research papers on music business

Music in business and management studies: a systematic literature review and research agenda

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• Published: 27 March 2023

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• Elia Pizzolitto   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4569-1365 1  

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Music is the background of life, representing an international language that connects different cultures. It is also significant with respect to economies, markets, and businesses. The literature in the music field has identified several issues related to the role of digitalization in the revolution of music, the distribution of music products, the management and organization of music events, music marketing strategies, and the position of musicians as entrepreneurs. This paper comprises a systematic literature review of the most recent articles discussing the numerous connections between music, business, and management (2017–2022). Through a rigorous protocol, this research discusses the effects of the digital revolution on the music industry, with particular reference to the persisting oligopoly of major labels and the new business models that integrate music streaming and social networks. The findings show the renaissance and relevance of live music events, the fundamental role of segmentation strategies for managing festivals, and the limited presence of sustainability as a priority during festivals and events management. Furthermore, the literature highlights the relevance of discussions concerning musicians’ identity, especially in light of the complex relationship between the bohemian and the entrepreneurial nature of their profession. This is followed by numerous reflections on future research opportunities, recommending theoretical and empirical in-depth studies of music industry competition, futuristic management philosophies and business models, and the roles of technology, sustainability, and financial elements in fostering artists’ success in the digital era. Finally, the paper discusses business models and strategies for musicians, festivals management, stores, and sustainability.

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1 Introduction

As Mithen ( 2009 ; p 3) states, “To be human is to be musical”. Music is part of most individuals’ daily lives. For example, it plays in the background when people make purchases at stores and eat at restaurants. It is a universal language that helps strangers communicate immediately, that spreads and evokes emotions, and that inspires players, producers, and listeners (Cooke 1990 ; Hunter and Schellenberg 2010 ). However, beyond being an artform that can connect people from different cultures (Huron 2001 ) and with different identities (Mithen 2009 ), music is also a business.

The worldwide relevance of music can be recognized not only in philosophical discussions but also in statistical data about the industry. Music consumption has grown quickly, particularly since the start of the digital revolution, and this growth seems unlikely to slow down in the future (IFPI 2022 ). The worldwide music industry has grown significantly in recent years. In fact, it grew from US$14.2 billion in 2014 to US$25.9 billion in 2021, revealing growth of 18.5% in 2021 (IFPI 2022 ). Streaming now drives the music market, representing 65% of global music market revenues in 2021 (IFPI 2022 ). This trend is a consequence of the digital revolution, which has been characterized by two phases of development (Koh et al. 2019 ). The first phase involved physical and digital music record sales. The second phase was the development of streaming, unbundling, and cross-platform services that combined music with other entertainment forms, such as video games, television programs, films, and talent shows (Shen et al. 2019 ).

Two of the most relevant dimensions of the music industry are as follows: (a) the production and distribution of music through physical and digital support networks, as guided by record companies; and (b) the production and distribution of live music, which is controlled by world-famous artists but is characterized by many minor professional musicians, sound technicians, and other workers. These two dimensions are interconnected. The digital revolution is disruptive, and it has upset traditional capitalist economies, but the world of live music has resisted such changes (Azzellini et al. 2021 ). In addition to these two major dimensions, the music industry includes a complex and elaborate set of other dimensions. These comprise the conditions of minor musicians and labels; publishing, managing, and marketing; teaching and other educational activities (Thomson 2013 ); and the conditions of local music and record stores.

In this regard, multiple issues have emerged from the literature, mostly related to the big change that the digital revolution has brought about in the music industry. For example, minor artists and labels have to consider new marketing strategies, and they need to find innovative ways to exploit the easier connections between consumers and their products that technologies allow, despite having limited financial assets (Zhang 2018 ). Another example involves music events or festivals, which face complex challenges because of the recent Covid-19 pandemic. Innovation in the organization and marketing of these events is focused on the concept of value creation, guided by the idea of festivals as chaotic and unpredictable events in which collaboration and co-creation are critical for the achievement of financial, economic, and social objectives (Werner et al. 2019 ). Covid-19 and the digital revolution complicated the conditions of local music and record stores, which are more centered on experience than competition and need stable innovation in their marketing strategies (Trabucchi et al. 2017 ).

Moreover, the growth of the music business has highlighted the complex relationship between musicians’ artistic and entrepreneurial sides. In fact, musicians face cultural barriers to their identification as professionals. As Frederickson and Rooney ( 1990 ) noted, an absence of formal requisites to enter the musical profession is one of its most relevant barriers; because of this lack of a need for credentials, many people do not consider music to be a profession. Indeed, as Henry ( 2013 ) found, few music students think about teaching music as a future profession. According to Pizzolitto ( 2021 ), musicians are reluctant to consider themselves entrepreneurs because of the complex relationship between art and profit. Therefore, the entrepreneurial identity of musicians should be fostered to overcome this obstacle to recognizing music as a profession.

This may be challenging, as the Covid-19 pandemic has adversely affected musicians’ activities. Although the music industry has continued to grow and has not been experienced many negative consequences, there have been numerous (orderly) protests by musicians and sound technicians who feel they have been forgotten by governmental policies. For example, in October 2020, a large group of musicians played in front of the British Parliament to protest a decision to decrease state benefits for freelance workers (Savage 2020 ). During the same month, musicians and sound technicians peacefully occupied many public squares in Italy to broadcast the slogan Esistiamo anche noi , which translates to “We also exist” (Sky Tg24 2020 ). In November 2020, musicians in Berlin held silent protests against a lockdown (Global Times 2020 ). Indeed, music around the world has experienced a number of conflicts.

Beyond the disparities in the success of record companies versus professional musicians, there are philosophical complexities connected to an antinomy between the artistic nature of music and the capitalistic context in which it is developed (e.g., see Bridson et al. 2017 ; Haynes and Marshall 2017 ). Musicians and record producers also face strategic issues concerning the distribution of their music. Waldfogel ( 2017 ) defined the current era as a golden age for music listening, yet musicians and producers experience dilemmas every time they intend to launch a product. One dilemma relates to the many opportunities available because of the digital revolution; for example, one can take advantage of digital platforms, streaming, and physical support networks. However, the increase in options demands more in-depth strategic planning. Thus, the philosophical significance of music to individuals, its relevance to people’s lives, and its importance to the economy are at odds with the research conditions of the field.

While attempts to map the literature on music research have been numerous and of high quality, they have mainly concentrated on the effects of music in the workplace (e.g., Landay and Harms 2019 ) or music education research. For instance, in 2004, volume 32 (issue 3) of Psychology of Music focused on mapping music education research in single national contexts (e.g., Welch et al. 2004 ; Gruhn 2004 ). Moreover, in 2006, Roulston published a methodological paper that incentivized qualitative research in the music field. Therefore, while existing research has discussed content relevant to the field, there is no literature review on the recent development of music in business and management studies, including topics such as digitalization, the conditions of the industry and competition, the management of music events, innovations, sustainability, and the complex position of musicians after the digital revolution. Consequently, this article addresses the research question “How does recent literature debate music in business and management studies?”.

The next section provides details on the methodology used in this literature review. In particular, it gives a detailed explanation of the procedure used to gather data and analyze the content of articles. Following this is a descriptive analysis of the literature sample, including the journals, author affiliations, and methods of the articles, and an analysis of the contents of the articles. The next section studies the themes that emerged in the articles. Finally, future research opportunities, managerial implications, and a general discussion of the results are presented in the conclusion.

2 Methodology

A systematic literature review (SLR) was chosen as the methodology for this study for two main reasons. First, the research questions concern a specific field (i.e., music in business studies). Second, an SLR can ensure a greater degree of objectivity compared with other kinds of literature reviews (e.g., narrative). It can also ensure reproducibility and limit biases in article selection and interpretation (Denyer and Tranfield 2009 ; Post et al. 2020 ). This study used a method described by Wolfswinkel et al. ( 2013 ), where contents of articles are analyzed using a grounded theory approach. This method ensured that the analysis would not be based on any prejudices. Moreover, grounded theory provides the advantage of developing a theoretical framework in the absence of a specific background (Corbin and Strauss 1990 ; Strauss and Corbin 1997 ). Finally, the method published by Wolfswinkel et al. ( 2013 ) exhibited no article selection differences compared with other SLR methodologies (e.g., see Denyer and Tranfield 2009 ; Post et al. 2020 ). Therefore, the method met all the requirements for conducting an SLR as objectively as possible.

2.1 The employed protocol

The method included the five following phases: define, search, select, analyze, and present (Fig.  1 ). During the first phase, the database and the inclusion/exclusion criteria for the study were determined. Similar to most SLRs (e.g., see Vrontis and Christofi 2019 ), only articles that were written in English and that had been published in peer-reviewed journals were included in the sample. To ensure that articles of the highest quality would be included, only those listed in the SCOPUS, EBSCOHost, and Web of Science databases were considered. Finally, specific keywords were used to search the three databases and were applied to titles, abstracts, and keywords of the articles. The keywords were music AND ( business OR management ).

Phases of SLR employed protocol

The second phase consisted of the search for articles. This began with several exploratory analyses to ensure that all relevant literature would be included. The research commenced with searching SCOPUS, and 7825 results were retrieved. The results were limited to peer-reviewed articles written in English, which narrowed the list to 3764 results. As the focus was on recent literature regarding music in business studies, the publication years were then restricted to 2017–2022, leaving 1333 results.

The same steps were followed in searching EBSCOHost. The initial dataset included 17,765 results, and after the limitations were applied, 183 articles remained. The steps were repeated in searching Web of Science, resulting in an initial sample of 2944 results. This number decreased to 855 after the limitations were applied.

During the third phase, the 2371 results were refined, and 771 duplicates were eliminated. After screening the titles, abstracts, keywords, and contents, 1444 false positives were eliminated. The final dataset comprised 145 articles.

The last two steps of the procedure were “analyze” and “present.” The next section presents the descriptive and content analyses of the articles (i.e., the results of these steps). Analyzing the articles included determining the type of paper, the distribution of publications over time, the authors’ productivity and affiliations, and the methods employed in the empirical articles. The contents of the articles were analyzed using a grounded theory approach, during which four themes emerged.

2.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

This section details the methods applied when including or excluding articles. To facilitate the selection of articles, an Excel file with 19 columns and 145 rows was created. More than 2700 cells were filled in with the following information for each paper: ID number, DOI, authors, title, publication year, source title, number of citations, source (i.e., SCOPUS, EBSCOHost, or Web of Science), paper type (i.e., empirical, conceptual, review), methodology (i.e., qualitative or quantitative), methods employed, sample size, type of statistical units; authors’ provenience; and theories cited. For reasons of space, the table cannot be shown here, but it is available upon request.

In addition, a column was devoted to the reason for including or excluding a paper. The objective was to consider only articles that explicitly referred to the interconnections between music and business or management issues. The process started with evaluating the titles, abstracts, and keywords to gain an understanding of the articles’ contents. If this evaluation was insufficient, the articles were read for a better evaluation.

To ensure transparency in the selection process, as suggested by Denyer and Tranfield ( 2009 ), some examples are considered. One article that was retrieved from the Scopus database was the article Neumatic singing in Thai popular singing, 1925–1967 by Inkhong et al. ( 2020 ) because it included the keywords used for the initial extraction. The article discussed solutions to problems related to incorrect pronunciation using neumatic singing. Therefore, it was excluded. Another article, Quality management of music education in modern kindergarten: Educational expectations of families by Boyakova ( 2018 ) talked about understanding and improving the quality of children’s music education and made no reference to business or management studies. Therefore, it too was excluded.

Examples of articles that were included are as follows. The article Digital music and the “death of the long tail” by Coelho and Mendes ( 2019 ) discussed the impact of digital distribution in the music market, concentrating on the dualism between the long tail theory and the superstar effect theory. Schediwy et al. ( 2018 )’s article Do bohemian and entrepreneurial career identities compete or cohere? discussed the identity of musicians. The article The role of stakeholders in shifting environmental practices of music festivals in British Columbia, Canada by Hazel and Mason ( 2020 ) discussed festival management. These three articles were relevant to our study and were therefore included in our review.

