay will introduce to the various theoretical concepts relating to behaviourist, psychodynamic, humanist and cognitive approaches to psychology particularly identifying similarities and differences in their methodologies.

Psychodynamic

The first approach we will scrutinize is the psychodynamic perspective; Sigmund Freud (1856 -1939) first explored this approach, and has since been developed further by other psychologists. The term refers to a wide number of theories that emphasise the effect of the unconscious mind, personality, interpersonal relationships and the influence of childhood experiences have later on in life to explain human behaviour. Freud suggests that causes of behaviour originate from the unconscious. According to psychodynamic approach, Freud believed that the personality is made up of three parts, these are;

"The id- Is first to develop, it operates by the pleasure principle (e.g. water, food, warmth) and avoids unpleasureable (e.g. hunger and cold), dark inaccessible side of personality.

Ego- Operates by the reality principle, it allows us to be realistic and does not allow the ID to get its own way.

Super ego- Is the conscience and stops us from doing wrong, whereas the Ego and id are selfish, the superego considers others too" (Benson N, 1999).

Psychodynamic has various forms of methodology; Freud got his results from talking sessions known as "free association" with patients which he wrote as case studies such as The Rat Man. Furthermore, psychodynamic uses dream analysis which Freud referred to as the "royal road to the unconscious", Freud's theory is that during dreams the ego's defences are lowered thus allows the repressed thoughts/memories to appear in distorted forms. In addition, another form of methodology occasionally used within psychodynamic are Freudian slips. Also, many psychologists use hypnosis within the psychodynamic approach, although Freud did not believe in the use of it.

Unfortunately, there are flaws in these methods such as case studies are very subjective and the results cannot be generalised. Above all, the main criticism of this approach is that it is unscientific in its methods; the lack of empirical support questions its strength, for example it is not possible to scientifically analyse a dream. Furthermore, Freud's subjects where far too biased as they all where middle aged Jewish women from Vienna that suffered similar issues. The demographics of his studies are far too narrow and small; the amount of middle aged Jewish European women is roughly 0.1% of the world's population. Moreover, it is difficult to disprove psychodynamic methodologies as we cannot tell whether or not it works because once again it lacks scientific evidence to support its claims. For instance, you cannot prove that God does or does not exist as there is no scientific way to prove this. At the same time Freud was developing psychoanalysis, a new perspective was being introduced, called behaviourism.

Behaviourist

Behaviourism was the second approach to emerge following psychodynamic, the behavioural perspective focuses purely on learned behaviour. Behaviourists "wanted psychology to adopt an objective approach based on observable behaviour. They criticised introspection because it was subjective and not observable and hence could not be scientific" (Pennington D, 2002). Furthermore, they believe each person is born to a blank slate and is nurtured to become who they are by denying the existence of inheritable characteristics. In addition, because there is virtually no dissimilarity between animals and humans in the learning, thus allows experiments to be carried out on animal.

Behaviourism was founded by an American psychologist John B Watson (1878-1958) in 1913. However this perspective has created many famous behaviourists, these include Ivan Pavlov a Russian Physiologist (1849-1936), B.F Skinner an American psychologist (1904-1990), and E. Thorndike an American psychologist (1904-1990).

Watsons famous experiment was that of Little Albert, where he used noises to strike fear into little Albert whenever he touched the rat that had been placed near him. Eventually, the baby learned not to touch the rat as it is associated with loud scary noises.

Skinner continued from Watson, mainly studying non reflexive behaviour, "he thought neither mental processes nor neural mechanisms ought to be adverted in psychological explanations" (Pennington D, 2002).

Thorndike's most famous work was the "law of effect" which he thought was the principle of learning, he suggested that behaviours that are rewarded tends to be repeated and behaviours which have not been rewarded tends to die out. The law relates to Skinner's operant conditioning which also has a similar rule.

Behaviourism became widely recognised after the success of Pavlov's conditioning a dog to salivate whenever a sound was made, which became known as "classical conditioning". Also, Skinner continued from Watson, mainly studying non reflexive behaviour, "he thought neither mental processes nor neural mechanisms ought to be adverted in psychological explanations" (Pennington D, 2002). Skinner's experiment was equally as successful as Pavlov, Skinner sought to condition a rat by placing one in a box and sooner or later it will press the lever, each time the lever is pressed a food pellet is giving, he later called his positive reinforcement. This form of conditioning is known as "operant conditioning". The difference between the two forms of learning is that classical relies on knowledge the animal/human already has, whereas operant implants it into the subject. Unfortunately, there are many ethical considerations to be taken into account in regards to behaviourists experiments as they can be damaging to the subject.