2.3 Grounded analysis of the articles’ contents

The grounded theory approach employed in this review followed a certain protocol. The 145 papers included in the sample were divided into subsamples of five randomly selected papers using Excel. Open coding was used to label the subsamples with codes to identify concepts and enable comparisons of the articles, including information such as the affiliated intuitions, the methodologies used, and the theoretical in-depth analyses. The final aim is to conceptualize the most relevant aspects and identify categories and subcategories of common elements.

Axial coding was then employed to make connections between the codes and facilitate further comparison of data emerging from the articles and theoretical and methodological frameworks in the various subsamples. The final aim was to build a systematically integrated network of concepts.

Finally, selective coding was employed to conceptualize and improve the results of the previous analyses. The aim was to achieve a well-integrated theoretical reasoning that can be used to simplify and enrich the reflections on the studied phenomenon.

Figure  2 shows an example of how subthemes emerged during the analysis. The blue tables correspond to random samples of five articles. The red oblongs represent the most relevant articles. The black squares represent (a very limited number of) critical codes (open coding). The violet, red, and green circles represent the results of conceptual connections among the codes (axial coding); the interpretation of these connections is shown at the bottom of the figure.

An example of grounded methodology applied in this research (colour figure online)

2.4 Limitations

This literature review tries to develop a complete picture of the most relevant research in music management and business. The aim is to establish a starting point for future in-depth analysis and gathering of future research in this area. Nevertheless, it is not exempt from limitations. First, the methodology, database searches, and analyses were performed by one author. Although the selected method (grounded theory method; see Wolfswinkel et al. 2013 ) was chosen for its ability to reduce objectivity, even in the content analysis of the selected articles, there might be limitations in the application of inclusion and exclusion criteria considering the high number of articles.

Second, this review employed specific databases to ensure the quality of papers extracted. However, this method inevitably excluded books, book chapters, grey literature, and other sources of information that could be relevant to the topic and in terms of triangulating information and enriching the results of the analysis. Therefore, future research should include the object of the analysis and more sources of information.

Finally, this review limits the time span to recent years. Although SLRs should include a limited number of articles to concentrate on a very specific and relevant research question, the considerable body of knowledge in terms of music management and business suggests that a more comprehensive viewpoint can be considered. Nevertheless, in case future research would be interested in enlarging the time span of the analysis, the amount of articles that would emerge would be studied using quantitative methods, such as meta-analysis or bibliometric analysis.

3 Descriptive analysis

This section presents the descriptive analysis of the selected literature. The analysis focuses on three aspects: (1) the authors’ provenience (Fig.  3 ), (2) the types of papers, and (3) the methods employed in the empirical studies.

Authors’ provenience

The UK and the USA led in terms of the number of relevant articles published in the period under study with 28.96% of the articles. There is a worldwide interest among scientists in terms of music research in business studies. Even though empirical articles are the most common in the selected dataset, theoretical articles and literature reviews are present in each of the five years considered. Excluding the year 2022, in which theoretical articles represent less than 8% of the contributions, one fifth of the dataset from 2017 to 2021 consists of theoretical articles and literature reviews. Therefore, there is considerable interest in debating conceptual issues in this field. Qualitative research—particularly case studies (26.42% of the dataset)—is the most common methodology used for performing research in the field. Interviews were also commonly used in the extracted contributions (18.87%). Therefore, it is possible that qualitative frameworks of analysis are the best way to gather and evaluate data in this market (Figs.  4 and 5 ).

Papers’ typology per year

Methods employed in the selected articles

4 Content analysis

This section presents the results obtained from the grounded analysis of the selected papers. Given the amount of data and the complexity of the concepts, two graphic representations have been created. Figure  6 shows a summary of codes, sub-themes, and themes that emerged from the analysis. Figure  7 shows a conceptual map of the field.

Codes, themes and subthemes emerged from selected literature

Conceptual map

4.1 The digital revolution and the music industry: Have things actually changed?

4.1.1 the effects of the digital revolution on the music industry.

The digital revolution profoundly and directly impacted the economy through direct effects such as an increase in aggregate productivity and competitiveness and through more unobserved effects relating to the development of open-access platforms, new business models, and the need of managers to always achieve a better understanding of consumers’ expectations. These unobserved effects of the digital revolution have been described as digital dark matter (Vendrell-Herrero et al. 2017 ). Moreover, the inevitability of technology-related industry disruption seems not to be totally caught by professionals and firms, which are not reacting appropriately to this phenomenon (Riemer and Johnston 2019 ). For this reason, new business models are theorized in the literature. For example, Morrow ( 2018 ) introduced the concept of distributed agility as a model consisting of a reactive approach through which multiple self-organized teams combine their abilities to respond quickly to the rapid changes in the new digital market.

During the period 2011–2018, digital music and streaming contributed dramatically to the renaissance of the market (Nakano 2019 ). According to Nag ( 2017 ), the dramatic increase in the amount of accessible music contents and the decreasing barriers to consumer access is producing a contradictory effect on the philosophy of consumption. On one side is the benefit of freedom of choice and on the other side is an indirect call for more scarcity.

The literature has recognized three waves of disruptive innovations—digital music distribution, permanent digital downloads, and music streaming (Urbinati et al. 2019 ). Reactions to these things were similar; after an initial majors’ tendency to protect their own competitive position against opponents, there was adaptation to the new paradigms of music distribution. In particular, after the digital music distribution revolution, incumbents concentrated on building online shops and selling music from their catalogues. After the digital download revolution, incumbents verified the weaknesses in their previous strategic reactions and started to build relationships and partnerships with newcomers to fight the increased competition of important innovations such as Apple’s iTunes Music Store. Finally, with the music streaming revolution, entities such as the iTunes Music Store started to consider acquisitions as strategic choices to limit the damage caused by the rapid development of services like Spotify (Urbinati et al. 2019 ).

The music supply network evolved in a similar way. Nakano and Fleury ( 2017 ) identified three stages in this evolution. The first stage in the 1980s was a physical supply chain in which the hierarchical model with a vertical integration structure fostered the power of major labels that controlled technical and market access. The second stage in the 1990s was a transitional supply network in which the captive governance model fostered an open hierarchy. In this phase, the power was in the form of control over market access. Finally, in the last 20 years, the supply network evolved to a digital ecosystem in which individual producers and small and large providers can (at least theoretically) compete with major labels, which are exploiting their accumulated power to control mass market access through collaboration, partnerships, and new business models based on digital outlets and aggregators.

Sinclair and Tinson ( 2017 ) highlighted the problem of the decreasing value of psychological ownership of music guided by the dematerialization of music and the advent of access-based streaming platforms. Nevertheless, the antecedents of psychological ownership—investment of the self, profound knowledge and control of the target, and pride—demonstrated that consumers are modifying their experimentation with psychological ownership, achieving loyalty, empowerment, citizenship, and social rewards as consequences of this phenomenon. Therefore, through the new conceptualization of the psychological ownership of music, consumers are able to control the target of ownership and to develop and protect their music identity.

The other side of the coin of the digital revolution in music is that collaboration between major labels and other actors has allowed them to keep their power and to maintain the oligopoly in the market. In this context, while technological and digital innovation is stimulated, innovation in music is discouraged (Sun 2019 ).

The music industry has reacted to this tendency and has been able to assimilate the technological and digital innovations (Naveed et al. 2017 ). In particular, there are types of innovations that have assumed an increasing level of importance after the digital revolution. For example, co-innovation, a construct comprising co-discovery, co-creation, and co-capture, is widely recognized as a fundamental element in promoting correct governance, leadership, and resource integration (Saragih et al. 2019a , b ).

4.1.2 The persisting oligopoly in the music market

The digital revolution and the digitalization of music produced an unexpected result in the music industry. Visionaries believed that the ability to achieve unlimited access to every kind of music—referred to as the celestial jukebox—would have led the music industry to overcome the oligopolist control of major labels and stimulate cultural diversity (Sun 2019 ). Nevertheless, the huge number of opportunities provided by the new digital market demonstrated that consumers need to be guided in their choices. The opportunities for musicians’ self-release apparently increased the degree of democratization of the music market. In fact, they consolidated the commodification and centralization of music whereby major labels still dominate the industry by promoting the conservative management of copyright ownership. This condition isolated self-released musicians, who have a marginal position in the industry. This is a worldwide condition, as verified in several articles, such as that by Qu et al. ( 2021 ). There is broad consensus regarding this condition and very few dissenters (e.g., Arbatani et al. 2018 ).

The digital revolution changed the pop-rock market, and streaming is now dominating the music industry, although there is still an important physical sector. Major labels have recently started a growth path after 15 years of crisis via the development of dynamic capabilities. In particular, technology allowed the emergence of non-hits and niches, increasing their opportunity to gain a long tail effect. Nevertheless, there is evidence of the persistence of the “superstar effect” (Coelho and Mendes 2019 ).

According to Prey et al. ( 2020 ), Spotify shows a bias towards major label content. Musicians’ success is dependent on services like Spotify. Therefore, Spotify’s preferences for major labels has caused discontent among minor labels and minor musicians.

Currently, the logic with which incumbents develop their strategy is correlated to the need for more timely approaches (Guichardaz et al. 2019 ). It is necessary to accept the competition of new technological innovations (e.g., iTunes and Spotify) and to develop suitable strategies to exploit the dynamic changes in the market (Trabucchi et al. 2017 ).

This evidence is confirmed in several studies. For example, Dellyana et al. ( 2017 ) state that the composition of actors in the music market has been changing over time. Conditions have become more dynamic, which stimulates the opportunity to increase the number of partnerships. Increasing the number of actors will change the general business model, allowing more opportunities for collaboration, including 360-degree, tailor-made partnerships; vertical integration; subscription services; pay per download; ad funded; bundles; and sponsorships. As a consequence, the many opportunities to exploit different sources of income leads actors in the industry market to develop new abilities and qualities. This modularity complicates the management of strategies and encourages the implementation of inter-firm alliances (Guichardaz et al. 2019 ). Through these collaborations, major labels are still dominating the music industry, even if independent labels and musicians can produce and distribute their music more easily and less expensively than before (Dellyana et al. 2017 ; Sun 2019 ). Major players like Spotify, Pandora, and Apple directly negotiate with the platforms to distribute artists’ music, while small labels must depend on intermediaries.

Some collaborations are, in fact, not official but extremely favorable. For example, the viral activity of fans on social media, such as YouTube, is a critical part of music stars’ strategy. Gamble et al. ( 2018 ) found that fans have an active role in the relationship between social media and the music industry. In particular, senior managers and music industry experts involved in the research argued that consumer-driven marketing campaigns can provide the best ideas regarding the execution, marketing, and managing of strategies. At the beginning of their careers, artists gain considerable advantages from social media and crowdfunding, even if fame comes as a result of their collaboration with major labels. Therefore, at the initial stage of their music success, the innovative nature of artists can be supported by fans’ activities, while at the advanced stage of their careers, artists tend to homogenize due to their involvement in the business logic of major labels business logics.

Nevertheless, evidence in the literature shows that collaborations and new business models are not the only way through which major labels react to the technological and digital changes in the market. Trabucchi et al. ( 2017 ) have shown that labels are able to re-invent old music solutions, such as CDs and vinyl, through innovations in their organizational structure and dynamic capabilities (e.g., changing their objective to entertainment enterprises), changing the meaning of their products from instruments for listening to music to collectors’ objects, and transforming the purchase process into an in-store experience. Therefore, developing dynamic capabilities seems to be the main response of major labels to the technological revolution in the music market. Changing the value proposition, capturing the new value of products, and customer orientation allow the major players to exploit the intersection between meaning and technology, thus modifying the competition among the incumbents.

4.1.3 Social networks and streaming services

Social networks have critical effects on artists’ success on online social network platforms. Communication with fun experimented a tremendous change after the digital revolution and the advent of social media. In the past, musicians used the press, television, and radio to attract fans’ interest. With social media and social networks, however, communication between artists and fans is direct. Communication with fans together with strategies that include the active sending of friend requests to fans or commenting on their posts can allow artists to control and influence their network (Ansari et al. 2018 ). Moreover, outside affiliations of artists can have a positive impact on the degree and density of networks (Ansari et al. 2018 ).

Social networks can have a dramatic effect on the consumption of music. For example, Spotify bundles music content in the form of playlists. This behavior allows Spotify to take over the market demand, reducing its dependency on major labels (Prey et al. 2020 ). Choi and Burnes ( 2017 ) studied the impact of using social media in the music industry and confirmed that social media have a considerable impact on fans’ engagement. Therefore, building solid and durable relationships and vitalizing participation should be considered a strategic focus for these firms. In the modern music market, firms cannot control value creation; therefore, they should use social media to enhance co-creation with fans, thus vitalizing their community and becoming the driving force in changing markets.

Business models in music benefit considerably from reward-based crowdfunding (Gamble et al. 2017 ), even though there is evidence suggesting that problems can arise due to young fans’ apprehension. Nevertheless, opportunities allowed by crowdfunding can help overcome limitations due to the need for constant consumer confidence. In fact, the development of partnerships with crowdfunding platforms has been increasing the opportunity for major labels to challenge the user-centric tendency of digital innovations (Gamble et al. 2017 ).

According to Arditi ( 2017 ), streaming services represent the most relevant revenue in the music industry since 2015. Streaming services are one of the most important reasons why the music industry recovered from the disaster of Napster and similar platforms for free music sharing. Indeed, streaming services are considered the (partial) solution to the decrease in music CD sales and to the increase in piracy. Moreover, there are similarities and differences between cultures about the future of streaming services. For example, Kim et al. ( 2017 ) show that US and Korean consumers prefer subscription-based on-demand streaming services and pay a higher price compared to the value of current streaming services. Nakano ( 2019 ) analyzed major US and UK outlets, recognizing that the preference of customers is for streaming services; however, there is still space for niches for which downloading is still preferred. Moreover, the existence of two major ecosystems, Android and iOS, has impeded the emergence of a dominant player to date.

Behavioral intentions connected to streaming service utilization depend on specific factors such as performance expectancy (i.e., the benefits for customers obtained by using streaming services), the degree of user-friendliness, social influence, the accessibility of resources and support, hedonic motivation, habit, and price (Barata and Coelho 2021 ). Suppliers of music services, such as streaming, should consider in-depth pricing strategies. Li et al. ( 2020 ) found that pricing strategies include advertising intensity, subscription fees, and song prices. Moreover, they considered subscription and ownership models and found that the first dominates the second only if advertisement revenues are limited. Therefore, an eventual mixed model turns to a subscription model when there are advertisement revenues, while it turns to an ownership model when revenues are higher.

The problem is to understand if the broad use of streaming services is a good thing for musicians as well. Musicians are losing control of the revenues that come from their music (Towse 2020 ). In fact, the opportunity to pursue a career based only on record sales is restricted to superstars. For example, in Norway, revenues originating from music copyrights represent only a small proportion of musicians’ earnings (about 20%). Therefore, the solution should be designed around live performance revenues. Nevertheless, the sustainability of streaming services in the long run is still debated in the literature and in professional practice.

4.1.4 Effects of background music

In-store background music produces positive and negative effects. The contradiction of scientific literature is illusory. In fact, such effects depend on the design of background music, which should adapt to the context and the service, which in turn is a critical moderator of the relationship between music and purchase intentions and customers’ in-store experience. For example, loud music has positive effects in retail settings but reduces customers’ experience in a bar. Classical, familiar, and highly recognizable music generally leads to positive effects. Nevertheless, in contexts in which they are inappropriate, the literature shows adverse consequences in terms of purchase intentions (Michel et al 2017 ).

Background music and creative support systems and their effects on consumers’ purchase intentions are fundamental to music literature (Michel et al. 2017 ). A great number of empirical studies have been undertaken to obtain improved understanding of such effects in every field. Music has positive and negative influences on consumers’ emotions within the environment in which they complete their purchases. Moreover, it is able to extend consumers’ in-store visits, promoting a name, brand, and experience that customers experiment with during their purchase process (e.g., Sassenberg et al. 2022 ). This is not limited to products but includes issues related to perceived images and positive or negative reactions to what consumers see. Klein et al. ( 2021 ) highlighted the existence of an inverse U-shaped relationship between the complexity of images and the level of appreciation that music is able to modify, promoting a better reaction to simple images. In other words, music can move consumers’ attention from complex to simple stimuli. For this reason, music can be used with simple images to stimulate and improve consumers’ purchasing experience.

Background music can be seen as a functional instrument for social control because it can change people’s behaviors and workers’ productivity, although its collateral effects are still unpredictable (Karakayali and Alpertan 2020 ). Indeed, music is a mediator of emotions and attitudes; it can modify performance and generate a significant effect in the workplace, although further in-depth analyses are needed to clarify its effects (Landay and Harms 2019 ). An important review by Landay and Harms ( 2019 ) highlighted that the relationship between the music heard and mood and negative and positive emotions is moderated by extraversion (i.e., the tendency to concentrate on gratification from outside individuals), task complexity, and listening autonomy. Moreover, they found that the link between listening to music and task performance is highly contextual and depends on “the availability of cognitive resources and the type of task” (Landay and Harms 2019 , p 379). The evidence shows that workers with more experience in selecting music for personal listening can show greater improvement in their task performance.

4.2 Live music events and performance: a renovated and segmentate phenomenon

4.2.1 the renovated interest of consumers in live performance.

The co-evolution of streaming and live music has had positive consequences for the music industry (Naveed et al. 2017 ). It allowed the recovery of the music industry and the more active participation of all stakeholders. Moreover, consumers have a more active position in the music market, demonstrating more propensity to acquire digital property, for co-creation, and for participative creativity (Naveed et al. 2017 ). In particular, consumers contribute to the creation of value even during the phases of product development and commercialization (Saragih 2019 ). In the new digitalized era in which musicians’ control of their records sales is weaker, live performance is assuming increasing importance.

In general, the analyzed literature seems to agree on consumers’ renovated interest in live performance. For example, Papies and Van Heerde ( 2017 ) confirm the positive relationship between artists’ success in records sales and their success in live performance. Nevertheless, the authors verified that the opposite relationship is weaker, as it is moderated by piracy and unbundling, even if piracy seems to be a decreasing trend in some important markets (e.g., Germany). Moreover, they found a weak correlation between quality of music and artists’ fame. Nevertheless, the evidence shows that this condition of renaissance is not common to all music genres. Pompe et al. ( 2017 ) found that classical music is experiencing a crisis, mainly because consumers say they do not have enough time to enjoy classical concerts. Therefore, the problem of how to add value to some niches is still being debated in the literature.

During the period analyzed in this literature review, Covid-19 impacted the world. In this context, quarantines obliged musicians to be part of lockdowns. Concerts and live music events were cancelled, and musicians had to face a new and challenging reality. However, some positive consequences emerged. In fact, the research showed how during the pandemic musicians started to efficiently exploit online platforms to share their music and to organize 100% online music events (e.g., Areiza-Padilla and Galindo-Becerra 2022 ). Therefore, in the future, digital platforms should be used simultaneously with physical places to share the experience of live events, capturing a wider audience and the attention of a greater number of potential consumers.

4.2.2 Experience and segmentation in festival management

Aşan et al. ( 2020 ) found that experience in music festivals depends on four specific dimensions—aesthetics, which refers to tourists’ evaluation of festivals’ physical environment; entertainment, that is, the active or passive participation of tourists in watching shows; the opportunity to escape daily life, become immersed in a different context, and live a separate experience; and education, that is, gaining new skills and knowledge from the experience of participation. The four dimensions contribute to the formation of participants’ perceived value of the festival, which is a significant mediator between experience and satisfaction. The general conditions in which festivals are organized are often complex, spontaneous, and sometimes unexpected (Laberschek et al. 2020 ). Therefore, going beyond these general dimensions is critical. Other factors should be considered to increase the value promoted by a specific music festival. Because festivals are often devoted to a particular music or art genre, segmentation is one of the most critical elements of managerial strategies.

The segmentation of music festival attendees is considered to be extremely dependent on context (Kim and Kang 2022 ). For example, Kinnunen et al. ( 2018 ) studied Finnish rhythm music festival audiences and identified three segments—omnivores and the loyal heavy tribe, which represent the oldest attendees, and the hedonistic dance crowd, which represents the youngest attendees. Mallette et al. ( 2018 ) discussed the niche example of military music festivals. The authors found two main dimensions of audience segmentation—the appeal of the event and the degree of affinity—that produce different levels of motivation to participate. Roll et al. ( 2014 ) showed the importance of place and the medium of live operas, as they are meaningful for attendees. In particular, consumers consider opera from a holistic viewpoint. Therefore, brand communication should include the fact that the meaning of results differ depending on the samples. There are examples of specific techniques of segmentation. For example, Kruger and Viljoen ( 2021 ) use psychographic segmentation to identify three distinct segments of attendees. They considered motives for attending, behavioral intentions, and global causes aimed at eradicating poverty. The research shows the relevance of segmentation in valorizing the nature, objects, and goals of music festivals.

Modern music festivals have a more general background. Therefore, attendees are of various natures and have different music preferences. Consequently, to avoid problems related to the redundancy of festivals’ organization and commercial proposals, implementing innovation is critical. Li et al. ( 2017 ) identified a strategic factor for success in implementing innovation. In particular, they distinguished between stakeholders’ satisfaction, achieved through harmonious relationships, and process efficiency, achieved through functional relationships. The greater the extent of both relational characteristics (i.e., harmony and functionality), the greater the opportunity to achieve successful innovation implementation.

4.2.3 Sustainability in music festival management

Sustainability in festival and event management is closely related to the three traditional dimensions—economic, social, and environmental. Some studies have been devoted to sustainability management to achieve a better understanding of the actual interest of managers in the best practices for fostering the sustainable management of events. For example, Wickham et al. ( 2021 ) performed a qualitative analysis of 10 international music events and identified 14 best practices connected to sustainability. Economic sustainability was associated with attracting financial capital, artists, and performers; maintaining permanent management; and the reporting of event-related benefits. Social sustainability was associated with attracting experts and influential educators; the supply chain; and the reporting of event-related social benefits. Finally, environmental sustainability was associated with attendees and the behavior of supply chain partners.

At the same time, the research has clarified that the benefits connected to music festivals (e.g., financial and social benefits) are overestimated by participants and urban communities. Nevertheless, eventual negative effects, such as pollution, parking difficulties, and traffic congestion, are often anticipated and resolved by festival promoters (Han et al. 2017 ).

However, sustainability seems not to be a priority of music festivals. Dodds et al. ( 2020 ) found that 64% of Canadian music festivals included in their sample did not communicate about their sustainability practices. Moreover, only 6% of them concentrated their sustainability campaign on social media, even though the literature shows that active communication is critical for developing and maintaining good relationships with participants (Luonila and Kinnunen 2019 ). Contemporary music festivals have critical socio-spatial consequences and meanings; consumers try to co-create authentic experiences from their participation, even though the nature of such experiences can be considered a commercial imperative (Szmigin et al. 2017 ). Co-creation was connected to the sustainability of festivals in the work of Werner et al. ( 2019 ), who identified three categories of festivals attendees—the sustainable co-creation type, focused on the creation of an altruistic environment; the experience co-creation type, focused on the contradiction between real life and the experience of festivals; and the calculating co-creation type, who weight the processes of giving and acquiring value from the experience of festivals. In this sense, the benefits associated with music festivals are co-created by both attendees and organizers. Therefore, identifying the most relevant stakeholders is critical for the diffusion of the idea of festival sustainability.

Relationships and collaboration between festival managers and stakeholders, including the attendees’ perspectives, can foster the incorporation of sustainability practices. According to Hazel and Mason ( 2020 ), if sustainability is defined as a core value of music festivals, forms of collaboration such as sponsorship contracts can encourage the development of relationships among stakeholders who share the same sustainable values. Therefore, identifying the right stakeholders can bolster festivals’ financial and cultural components, as well help integrate the original value of festivals and sustainability needs (Hazel and Mason 2020 ; Richardson 2018 ).

4.3 Musicians: identity and business models in the digital era

4.3.1 the complex nature of musicians’ identity.