The Behaviourism approach differs from psychodynamic greatly, because behaviourism is founded on observation, physical stimuli and responses that are somewhat measureable by using many experiments to support its theories. Furthermore, behaviourists use science to analyze everything and regard seeing as believing. Compared to psychodynamic that is based on assumptions, it is more of a leap of faith than a science as there is no hard evidence to support its theories. In addition, psychodynamic approach criticises behaviourists as it does not accept that the unconscious mind influences behaviour.

However, there are similarities between psychodynamic and behaviourism, such both are deterministic compared to free-will such as behaviourists believe that behaviour is based on previous experiences in forms of reinforcement and punishment in comparison to psychodynamics who believe behaviour is related to dreams and other stuff associated inside the unconscious. In addition, both perspectives are based on the study of human behaviour. Following psychoanalysis and behaviourism, humanistic perspective emerged as the third force in psychology.

Humanism was the third in the series of psychology perspectives to emerge, the humanist approach focuses on the individual especially with personal choice, creativity and most importantly free will. In addition, it places strong emphasis on conscious experiences and human nature in effecting behaviour and thoughts. Furthermore, humanist psychologists attempt to not only see the world from the outside but also through the eyes of the observer being studied.

Humanistic perspective was founded by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) an American professor of psychology in the 1950s. Maslow's key theory was that of self-actualisation: "The innate human motivation. That each of us has to achieve our potential by using and developing our talents and abilities. Each time we experience such a sense of fulfilment is called a peak experience. In order to reach self-actualisation, we have to satisfy lower needs that exist at different levels." The diagram below is of the hierarchy of needs that Maslow discusses.

The humanistic approach uses various methodologies, such as informal interviews, questionnaires and case studies. In addition, it prefers qualitative methods rather than quantitative as it gives more insight and information into behaviour.

However, there are weaknesses to its methodology, such as case studies which are also used in psychodynamic are very subjective, such as how can anyone possibly tell if someone is "self actualised". Humanism has to rely on the subjects own assessment which can be influenced by his/her own emotion at the time. In addition, both psychodynamic and humanism are unscientific in their approach as we cannot measure dreams nor self actualization. Furthermore, both psychodynamic and humanism are ideographic, because they "psychology should focus on the subjective experiences, feelings and thoughts of a person" (Pennington D, 2002), in comparison to behaviourism which is nomothetic. Though, all three perspectives do emphasize on nurture over nature, but psychodynamic does take nature into account, whereby the other two perspectives do not.

Although, psychodynamic and behaviourism contradicts the humanist approach as humanism believes in free-will, whereas psychodynamic and behaviourism are deterministic. Also, humanism rejects behaviourism as it uses qualitative methods and cannot compare animals to humans because they analyze everything on an individual basis on thus cannot make an assessment on anything they have not studied. In addition, humanist takes the environment into account compared to psychodynamic which does not.

"The cognitive approach in psychology, which is to do with the study of thought, dates back over 100years to the work of Ebbinghaus (1885)" (Pennington D, 2002).

Behaviourism and cognitivism were aimed at discovering universal features of human cognition, emotion and perception

The Cognitive approach does not recognise environmental (re: behaviorism) factors in determining behaviour.

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  1. Similarities and differences in the approaches to psychology

    According to psychodynamic approach, Freud believed that the personality is made up of three parts, these are; "The id- Is first to develop, it operates by the pleasure principle (e.g. water, food, warmth) and avoids unpleasureable (e.g. hunger and cold), dark inaccessible side of personality.

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    A compare-and-contrast essay is a style of essay that points out the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. It's ideal for showing what separates and unites related things or concepts, particularly if the subjects are often confused for each other or unjustly lumped together.

  3. Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay

    General prompt Discuss the effects of the Great Depression in the United States. One way to approach this essay might be to contrast the situation before the Great Depression with the situation during it, to highlight how large a difference it made.

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    Discover the key similarities and differences between the major approaches in A-Level Psychology with our comprehensive comparison guide. From behaviorism to cognitive psychology, explore each approach's theories, methods, and applications, and gain a deeper understanding of the field.

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    Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which "lie behind" the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. "Signpost" the essay's key argument, (and, if possible, how. this argument is structured).

  6. Psychology and Sociology: Similarities and Differences

    Psychology, by definition, is the scientific study of mind and behaviour. Psychology was built based on four primary goals which are: Describe: Describing the behaviour of humans help understand the notion of normal and abnormal behaviour by comparing an individuals behaviour with other members of the individual's culture.

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    Adler & Gielen (2001) said that "cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes, including both their variability and invariance, under diverse cultural conditions. Its primary aims are to investigate (a) systematic relations between behavioral variables and ethnic-cultural variables, and (b ...