The identity of musicians in the modern competitive music industry has been widely discussed in the literature. Schediwy et al. ( 2018 ) identified the dualistic nature of the scientific debate. On one hand, there is a considerable number of contributions that glorify the bohemian nature of the music profession. On the other hand, other papers recognize that assuming an entrepreneurial attitude is an unavoidable need for musicians. Moreover, keeping a stable identity is challenging for musicians, due to the instability of income, uncertainty, and exploitative tendencies in the market.

Schediwy et al. ( 2018 ) found that the separation between the bohemian and the entrepreneurial identity of musicians is less evident in young musicians. In particular, two factors contribute to the formation of musicians’ identity, open-mindedness and career-mindedness, which combine the bohemian nature of the music profession with the necessary market orientation.

The relationship between musicians’ artistic and entrepreneurial identity has been recently studied by Pizzolitto ( 2021 ). His research revealed the profound dilemma between musicians’ traditional view of the art and the necessity to change and adapt their business models depending on the economic conditions. Everts and Haynes ( 2021 ) studied the contexts of the British and Dutch music markets and found that musicians’ entrepreneurial identity is based on the rapid change of musical contexts and local contexts. The Netherlands has been building an institutionalized pathway to let musicians’ artistic needs meet their entrepreneurial sensibility. Nevertheless, according to their research, the conditions that musicians have to face in pursuing their music careers are extremely complex. For example, opportunities are inversely proportional to the number of young aspiring musicians; only a small proportion of musicians achieve a successful career; and digitalization, which seemed to be a possible way to increase the number of successful independent musicians, will probably reduce their opportunities over time.

This tendency is quite common in the world. Güven ( 2020 ) considered the music environment in Turkey and found that musicians there are experiencing increasing difficulties in their creative work. In fact, they do not talk about solidarity in the music world. Instead, they talk of the increasing commodification of music where solid experience and career building seem to be an illusion. Therefore, we have to ask why there are always more young people trying to establish a career in music (Everts and Haynes 2021 ).

4.3.2 The changing and multifaced business models of musicians

Musicians need to diversify their business models by composing, producing, and distributing their music. Given the degree of technological evolution, understanding the future of independent musicians’ business models is complicated. A considerable number of musicians have experienced a decline after the digital revolution in terms of professional studio performance and recording (Herbst and Albrecht 2018 ). Nevertheless, in this framework, music is the principal service in a portfolio of services entirely managed by musicians (Eiriz and Leite 2017 ). Therefore, even if a musician’s self-image and career goals remained the same before and after the digital revolution, there is a general consensus in the music market regarding the fact that the way to achieve career objectives has changed (Schwetter 2016 ).

In new business models, collaboration and cooperation between governmental and non-governmental organizations, among different kinds of art and culture, and among artists seems to guarantee partial independence from record contracts (Ibrahimova 2019 ). For example, in the hip hop environment, Carter and Welsh ( 2018 ) found that collaboration among rappers increases their visibility. Among hip hop artists, there is a tendency to abandon record contracts to pursue a solitary career. A specific example is Alessandro Aleotti (alias J Ax) in Italy who in 2013 decided to quit his contract with New Sound and start his own record label called Newtopia with another famous Italian hip hop artist, Federico Leonard Lucia (alias Fedez).

The choices of independent musicians and labels about where and what to record are extremely contextual and related to the need for non-traditional recording locations (Walzer 2016 ). The role of musicians, producers, and labels are often linked and therefore confused. Consequently, the quantification of their contribution to the production of independent music is complex. Nevertheless, the evidence shows that producers’, musicians’, and sound engineers’ contributions are critical for communication during the decision-making process (Walzer 2016 ).

In summary, the evidence in the literature underlines the complexity of the music market for musicians. This precondition could lead to the reasonable conclusion that musicians should dedicate much more time to the commercial side of their work. Nevertheless, and counterintuitively, publications show that musicians still devote most of their time to creative work. Everts et al. ( 2021 ) studied the early career experiences of Dutch musicians and found that the strong dynamicity of the music industry does not change the perceived high value of being musicians. In fact, musicians do not spend their time trying to boost their position on social networks because they perceive that the funds needed to flourish in that environment are becoming prohibitive. Therefore, they devote their time to creation and to the development of their fan base outside the internet. Finally, they show to enjoy the entrepreneurial part of their activity.

Consequently, the digital revolution, together with the persisting situation of oligopoly in the market, allowed musicians to abandon the idea of record contracts and to embrace self-promotion through self-publishing and self-management (Schwetter 2016 ). The instability of direct revenue experienced by independent musicians and labels resulted in a substantial change after the digital revolution. The digitalization of music had a dramatic impact on musicians’ activity, particularly for independent musicians who are becoming more than composers and who are developing entrepreneurial skills that were traditionally the purview of labels and agencies (Eiriz and Leite 2017 ). Moreover, laws and regulation for the management of copyright have been designed to improve consumers’ interests and rights and show weakness in the connection between copyright and the collective needs of management organizations, thus resulting in an unfair advantage for major labels (Schroff and Street 2017 ).

5 Future research opportunities

Based on the content analysis in the previous section, multiple future research opportunities can be identified. These opportunities emerge with the same distribution as the themes and subthemes from the grounded theory analysis. Table 1 presents a summary of the most relevant research questions that have been deduced from the articles’ contents.

Concerning the role of digitalization in the revolution of the music market, the analysis showed that it contributed to recovering from the previous period of stagnation (e.g., Dellyana et al. 2017 ). Therefore, future research can examine the contribution of specific factors that may or may not be connected with the technological revolution in more depth. In particular, it can concentrate more on the new forms of financing (e.g., crowdfunding) and their influence on the growth of the music industry. Moreover, researchers can perform in-depth analysis of the determinants of the major labels’ ability to maintain their leadership position after the digital revolution (Guichardaz et al. 2019 ). In particular, researchers can concentrate on the effect of a set of variables that exclude financial logic. Furthermore, as this market condition allows two different levels of competition, researchers could focus on the commonalities and differences that can emerge from the study of this dualism.

Trabucchi et al. ( 2017 ) reflected on the opportunity for artists and labels to base their competition strategies on the concept of “meaning.” More conceptual papers on this topic should be published to allow music actors to embrace new strategies connected to this concept. In particular, theoretical articles could help artists and labels better connect their visions, missions, and brands in a practical execution of “meaning” for their products.

Concerning the position of major labels and their permanent leadership position in the market, research on this is based on consumers’ expectations about hedonic performances (Chen et al. 2018 ). In particular, the logic of differentiation could reduce the distance between the two levels of competition that emerged in the music market. Therefore, more research on single case studies is needed to understand what elements allow minor artists to emerge without having access to major artists’ financial and power-related assets. Specifically, research should concentrate on the conditions that allow the reduction or elimination of barriers that traditionally impede the emergence of minor artists and labels (e.g., Pillai et al. 2021 ; Walzer 2016 ). Finally, researchers should help minor labels and artists find better applications of existing technologies characterized by low costs.

One of the positive effects of the digital revolution is that the available technology allows artists and producers to be more creative in their work. Therefore, new variables have started to affect the basis of consumers’ access to music listening. Even if research has found some interesting connections between critical variables (e.g., advertising and reservation; Li et al. 2020 ) and the new forms of consumer access to music listening, more empirical research and case studies are needed to fully understand this phenomenon. Moreover, technology has made consumer research related to music easier and more efficient. Nevertheless, it seems that this condition has not changed the general competition in the music market. Therefore, more empirical research is needed to understand the mediators and moderators of consumers’ opportunities to satisfy their music needs via alternative music and independent artists. In other words, research should study new methods for improving the opportunities for minor artists and independent labels using the existing technological instruments.

Concerning the negative effects of the digital revolution on the music markets, research has focused on the complex conditions of local record and music stores. In this regard, more conceptual papers are needed to evaluate new forms of experiential content through which local record stores can overcome the current crisis. Moreover, empirical analyses should be performed to obtain a deeper understanding of the cultural elements that increase consumers’ tendency to avoid traditional purchasing methods.

Multiple papers have debated the role of music festivals in business and management studies. Music festivals are widely recognized as complex phenomena in which the management instruments needed to achieve results should be organized and planned using holistic and innovative logic (Laberschek et al. 2020 ). Empirical research in this field has been sufficiently developed, and the literature indirectly calls for more conceptual studies. Specifically, it seems that in this field, practice is more advanced and faster compared with theory. Therefore, theoretical research should concentrate on multidisciplinary issues to ensure that festival managers have opportunities to build their style while drawing on solid and consolidated theoretical foundations; this will limit the chaotic and unpredictable events occurring in festivals at present.

First, the theoretical papers concentrate on the connection between chaos theory and management, applying these connections to music festival management. It is necessary to theorize new advancements in chaos management before they are applied in practice. Music festival management needs to refer to innovative and challenging management theory to develop new methods of obtaining economic, financial, social, and sustainable results from the event organization.

Second, conceptual research should be performed to increase the understanding of elements that improve consumers’ experience during festivals. Theorizing about management methods for niche festivals in which a specific kind of music is considered can help organizations stimulate consumers’ experience. In particular, theoretical studies of the foundation of the internationalization of festivals referring specifically to niche festivals can be critical for finding solutions to management issues (da Cunha Brandão and Oliveira 2019 ).

Third, the literature firmly calls for a better understanding of the conceptual foundations of the concept of value in music festivals. Holism, post-co-creativism, and the control of socioeconomic turbulence and chaotic issues related to the management of festivals are widely recognized as powerful instruments for value creation (e.g., Gozini and Tseane-Gumbi 2017 ; Robertson et al. 2018 ). Moreover, co-creation and co-innovation seem to play a critical role in the panorama of actors involved in these events. Similar practical consideration represents a strong call for pushing conceptual analyses to a higher level; in this way, management theory can overcome the limitations of being directly connected to managerial practices and can achieve a superior stage of abstraction.

In addition to the need for theoretical research, more empirical research is needed on the role of the music market in sustainability issues. There is still a distance between the sincere interest in sustainability management and its realization (e.g., Richardson 2019 ; Raffay-Danyi and Formadi 2022 ). Therefore, empirical research should consider single and multiple case studies concerning the positive effect on consumers’ experience and the benefits resulting from the application of sustainability management practices. A case study should be performed using longitudinal logic to highlight differences in terms of praxis and results and to guide future management when it comes to investing time and resources in implementing such logic efficiently.

Finally, the literature revealed considerable interest in the dualism between music and profits. The problem of musicians being reluctant to be considered entrepreneurs has been studied in a number of empirical publications. A possible promising lens for analysis could come from the psychological theory of professional identity (e.g., Marcia 1966 ). In particular, the literature could benefit from more qualitative research based on in-depth interviews and surveys analyzing the status of musicians’ identities in depth. The final aim of this research is to understand what identity status can lead musicians to overcome the obstacle of their reluctance to consider music in the same manner as all other fields. In this sense, more historical research could be beneficial to overcome the dualism between art and entrepreneurship. Harbor ( 2020 ) demonstrated that a considerable number of marketing interventions were used during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to promote music concerts and the arts. More historical references to the connection between entrepreneurship and the arts could be helpful in overcoming this problematic dualism.

6 Discussion and managerial implications

In the last decade, the music market has been greatly affected by the digital revolution, and technology has caused profound internal changes. This revolution has increased the opportunity for the diffusion of music through several services, means, and platforms, even though the oligopoly of major labels has continued to dominate the market. Nevertheless, the exploitation of these new opportunities is limited by the high level of financial and technical resources needed to access innovative technologies. Therefore, although the digital revolution has increased opportunities for minor artists and labels, the competition is still divided into two levels—the oligopoly of major labels and artists and the super competition of minor labels and artists. To overcome this limitation, futuristic strategies need to be conceptualized and operationalized, and most probably they will be based on the concept of “meaning” (Trabucchi et al. 2017 ).

Papies and van Heerde ( 2017 ) identified concerts as one of the most powerful instruments through which minor artists can improve their opportunities to flourish. The empirical literature concentrates on understanding the effects of specific management styles on the organization of events and festivals. Therefore, there is evidence of the fundamental role that concerts and live events will play in the future. Events are seen as chaotic and complex phenomena in which managerial styles cannot be centered on the organization but have to be based on co-creation and co-innovation, promoting revolutionary organization initiatives to enhance opportunities for minor artists and labels to emerge and succeed. Co-creation and co-innovation should be achieved through the involvement of musicians, record labels, and consumers, resulting in a mutually useful network in which access to high levels of financial resources is not an issue. In this sense, the philosophy through which musicians should interpret their role in society has to change in order to promote their role as self-entrepreneurs and to develop their business identity.

This review led to the identification of numerous managerial implications, mainly concentrated on event and store management, sustainable management logic, and the condition of musicians in the market. In terms of improving consumer engagement, managers should place more emphasis on consumers’ preferences than on the cost of performance (Kim et al. 2022 ). The literature highlights that consumers are still interested in the principal product of the music market— music (Papies and van Heerde 2017 ). In this sense, particular attention has to be paid to music festivals and events. During festivals, the aesthetic of the offering has been recognized as a fundamental factor in achieving the events’ objectives. Furthermore, surprising consumers with unique stimuli is critical to increase their engagement (Loureiro et al. 2021 ). In fact, organizations should challenge the status quo by collecting as much information as possible on the changing nature of their audiences. Hiring a community manager who conducts research on social media and promotes events depending on the participants’ preferences can be a strategic factor in improving the quality of integrated communication between organizations and consumers and in increasing loyalty among attendees (Llopis-Amorós et al. 2018 ). Moreover, managers should go beyond adapting their organizations to the changes related to social media platforms and should build solid relationships with their customers, thus increasing the opportunity to achieve greater loyalty and improving their opportunity to involve consumers in the process of co-creation (Choi and Burnes 2017 ).

The literature discusses sustainable management logic. In general, overcoming the traditional barriers and roles in management logic seems to be fundamental for the future of marketing strategies in this field (Vendrell-Herrero 2018 ). In particular, Kullak et al. ( 2021 ) suggested that managers of minor organizations should develop and coordinate a network in which actors have access to relevant resources. Moreover, as there is evidence about the difficult conditions of advertisement-related returns, music suppliers should differentiate their policies depending on this variable. Li et al. ( 2020 ) recommended that managers should choose an ownership, subscription, or mixed-pricing model according to their level of advertisement returns.

Sustainable management in music should be achieved through improving communication between suppliers and customers. In particular, it is perceived as critical to develop technological tools to allow for the establishment and maintenance of a relationship between distributors and consumers (Tran et al. 2018 ). In this sense, the literature recognizes that the technological revolution is one of the most important opportunities for music managers to change their organizational logic. Technology “favour[s] smaller, more flexible companies that are more conducive to innovation” (Renard and Hallam 2018 , p 182). Firms should put their traditional models and decision-making procedures under review, concentrating on changing definition of “meaning” that music consumers adopt over time (Trabucchi et al. 2017 ).

The problem of sustainability has also been analyzed in light of the difficulties that small music enterprises face when it comes to accessing high levels of financial support. For example, Andersén et al. ( 2019 ) showed that to improve their growth opportunities, small firms can exploit their relationships with environmental-oriented suppliers and their ability to develop green purchasing capabilities. The sustainable management logic also relates to an improvement in the congruency between in-store background music and the purchase experience that sellers want their customers to have. The literature highlights the importance of the correlation between advertising, music, and all other stimuli and environments in which purchasing takes place (Michel et al. 2017 ). In fact, the correct combination of music and advertising can be useful for changing brand perceptions. For example, an intense sound and low pitch can communicate masculinity, whereas high-pitched sounds can communicate femininity (Zoghaib 2019 ). Moreover, empirical evidence has shown that major tones and faster tempos improve the purchase experience (Liu et al. 2022 ). Music associated with different levels of arousal can be used to manipulate consumers’ feelings; for instance, uncomfortable situations can be smoothed out through background music characterized by low levels of arousal (Roy and Das 2022 ). Stable tonal structures can induce cheerfulness, whereas unstable tonal structures communicate sadness (Zoghaib 2019 ). Therefore, if sellers want to prolong consumers’ purchasing experiences and in-store visits, they should choose music of a low tempo and volume (Michel et al. 2017 ).

The literature discusses the position of musicians in the music business. In particular, various articles debate the opportunities that music allows professionals depending on their level of popularity. For example, Papies and van Heerde ( 2017 ) observed that concerts are critical for both famous musicians and musicians who are not famous. For famous musicians, concerts represent an opportunity to consolidate their position in the market. For less famous artists, concerts should be considered marketing strategies to increase their popularity, that is, as launching pads for their future careers.

7 Conclusions

Music comprises a dynamic, complex, and chaotic environment in which futuristic management styles and co-creation, co-innovation, and post co-creation logics should be considered in planning and operationalizing strategies at every level of competition. Although the digital revolution has transformed many aspects of the music business and management, several issues continue to limit its evolution. This SLR clarified that in the future, a considerably relevant role will be played by events, festivals, and concerts whereby innovative managerial styles can overcome the complex conditions of minor artists and labels and allow them to flourish. Nevertheless, the picture of music generated from the literature is still evolving. The future of the field seems to demand higher levels of philosophy around business issues and management styles through which obstacles relating to the position of musicians as entrepreneurs will be overcome, and products will be considered for their meaning rather than for their cost.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Music in business and management studies: a systematic literature review and research agenda

Elia pizzolitto.

Department of Business Economics, University G. D’Annunzio – Chieti-Pescara, Viale Pindaro, 42, 65127 Pescara, PE Italy

Associated Data

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Music is the background of life, representing an international language that connects different cultures. It is also significant with respect to economies, markets, and businesses. The literature in the music field has identified several issues related to the role of digitalization in the revolution of music, the distribution of music products, the management and organization of music events, music marketing strategies, and the position of musicians as entrepreneurs. This paper comprises a systematic literature review of the most recent articles discussing the numerous connections between music, business, and management (2017–2022). Through a rigorous protocol, this research discusses the effects of the digital revolution on the music industry, with particular reference to the persisting oligopoly of major labels and the new business models that integrate music streaming and social networks. The findings show the renaissance and relevance of live music events, the fundamental role of segmentation strategies for managing festivals, and the limited presence of sustainability as a priority during festivals and events management. Furthermore, the literature highlights the relevance of discussions concerning musicians’ identity, especially in light of the complex relationship between the bohemian and the entrepreneurial nature of their profession. This is followed by numerous reflections on future research opportunities, recommending theoretical and empirical in-depth studies of music industry competition, futuristic management philosophies and business models, and the roles of technology, sustainability, and financial elements in fostering artists’ success in the digital era. Finally, the paper discusses business models and strategies for musicians, festivals management, stores, and sustainability.

Introduction

As Mithen ( 2009 ; p 3) states, “To be human is to be musical”. Music is part of most individuals’ daily lives. For example, it plays in the background when people make purchases at stores and eat at restaurants. It is a universal language that helps strangers communicate immediately, that spreads and evokes emotions, and that inspires players, producers, and listeners (Cooke 1990 ; Hunter and Schellenberg 2010 ). However, beyond being an artform that can connect people from different cultures (Huron 2001 ) and with different identities (Mithen 2009 ), music is also a business.

The worldwide relevance of music can be recognized not only in philosophical discussions but also in statistical data about the industry. Music consumption has grown quickly, particularly since the start of the digital revolution, and this growth seems unlikely to slow down in the future (IFPI 2022 ). The worldwide music industry has grown significantly in recent years. In fact, it grew from US$14.2 billion in 2014 to US$25.9 billion in 2021, revealing growth of 18.5% in 2021 (IFPI 2022 ). Streaming now drives the music market, representing 65% of global music market revenues in 2021 (IFPI 2022 ). This trend is a consequence of the digital revolution, which has been characterized by two phases of development (Koh et al. 2019 ). The first phase involved physical and digital music record sales. The second phase was the development of streaming, unbundling, and cross-platform services that combined music with other entertainment forms, such as video games, television programs, films, and talent shows (Shen et al. 2019 ).

Two of the most relevant dimensions of the music industry are as follows: (a) the production and distribution of music through physical and digital support networks, as guided by record companies; and (b) the production and distribution of live music, which is controlled by world-famous artists but is characterized by many minor professional musicians, sound technicians, and other workers. These two dimensions are interconnected. The digital revolution is disruptive, and it has upset traditional capitalist economies, but the world of live music has resisted such changes (Azzellini et al. 2021 ). In addition to these two major dimensions, the music industry includes a complex and elaborate set of other dimensions. These comprise the conditions of minor musicians and labels; publishing, managing, and marketing; teaching and other educational activities (Thomson 2013 ); and the conditions of local music and record stores.

In this regard, multiple issues have emerged from the literature, mostly related to the big change that the digital revolution has brought about in the music industry. For example, minor artists and labels have to consider new marketing strategies, and they need to find innovative ways to exploit the easier connections between consumers and their products that technologies allow, despite having limited financial assets (Zhang 2018 ). Another example involves music events or festivals, which face complex challenges because of the recent Covid-19 pandemic. Innovation in the organization and marketing of these events is focused on the concept of value creation, guided by the idea of festivals as chaotic and unpredictable events in which collaboration and co-creation are critical for the achievement of financial, economic, and social objectives (Werner et al. 2019 ). Covid-19 and the digital revolution complicated the conditions of local music and record stores, which are more centered on experience than competition and need stable innovation in their marketing strategies (Trabucchi et al. 2017 ).

Moreover, the growth of the music business has highlighted the complex relationship between musicians’ artistic and entrepreneurial sides. In fact, musicians face cultural barriers to their identification as professionals. As Frederickson and Rooney ( 1990 ) noted, an absence of formal requisites to enter the musical profession is one of its most relevant barriers; because of this lack of a need for credentials, many people do not consider music to be a profession. Indeed, as Henry ( 2013 ) found, few music students think about teaching music as a future profession. According to Pizzolitto ( 2021 ), musicians are reluctant to consider themselves entrepreneurs because of the complex relationship between art and profit. Therefore, the entrepreneurial identity of musicians should be fostered to overcome this obstacle to recognizing music as a profession.

This may be challenging, as the Covid-19 pandemic has adversely affected musicians’ activities. Although the music industry has continued to grow and has not been experienced many negative consequences, there have been numerous (orderly) protests by musicians and sound technicians who feel they have been forgotten by governmental policies. For example, in October 2020, a large group of musicians played in front of the British Parliament to protest a decision to decrease state benefits for freelance workers (Savage 2020 ). During the same month, musicians and sound technicians peacefully occupied many public squares in Italy to broadcast the slogan Esistiamo anche noi , which translates to “We also exist” (Sky Tg24 2020 ). In November 2020, musicians in Berlin held silent protests against a lockdown (Global Times 2020 ). Indeed, music around the world has experienced a number of conflicts.

Beyond the disparities in the success of record companies versus professional musicians, there are philosophical complexities connected to an antinomy between the artistic nature of music and the capitalistic context in which it is developed (e.g., see Bridson et al. 2017 ; Haynes and Marshall 2017 ). Musicians and record producers also face strategic issues concerning the distribution of their music. Waldfogel ( 2017 ) defined the current era as a golden age for music listening, yet musicians and producers experience dilemmas every time they intend to launch a product. One dilemma relates to the many opportunities available because of the digital revolution; for example, one can take advantage of digital platforms, streaming, and physical support networks. However, the increase in options demands more in-depth strategic planning. Thus, the philosophical significance of music to individuals, its relevance to people’s lives, and its importance to the economy are at odds with the research conditions of the field.

While attempts to map the literature on music research have been numerous and of high quality, they have mainly concentrated on the effects of music in the workplace (e.g., Landay and Harms 2019 ) or music education research. For instance, in 2004, volume 32 (issue 3) of Psychology of Music focused on mapping music education research in single national contexts (e.g., Welch et al. 2004 ; Gruhn 2004 ). Moreover, in 2006, Roulston published a methodological paper that incentivized qualitative research in the music field. Therefore, while existing research has discussed content relevant to the field, there is no literature review on the recent development of music in business and management studies, including topics such as digitalization, the conditions of the industry and competition, the management of music events, innovations, sustainability, and the complex position of musicians after the digital revolution. Consequently, this article addresses the research question “How does recent literature debate music in business and management studies?”.