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    Then, relying mainly on evidence from meta-analyses, gender differences are reviewed in cognitive performance (e.g., math performance), personality and social behaviors (e.g., temperament, emotions, aggression, and leadership), and psychological well-being. The evidence on gender differences in variance is summarized.

  10. Similarities and differences in the approaches to psychology

    Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour, which include study of humans and animals. Its origins can be traced to debates by Aristotle and Plato. However, in those days it was a part of philosophy and not a separate discipline, psychology came about as its own discipline during the mid-1800s, thanks to a German physiologist ...

  11. Exploring the similarities and differences

    The therapeutic Working Alliance plays an important role in Psychodynamic Counselling and Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) because; it helps the counsellor and client to agree and work to build up a 'relationship' together to achieve a successful counselling.

  12. Writing Effective Comparison/Contrast Essays

    Recall that a comparison/contrast essay serves the purpose of examining the similarities and/or differences between two subjects. When you compare things, you show their similarities; when you contrast things, you show their differences. The first step in writing a comparison/contrast essay is to brainstorm ideas and decide upon a topic.

  13. Similarities and Differences Between Sociology and Psychology

    Blog Similarities and Differences Between Sociology and Psychology Similarities and Differences Between Sociology and Psychology Psychology and sociology are closely related fields that both involve the study of human behavior. However, while there are some similarities between these two disciplines, there are also significant differences.

  14. Sociology Vs. Psychology: Similarities And Differences

    It's not always easy to distinguish between sociology vs. psychology. They're both broad disciplines that draw on empirical evidence to explore what it means to be human, and their findings apply...

  15. Explain the differences and similarities between the various

    Essay discussing differences and similarities in psychology. Same exam topic used every semester. explain the differences and similarities between the various. Skip to document. ... This school of thought in psychology lay em-phasis on the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

  16. Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis as Personality Theories Essay

    The research analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories. In this regard, two major similarities are identified. First, the theories are both deterministic as they seek to establish the causes of certain human behaviors. Secondly, the theories pay regard to the role of experiences in shaping human behavior.

  17. Friends Are Similar Deep in the Brain

    The further away from each other in a social network two people were, the less similar their brain responses were. The scientists concluded: "We are exceptionally similar to our friends in how ...

  18. Similarities and differences: short and long term memory

    Similarities and differences: short and long term memory. It is widely accepted that memory can best be understood in terms of three essential stages (encoding, storage, and retrieval of information) that involve the flow of information through memory system. In general, short-term memory (STM) refers to limited capacity that can store ...

  19. Free Essay: similarities & differences between psychology ...

    Psychology is a science of the mind; variables include emotions and behaviour. Psychology uses experimental methods to study human behaviour and thought processes, and that is what makes psychology a "soft" science.

  20. PDF Strategies for Essay Writing

    number of paragraphs in your essay should be determined by the number of steps you need to take to build your argument. To write strong paragraphs, try to focus each paragraph on one main point—and begin a new paragraph when you are moving to a new point or example. A strong paragraph in an academic essay will usually include these three ...

  21. Similarities and Differences between Concepts of Compliance

    The differences between obedience, conformity and compliance is that, in obedience, there is a perceived difference of status between the one who gives the instruction and the individual who obeys without question. And in conformity, it is the individual's fear of social disapproved and being different from the group.

  22. Differences And Similarities Between Human And Animal Language

    The meaning of 'continuous' comes from the mathematical meaning of the word. It refers to a physical scale, like direction or distance with the property for any two values, there is always at least in principle another possible value between them (Anderson,S.R 2004:29).

  23. Opinion

    Dr. Ranganath is a professor of psychology and neuroscience and the director of the Dynamic Memory Lab at the University of California, Davis, and the author of the forthcoming book "Why We ...

  24. Similarities and differences in the approaches to psychology

    This essay will introduce to the various theoretical concepts relating to behaviourist, psychodynamic, humanist and cognitive approaches to psychology particularly identifying similarities and differences in their methodologies. Psychodynamic. The first approach we will scrutinize is the psychodynamic perspective; Sigmund Freud (1856 -1939 ...

  25. The Differences and Similarities Between Science and Technology

    Essay Sample: Due to the rapid increase and complexity of the structure of society, many questions arose about when, how and why various components of the environment ... In order to understand the differences and similarities between science and technology, in this essay we must first understand what these two areas of study entails. Although ...

  26. Similarities and Differences in Anxiety and Depression

    Reference this Share this: Facebook Twitter Reddit LinkedIn WhatsApp Critically discuss similarities and differences between anxiety and depression. Refer to the effect this might have on clinical practice. Anxiety and depression are both considered to be the most common mental health issues across the world.