The next section provides details on the methodology used in this literature review. In particular, it gives a detailed explanation of the procedure used to gather data and analyze the content of articles. Following this is a descriptive analysis of the literature sample, including the journals, author affiliations, and methods of the articles, and an analysis of the contents of the articles. The next section studies the themes that emerged in the articles. Finally, future research opportunities, managerial implications, and a general discussion of the results are presented in the conclusion.

Methodology

A systematic literature review (SLR) was chosen as the methodology for this study for two main reasons. First, the research questions concern a specific field (i.e., music in business studies). Second, an SLR can ensure a greater degree of objectivity compared with other kinds of literature reviews (e.g., narrative). It can also ensure reproducibility and limit biases in article selection and interpretation (Denyer and Tranfield 2009 ; Post et al. 2020 ). This study used a method described by Wolfswinkel et al. ( 2013 ), where contents of articles are analyzed using a grounded theory approach. This method ensured that the analysis would not be based on any prejudices. Moreover, grounded theory provides the advantage of developing a theoretical framework in the absence of a specific background (Corbin and Strauss 1990 ; Strauss and Corbin 1997 ). Finally, the method published by Wolfswinkel et al. ( 2013 ) exhibited no article selection differences compared with other SLR methodologies (e.g., see Denyer and Tranfield 2009 ; Post et al. 2020 ). Therefore, the method met all the requirements for conducting an SLR as objectively as possible.

The employed protocol

The method included the five following phases: define, search, select, analyze, and present (Fig.  1 ). During the first phase, the database and the inclusion/exclusion criteria for the study were determined. Similar to most SLRs (e.g., see Vrontis and Christofi 2019 ), only articles that were written in English and that had been published in peer-reviewed journals were included in the sample. To ensure that articles of the highest quality would be included, only those listed in the SCOPUS, EBSCOHost, and Web of Science databases were considered. Finally, specific keywords were used to search the three databases and were applied to titles, abstracts, and keywords of the articles. The keywords were music AND ( business OR management ).

Phases of SLR employed protocol

The second phase consisted of the search for articles. This began with several exploratory analyses to ensure that all relevant literature would be included. The research commenced with searching SCOPUS, and 7825 results were retrieved. The results were limited to peer-reviewed articles written in English, which narrowed the list to 3764 results. As the focus was on recent literature regarding music in business studies, the publication years were then restricted to 2017–2022, leaving 1333 results.

The same steps were followed in searching EBSCOHost. The initial dataset included 17,765 results, and after the limitations were applied, 183 articles remained. The steps were repeated in searching Web of Science, resulting in an initial sample of 2944 results. This number decreased to 855 after the limitations were applied.

During the third phase, the 2371 results were refined, and 771 duplicates were eliminated. After screening the titles, abstracts, keywords, and contents, 1444 false positives were eliminated. The final dataset comprised 145 articles.

The last two steps of the procedure were “analyze” and “present.” The next section presents the descriptive and content analyses of the articles (i.e., the results of these steps). Analyzing the articles included determining the type of paper, the distribution of publications over time, the authors’ productivity and affiliations, and the methods employed in the empirical articles. The contents of the articles were analyzed using a grounded theory approach, during which four themes emerged.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

This section details the methods applied when including or excluding articles. To facilitate the selection of articles, an Excel file with 19 columns and 145 rows was created. More than 2700 cells were filled in with the following information for each paper: ID number, DOI, authors, title, publication year, source title, number of citations, source (i.e., SCOPUS, EBSCOHost, or Web of Science), paper type (i.e., empirical, conceptual, review), methodology (i.e., qualitative or quantitative), methods employed, sample size, type of statistical units; authors’ provenience; and theories cited. For reasons of space, the table cannot be shown here, but it is available upon request.

In addition, a column was devoted to the reason for including or excluding a paper. The objective was to consider only articles that explicitly referred to the interconnections between music and business or management issues. The process started with evaluating the titles, abstracts, and keywords to gain an understanding of the articles’ contents. If this evaluation was insufficient, the articles were read for a better evaluation.

To ensure transparency in the selection process, as suggested by Denyer and Tranfield ( 2009 ), some examples are considered. One article that was retrieved from the Scopus database was the article Neumatic singing in Thai popular singing, 1925–1967 by Inkhong et al. ( 2020 ) because it included the keywords used for the initial extraction. The article discussed solutions to problems related to incorrect pronunciation using neumatic singing. Therefore, it was excluded. Another article, Quality management of music education in modern kindergarten: Educational expectations of families by Boyakova ( 2018 ) talked about understanding and improving the quality of children’s music education and made no reference to business or management studies. Therefore, it too was excluded.

Examples of articles that were included are as follows. The article Digital music and the “death of the long tail” by Coelho and Mendes ( 2019 ) discussed the impact of digital distribution in the music market, concentrating on the dualism between the long tail theory and the superstar effect theory. Schediwy et al. ( 2018 )’s article Do bohemian and entrepreneurial career identities compete or cohere? discussed the identity of musicians. The article The role of stakeholders in shifting environmental practices of music festivals in British Columbia, Canada by Hazel and Mason ( 2020 ) discussed festival management. These three articles were relevant to our study and were therefore included in our review.

Grounded analysis of the articles’ contents

The grounded theory approach employed in this review followed a certain protocol. The 145 papers included in the sample were divided into subsamples of five randomly selected papers using Excel. Open coding was used to label the subsamples with codes to identify concepts and enable comparisons of the articles, including information such as the affiliated intuitions, the methodologies used, and the theoretical in-depth analyses. The final aim is to conceptualize the most relevant aspects and identify categories and subcategories of common elements.

Axial coding was then employed to make connections between the codes and facilitate further comparison of data emerging from the articles and theoretical and methodological frameworks in the various subsamples. The final aim was to build a systematically integrated network of concepts.

Finally, selective coding was employed to conceptualize and improve the results of the previous analyses. The aim was to achieve a well-integrated theoretical reasoning that can be used to simplify and enrich the reflections on the studied phenomenon.

Figure  2 shows an example of how subthemes emerged during the analysis. The blue tables correspond to random samples of five articles. The red oblongs represent the most relevant articles. The black squares represent (a very limited number of) critical codes (open coding). The violet, red, and green circles represent the results of conceptual connections among the codes (axial coding); the interpretation of these connections is shown at the bottom of the figure.

An example of grounded methodology applied in this research (colour figure online)

Limitations

This literature review tries to develop a complete picture of the most relevant research in music management and business. The aim is to establish a starting point for future in-depth analysis and gathering of future research in this area. Nevertheless, it is not exempt from limitations. First, the methodology, database searches, and analyses were performed by one author. Although the selected method (grounded theory method; see Wolfswinkel et al. 2013 ) was chosen for its ability to reduce objectivity, even in the content analysis of the selected articles, there might be limitations in the application of inclusion and exclusion criteria considering the high number of articles.

Second, this review employed specific databases to ensure the quality of papers extracted. However, this method inevitably excluded books, book chapters, grey literature, and other sources of information that could be relevant to the topic and in terms of triangulating information and enriching the results of the analysis. Therefore, future research should include the object of the analysis and more sources of information.

Finally, this review limits the time span to recent years. Although SLRs should include a limited number of articles to concentrate on a very specific and relevant research question, the considerable body of knowledge in terms of music management and business suggests that a more comprehensive viewpoint can be considered. Nevertheless, in case future research would be interested in enlarging the time span of the analysis, the amount of articles that would emerge would be studied using quantitative methods, such as meta-analysis or bibliometric analysis.

Descriptive analysis

This section presents the descriptive analysis of the selected literature. The analysis focuses on three aspects: (1) the authors’ provenience (Fig.  3 ), (2) the types of papers, and (3) the methods employed in the empirical studies.

Authors’ provenience

The UK and the USA led in terms of the number of relevant articles published in the period under study with 28.96% of the articles. There is a worldwide interest among scientists in terms of music research in business studies. Even though empirical articles are the most common in the selected dataset, theoretical articles and literature reviews are present in each of the five years considered. Excluding the year 2022, in which theoretical articles represent less than 8% of the contributions, one fifth of the dataset from 2017 to 2021 consists of theoretical articles and literature reviews. Therefore, there is considerable interest in debating conceptual issues in this field. Qualitative research—particularly case studies (26.42% of the dataset)—is the most common methodology used for performing research in the field. Interviews were also commonly used in the extracted contributions (18.87%). Therefore, it is possible that qualitative frameworks of analysis are the best way to gather and evaluate data in this market (Figs.  4 and ​ and5 5 ).

Papers’ typology per year

Methods employed in the selected articles

Content analysis

This section presents the results obtained from the grounded analysis of the selected papers. Given the amount of data and the complexity of the concepts, two graphic representations have been created. Figure  6 shows a summary of codes, sub-themes, and themes that emerged from the analysis. Figure  7 shows a conceptual map of the field.

Codes, themes and subthemes emerged from selected literature

Conceptual map

The digital revolution and the music industry: Have things actually changed?

The effects of the digital revolution on the music industry.

The digital revolution profoundly and directly impacted the economy through direct effects such as an increase in aggregate productivity and competitiveness and through more unobserved effects relating to the development of open-access platforms, new business models, and the need of managers to always achieve a better understanding of consumers’ expectations. These unobserved effects of the digital revolution have been described as digital dark matter (Vendrell-Herrero et al. 2017 ). Moreover, the inevitability of technology-related industry disruption seems not to be totally caught by professionals and firms, which are not reacting appropriately to this phenomenon (Riemer and Johnston 2019 ). For this reason, new business models are theorized in the literature. For example, Morrow ( 2018 ) introduced the concept of distributed agility as a model consisting of a reactive approach through which multiple self-organized teams combine their abilities to respond quickly to the rapid changes in the new digital market.

During the period 2011–2018, digital music and streaming contributed dramatically to the renaissance of the market (Nakano 2019 ). According to Nag ( 2017 ), the dramatic increase in the amount of accessible music contents and the decreasing barriers to consumer access is producing a contradictory effect on the philosophy of consumption. On one side is the benefit of freedom of choice and on the other side is an indirect call for more scarcity.

The literature has recognized three waves of disruptive innovations—digital music distribution, permanent digital downloads, and music streaming (Urbinati et al. 2019 ). Reactions to these things were similar; after an initial majors’ tendency to protect their own competitive position against opponents, there was adaptation to the new paradigms of music distribution. In particular, after the digital music distribution revolution, incumbents concentrated on building online shops and selling music from their catalogues. After the digital download revolution, incumbents verified the weaknesses in their previous strategic reactions and started to build relationships and partnerships with newcomers to fight the increased competition of important innovations such as Apple’s iTunes Music Store. Finally, with the music streaming revolution, entities such as the iTunes Music Store started to consider acquisitions as strategic choices to limit the damage caused by the rapid development of services like Spotify (Urbinati et al. 2019 ).

The music supply network evolved in a similar way. Nakano and Fleury ( 2017 ) identified three stages in this evolution. The first stage in the 1980s was a physical supply chain in which the hierarchical model with a vertical integration structure fostered the power of major labels that controlled technical and market access. The second stage in the 1990s was a transitional supply network in which the captive governance model fostered an open hierarchy. In this phase, the power was in the form of control over market access. Finally, in the last 20 years, the supply network evolved to a digital ecosystem in which individual producers and small and large providers can (at least theoretically) compete with major labels, which are exploiting their accumulated power to control mass market access through collaboration, partnerships, and new business models based on digital outlets and aggregators.

Sinclair and Tinson ( 2017 ) highlighted the problem of the decreasing value of psychological ownership of music guided by the dematerialization of music and the advent of access-based streaming platforms. Nevertheless, the antecedents of psychological ownership—investment of the self, profound knowledge and control of the target, and pride—demonstrated that consumers are modifying their experimentation with psychological ownership, achieving loyalty, empowerment, citizenship, and social rewards as consequences of this phenomenon. Therefore, through the new conceptualization of the psychological ownership of music, consumers are able to control the target of ownership and to develop and protect their music identity.

The other side of the coin of the digital revolution in music is that collaboration between major labels and other actors has allowed them to keep their power and to maintain the oligopoly in the market. In this context, while technological and digital innovation is stimulated, innovation in music is discouraged (Sun 2019 ).

The music industry has reacted to this tendency and has been able to assimilate the technological and digital innovations (Naveed et al. 2017 ). In particular, there are types of innovations that have assumed an increasing level of importance after the digital revolution. For example, co-innovation, a construct comprising co-discovery, co-creation, and co-capture, is widely recognized as a fundamental element in promoting correct governance, leadership, and resource integration (Saragih et al. 2019a , b ).

The persisting oligopoly in the music market

The digital revolution and the digitalization of music produced an unexpected result in the music industry. Visionaries believed that the ability to achieve unlimited access to every kind of music—referred to as the celestial jukebox—would have led the music industry to overcome the oligopolist control of major labels and stimulate cultural diversity (Sun 2019 ). Nevertheless, the huge number of opportunities provided by the new digital market demonstrated that consumers need to be guided in their choices. The opportunities for musicians’ self-release apparently increased the degree of democratization of the music market. In fact, they consolidated the commodification and centralization of music whereby major labels still dominate the industry by promoting the conservative management of copyright ownership. This condition isolated self-released musicians, who have a marginal position in the industry. This is a worldwide condition, as verified in several articles, such as that by Qu et al. ( 2021 ). There is broad consensus regarding this condition and very few dissenters (e.g., Arbatani et al. 2018 ).

The digital revolution changed the pop-rock market, and streaming is now dominating the music industry, although there is still an important physical sector. Major labels have recently started a growth path after 15 years of crisis via the development of dynamic capabilities. In particular, technology allowed the emergence of non-hits and niches, increasing their opportunity to gain a long tail effect. Nevertheless, there is evidence of the persistence of the “superstar effect” (Coelho and Mendes 2019 ).

According to Prey et al. ( 2020 ), Spotify shows a bias towards major label content. Musicians’ success is dependent on services like Spotify. Therefore, Spotify’s preferences for major labels has caused discontent among minor labels and minor musicians.

Currently, the logic with which incumbents develop their strategy is correlated to the need for more timely approaches (Guichardaz et al. 2019 ). It is necessary to accept the competition of new technological innovations (e.g., iTunes and Spotify) and to develop suitable strategies to exploit the dynamic changes in the market (Trabucchi et al. 2017 ).

This evidence is confirmed in several studies. For example, Dellyana et al. ( 2017 ) state that the composition of actors in the music market has been changing over time. Conditions have become more dynamic, which stimulates the opportunity to increase the number of partnerships. Increasing the number of actors will change the general business model, allowing more opportunities for collaboration, including 360-degree, tailor-made partnerships; vertical integration; subscription services; pay per download; ad funded; bundles; and sponsorships. As a consequence, the many opportunities to exploit different sources of income leads actors in the industry market to develop new abilities and qualities. This modularity complicates the management of strategies and encourages the implementation of inter-firm alliances (Guichardaz et al. 2019 ). Through these collaborations, major labels are still dominating the music industry, even if independent labels and musicians can produce and distribute their music more easily and less expensively than before (Dellyana et al. 2017 ; Sun 2019 ). Major players like Spotify, Pandora, and Apple directly negotiate with the platforms to distribute artists’ music, while small labels must depend on intermediaries.

Some collaborations are, in fact, not official but extremely favorable. For example, the viral activity of fans on social media, such as YouTube, is a critical part of music stars’ strategy. Gamble et al. ( 2018 ) found that fans have an active role in the relationship between social media and the music industry. In particular, senior managers and music industry experts involved in the research argued that consumer-driven marketing campaigns can provide the best ideas regarding the execution, marketing, and managing of strategies. At the beginning of their careers, artists gain considerable advantages from social media and crowdfunding, even if fame comes as a result of their collaboration with major labels. Therefore, at the initial stage of their music success, the innovative nature of artists can be supported by fans’ activities, while at the advanced stage of their careers, artists tend to homogenize due to their involvement in the business logic of major labels business logics.

Nevertheless, evidence in the literature shows that collaborations and new business models are not the only way through which major labels react to the technological and digital changes in the market. Trabucchi et al. ( 2017 ) have shown that labels are able to re-invent old music solutions, such as CDs and vinyl, through innovations in their organizational structure and dynamic capabilities (e.g., changing their objective to entertainment enterprises), changing the meaning of their products from instruments for listening to music to collectors’ objects, and transforming the purchase process into an in-store experience. Therefore, developing dynamic capabilities seems to be the main response of major labels to the technological revolution in the music market. Changing the value proposition, capturing the new value of products, and customer orientation allow the major players to exploit the intersection between meaning and technology, thus modifying the competition among the incumbents.

Social networks and streaming services

Social networks have critical effects on artists’ success on online social network platforms. Communication with fun experimented a tremendous change after the digital revolution and the advent of social media. In the past, musicians used the press, television, and radio to attract fans’ interest. With social media and social networks, however, communication between artists and fans is direct. Communication with fans together with strategies that include the active sending of friend requests to fans or commenting on their posts can allow artists to control and influence their network (Ansari et al. 2018 ). Moreover, outside affiliations of artists can have a positive impact on the degree and density of networks (Ansari et al. 2018 ).

Social networks can have a dramatic effect on the consumption of music. For example, Spotify bundles music content in the form of playlists. This behavior allows Spotify to take over the market demand, reducing its dependency on major labels (Prey et al. 2020 ). Choi and Burnes ( 2017 ) studied the impact of using social media in the music industry and confirmed that social media have a considerable impact on fans’ engagement. Therefore, building solid and durable relationships and vitalizing participation should be considered a strategic focus for these firms. In the modern music market, firms cannot control value creation; therefore, they should use social media to enhance co-creation with fans, thus vitalizing their community and becoming the driving force in changing markets.

Business models in music benefit considerably from reward-based crowdfunding (Gamble et al. 2017 ), even though there is evidence suggesting that problems can arise due to young fans’ apprehension. Nevertheless, opportunities allowed by crowdfunding can help overcome limitations due to the need for constant consumer confidence. In fact, the development of partnerships with crowdfunding platforms has been increasing the opportunity for major labels to challenge the user-centric tendency of digital innovations (Gamble et al. 2017 ).

According to Arditi ( 2017 ), streaming services represent the most relevant revenue in the music industry since 2015. Streaming services are one of the most important reasons why the music industry recovered from the disaster of Napster and similar platforms for free music sharing. Indeed, streaming services are considered the (partial) solution to the decrease in music CD sales and to the increase in piracy. Moreover, there are similarities and differences between cultures about the future of streaming services. For example, Kim et al. ( 2017 ) show that US and Korean consumers prefer subscription-based on-demand streaming services and pay a higher price compared to the value of current streaming services. Nakano ( 2019 ) analyzed major US and UK outlets, recognizing that the preference of customers is for streaming services; however, there is still space for niches for which downloading is still preferred. Moreover, the existence of two major ecosystems, Android and iOS, has impeded the emergence of a dominant player to date.

Behavioral intentions connected to streaming service utilization depend on specific factors such as performance expectancy (i.e., the benefits for customers obtained by using streaming services), the degree of user-friendliness, social influence, the accessibility of resources and support, hedonic motivation, habit, and price (Barata and Coelho 2021 ). Suppliers of music services, such as streaming, should consider in-depth pricing strategies. Li et al. ( 2020 ) found that pricing strategies include advertising intensity, subscription fees, and song prices. Moreover, they considered subscription and ownership models and found that the first dominates the second only if advertisement revenues are limited. Therefore, an eventual mixed model turns to a subscription model when there are advertisement revenues, while it turns to an ownership model when revenues are higher.

The problem is to understand if the broad use of streaming services is a good thing for musicians as well. Musicians are losing control of the revenues that come from their music (Towse 2020 ). In fact, the opportunity to pursue a career based only on record sales is restricted to superstars. For example, in Norway, revenues originating from music copyrights represent only a small proportion of musicians’ earnings (about 20%). Therefore, the solution should be designed around live performance revenues. Nevertheless, the sustainability of streaming services in the long run is still debated in the literature and in professional practice.

Effects of background music

In-store background music produces positive and negative effects. The contradiction of scientific literature is illusory. In fact, such effects depend on the design of background music, which should adapt to the context and the service, which in turn is a critical moderator of the relationship between music and purchase intentions and customers’ in-store experience. For example, loud music has positive effects in retail settings but reduces customers’ experience in a bar. Classical, familiar, and highly recognizable music generally leads to positive effects. Nevertheless, in contexts in which they are inappropriate, the literature shows adverse consequences in terms of purchase intentions (Michel et al 2017 ).

Background music and creative support systems and their effects on consumers’ purchase intentions are fundamental to music literature (Michel et al. 2017 ). A great number of empirical studies have been undertaken to obtain improved understanding of such effects in every field. Music has positive and negative influences on consumers’ emotions within the environment in which they complete their purchases. Moreover, it is able to extend consumers’ in-store visits, promoting a name, brand, and experience that customers experiment with during their purchase process (e.g., Sassenberg et al. 2022 ). This is not limited to products but includes issues related to perceived images and positive or negative reactions to what consumers see. Klein et al. ( 2021 ) highlighted the existence of an inverse U-shaped relationship between the complexity of images and the level of appreciation that music is able to modify, promoting a better reaction to simple images. In other words, music can move consumers’ attention from complex to simple stimuli. For this reason, music can be used with simple images to stimulate and improve consumers’ purchasing experience.

Background music can be seen as a functional instrument for social control because it can change people’s behaviors and workers’ productivity, although its collateral effects are still unpredictable (Karakayali and Alpertan 2020 ). Indeed, music is a mediator of emotions and attitudes; it can modify performance and generate a significant effect in the workplace, although further in-depth analyses are needed to clarify its effects (Landay and Harms 2019 ). An important review by Landay and Harms ( 2019 ) highlighted that the relationship between the music heard and mood and negative and positive emotions is moderated by extraversion (i.e., the tendency to concentrate on gratification from outside individuals), task complexity, and listening autonomy. Moreover, they found that the link between listening to music and task performance is highly contextual and depends on “the availability of cognitive resources and the type of task” (Landay and Harms 2019 , p 379). The evidence shows that workers with more experience in selecting music for personal listening can show greater improvement in their task performance.

Live music events and performance: a renovated and segmentate phenomenon

The renovated interest of consumers in live performance.

The co-evolution of streaming and live music has had positive consequences for the music industry (Naveed et al. 2017 ). It allowed the recovery of the music industry and the more active participation of all stakeholders. Moreover, consumers have a more active position in the music market, demonstrating more propensity to acquire digital property, for co-creation, and for participative creativity (Naveed et al. 2017 ). In particular, consumers contribute to the creation of value even during the phases of product development and commercialization (Saragih 2019 ). In the new digitalized era in which musicians’ control of their records sales is weaker, live performance is assuming increasing importance.

In general, the analyzed literature seems to agree on consumers’ renovated interest in live performance. For example, Papies and Van Heerde ( 2017 ) confirm the positive relationship between artists’ success in records sales and their success in live performance. Nevertheless, the authors verified that the opposite relationship is weaker, as it is moderated by piracy and unbundling, even if piracy seems to be a decreasing trend in some important markets (e.g., Germany). Moreover, they found a weak correlation between quality of music and artists’ fame. Nevertheless, the evidence shows that this condition of renaissance is not common to all music genres. Pompe et al. ( 2017 ) found that classical music is experiencing a crisis, mainly because consumers say they do not have enough time to enjoy classical concerts. Therefore, the problem of how to add value to some niches is still being debated in the literature.

During the period analyzed in this literature review, Covid-19 impacted the world. In this context, quarantines obliged musicians to be part of lockdowns. Concerts and live music events were cancelled, and musicians had to face a new and challenging reality. However, some positive consequences emerged. In fact, the research showed how during the pandemic musicians started to efficiently exploit online platforms to share their music and to organize 100% online music events (e.g., Areiza-Padilla and Galindo-Becerra 2022 ). Therefore, in the future, digital platforms should be used simultaneously with physical places to share the experience of live events, capturing a wider audience and the attention of a greater number of potential consumers.

Experience and segmentation in festival management

Aşan et al. ( 2020 ) found that experience in music festivals depends on four specific dimensions—aesthetics, which refers to tourists’ evaluation of festivals’ physical environment; entertainment, that is, the active or passive participation of tourists in watching shows; the opportunity to escape daily life, become immersed in a different context, and live a separate experience; and education, that is, gaining new skills and knowledge from the experience of participation. The four dimensions contribute to the formation of participants’ perceived value of the festival, which is a significant mediator between experience and satisfaction. The general conditions in which festivals are organized are often complex, spontaneous, and sometimes unexpected (Laberschek et al. 2020 ). Therefore, going beyond these general dimensions is critical. Other factors should be considered to increase the value promoted by a specific music festival. Because festivals are often devoted to a particular music or art genre, segmentation is one of the most critical elements of managerial strategies.

The segmentation of music festival attendees is considered to be extremely dependent on context (Kim and Kang 2022 ). For example, Kinnunen et al. ( 2018 ) studied Finnish rhythm music festival audiences and identified three segments—omnivores and the loyal heavy tribe, which represent the oldest attendees, and the hedonistic dance crowd, which represents the youngest attendees. Mallette et al. ( 2018 ) discussed the niche example of military music festivals. The authors found two main dimensions of audience segmentation—the appeal of the event and the degree of affinity—that produce different levels of motivation to participate. Roll et al. ( 2014 ) showed the importance of place and the medium of live operas, as they are meaningful for attendees. In particular, consumers consider opera from a holistic viewpoint. Therefore, brand communication should include the fact that the meaning of results differ depending on the samples. There are examples of specific techniques of segmentation. For example, Kruger and Viljoen ( 2021 ) use psychographic segmentation to identify three distinct segments of attendees. They considered motives for attending, behavioral intentions, and global causes aimed at eradicating poverty. The research shows the relevance of segmentation in valorizing the nature, objects, and goals of music festivals.

Modern music festivals have a more general background. Therefore, attendees are of various natures and have different music preferences. Consequently, to avoid problems related to the redundancy of festivals’ organization and commercial proposals, implementing innovation is critical. Li et al. ( 2017 ) identified a strategic factor for success in implementing innovation. In particular, they distinguished between stakeholders’ satisfaction, achieved through harmonious relationships, and process efficiency, achieved through functional relationships. The greater the extent of both relational characteristics (i.e., harmony and functionality), the greater the opportunity to achieve successful innovation implementation.

Sustainability in music festival management

Sustainability in festival and event management is closely related to the three traditional dimensions—economic, social, and environmental. Some studies have been devoted to sustainability management to achieve a better understanding of the actual interest of managers in the best practices for fostering the sustainable management of events. For example, Wickham et al. ( 2021 ) performed a qualitative analysis of 10 international music events and identified 14 best practices connected to sustainability. Economic sustainability was associated with attracting financial capital, artists, and performers; maintaining permanent management; and the reporting of event-related benefits. Social sustainability was associated with attracting experts and influential educators; the supply chain; and the reporting of event-related social benefits. Finally, environmental sustainability was associated with attendees and the behavior of supply chain partners.

At the same time, the research has clarified that the benefits connected to music festivals (e.g., financial and social benefits) are overestimated by participants and urban communities. Nevertheless, eventual negative effects, such as pollution, parking difficulties, and traffic congestion, are often anticipated and resolved by festival promoters (Han et al. 2017 ).

However, sustainability seems not to be a priority of music festivals. Dodds et al. ( 2020 ) found that 64% of Canadian music festivals included in their sample did not communicate about their sustainability practices. Moreover, only 6% of them concentrated their sustainability campaign on social media, even though the literature shows that active communication is critical for developing and maintaining good relationships with participants (Luonila and Kinnunen 2019 ). Contemporary music festivals have critical socio-spatial consequences and meanings; consumers try to co-create authentic experiences from their participation, even though the nature of such experiences can be considered a commercial imperative (Szmigin et al. 2017 ). Co-creation was connected to the sustainability of festivals in the work of Werner et al. ( 2019 ), who identified three categories of festivals attendees—the sustainable co-creation type, focused on the creation of an altruistic environment; the experience co-creation type, focused on the contradiction between real life and the experience of festivals; and the calculating co-creation type, who weight the processes of giving and acquiring value from the experience of festivals. In this sense, the benefits associated with music festivals are co-created by both attendees and organizers. Therefore, identifying the most relevant stakeholders is critical for the diffusion of the idea of festival sustainability.

Relationships and collaboration between festival managers and stakeholders, including the attendees’ perspectives, can foster the incorporation of sustainability practices. According to Hazel and Mason ( 2020 ), if sustainability is defined as a core value of music festivals, forms of collaboration such as sponsorship contracts can encourage the development of relationships among stakeholders who share the same sustainable values. Therefore, identifying the right stakeholders can bolster festivals’ financial and cultural components, as well help integrate the original value of festivals and sustainability needs (Hazel and Mason 2020 ; Richardson 2018 ).

Musicians: identity and business models in the digital era

The complex nature of musicians’ identity.

The identity of musicians in the modern competitive music industry has been widely discussed in the literature. Schediwy et al. ( 2018 ) identified the dualistic nature of the scientific debate. On one hand, there is a considerable number of contributions that glorify the bohemian nature of the music profession. On the other hand, other papers recognize that assuming an entrepreneurial attitude is an unavoidable need for musicians. Moreover, keeping a stable identity is challenging for musicians, due to the instability of income, uncertainty, and exploitative tendencies in the market.

Schediwy et al. ( 2018 ) found that the separation between the bohemian and the entrepreneurial identity of musicians is less evident in young musicians. In particular, two factors contribute to the formation of musicians’ identity, open-mindedness and career-mindedness, which combine the bohemian nature of the music profession with the necessary market orientation.

The relationship between musicians’ artistic and entrepreneurial identity has been recently studied by Pizzolitto ( 2021 ). His research revealed the profound dilemma between musicians’ traditional view of the art and the necessity to change and adapt their business models depending on the economic conditions. Everts and Haynes ( 2021 ) studied the contexts of the British and Dutch music markets and found that musicians’ entrepreneurial identity is based on the rapid change of musical contexts and local contexts. The Netherlands has been building an institutionalized pathway to let musicians’ artistic needs meet their entrepreneurial sensibility. Nevertheless, according to their research, the conditions that musicians have to face in pursuing their music careers are extremely complex. For example, opportunities are inversely proportional to the number of young aspiring musicians; only a small proportion of musicians achieve a successful career; and digitalization, which seemed to be a possible way to increase the number of successful independent musicians, will probably reduce their opportunities over time.

This tendency is quite common in the world. Güven ( 2020 ) considered the music environment in Turkey and found that musicians there are experiencing increasing difficulties in their creative work. In fact, they do not talk about solidarity in the music world. Instead, they talk of the increasing commodification of music where solid experience and career building seem to be an illusion. Therefore, we have to ask why there are always more young people trying to establish a career in music (Everts and Haynes 2021 ).

The changing and multifaced business models of musicians

Musicians need to diversify their business models by composing, producing, and distributing their music. Given the degree of technological evolution, understanding the future of independent musicians’ business models is complicated. A considerable number of musicians have experienced a decline after the digital revolution in terms of professional studio performance and recording (Herbst and Albrecht 2018 ). Nevertheless, in this framework, music is the principal service in a portfolio of services entirely managed by musicians (Eiriz and Leite 2017 ). Therefore, even if a musician’s self-image and career goals remained the same before and after the digital revolution, there is a general consensus in the music market regarding the fact that the way to achieve career objectives has changed (Schwetter 2016 ).

In new business models, collaboration and cooperation between governmental and non-governmental organizations, among different kinds of art and culture, and among artists seems to guarantee partial independence from record contracts (Ibrahimova 2019 ). For example, in the hip hop environment, Carter and Welsh ( 2018 ) found that collaboration among rappers increases their visibility. Among hip hop artists, there is a tendency to abandon record contracts to pursue a solitary career. A specific example is Alessandro Aleotti (alias J Ax) in Italy who in 2013 decided to quit his contract with New Sound and start his own record label called Newtopia with another famous Italian hip hop artist, Federico Leonard Lucia (alias Fedez).

The choices of independent musicians and labels about where and what to record are extremely contextual and related to the need for non-traditional recording locations (Walzer 2016 ). The role of musicians, producers, and labels are often linked and therefore confused. Consequently, the quantification of their contribution to the production of independent music is complex. Nevertheless, the evidence shows that producers’, musicians’, and sound engineers’ contributions are critical for communication during the decision-making process (Walzer 2016 ).

In summary, the evidence in the literature underlines the complexity of the music market for musicians. This precondition could lead to the reasonable conclusion that musicians should dedicate much more time to the commercial side of their work. Nevertheless, and counterintuitively, publications show that musicians still devote most of their time to creative work. Everts et al. ( 2021 ) studied the early career experiences of Dutch musicians and found that the strong dynamicity of the music industry does not change the perceived high value of being musicians. In fact, musicians do not spend their time trying to boost their position on social networks because they perceive that the funds needed to flourish in that environment are becoming prohibitive. Therefore, they devote their time to creation and to the development of their fan base outside the internet. Finally, they show to enjoy the entrepreneurial part of their activity.

Consequently, the digital revolution, together with the persisting situation of oligopoly in the market, allowed musicians to abandon the idea of record contracts and to embrace self-promotion through self-publishing and self-management (Schwetter 2016 ). The instability of direct revenue experienced by independent musicians and labels resulted in a substantial change after the digital revolution. The digitalization of music had a dramatic impact on musicians’ activity, particularly for independent musicians who are becoming more than composers and who are developing entrepreneurial skills that were traditionally the purview of labels and agencies (Eiriz and Leite 2017 ). Moreover, laws and regulation for the management of copyright have been designed to improve consumers’ interests and rights and show weakness in the connection between copyright and the collective needs of management organizations, thus resulting in an unfair advantage for major labels (Schroff and Street 2017 ).

Future research opportunities

Based on the content analysis in the previous section, multiple future research opportunities can be identified. These opportunities emerge with the same distribution as the themes and subthemes from the grounded theory analysis. Table ​ Table1 1 presents a summary of the most relevant research questions that have been deduced from the articles’ contents.

Concerning the role of digitalization in the revolution of the music market, the analysis showed that it contributed to recovering from the previous period of stagnation (e.g., Dellyana et al. 2017 ). Therefore, future research can examine the contribution of specific factors that may or may not be connected with the technological revolution in more depth. In particular, it can concentrate more on the new forms of financing (e.g., crowdfunding) and their influence on the growth of the music industry. Moreover, researchers can perform in-depth analysis of the determinants of the major labels’ ability to maintain their leadership position after the digital revolution (Guichardaz et al. 2019 ). In particular, researchers can concentrate on the effect of a set of variables that exclude financial logic. Furthermore, as this market condition allows two different levels of competition, researchers could focus on the commonalities and differences that can emerge from the study of this dualism.

Trabucchi et al. ( 2017 ) reflected on the opportunity for artists and labels to base their competition strategies on the concept of “meaning.” More conceptual papers on this topic should be published to allow music actors to embrace new strategies connected to this concept. In particular, theoretical articles could help artists and labels better connect their visions, missions, and brands in a practical execution of “meaning” for their products.

Concerning the position of major labels and their permanent leadership position in the market, research on this is based on consumers’ expectations about hedonic performances (Chen et al. 2018 ). In particular, the logic of differentiation could reduce the distance between the two levels of competition that emerged in the music market. Therefore, more research on single case studies is needed to understand what elements allow minor artists to emerge without having access to major artists’ financial and power-related assets. Specifically, research should concentrate on the conditions that allow the reduction or elimination of barriers that traditionally impede the emergence of minor artists and labels (e.g., Pillai et al. 2021 ; Walzer 2016 ). Finally, researchers should help minor labels and artists find better applications of existing technologies characterized by low costs.

One of the positive effects of the digital revolution is that the available technology allows artists and producers to be more creative in their work. Therefore, new variables have started to affect the basis of consumers’ access to music listening. Even if research has found some interesting connections between critical variables (e.g., advertising and reservation; Li et al. 2020 ) and the new forms of consumer access to music listening, more empirical research and case studies are needed to fully understand this phenomenon. Moreover, technology has made consumer research related to music easier and more efficient. Nevertheless, it seems that this condition has not changed the general competition in the music market. Therefore, more empirical research is needed to understand the mediators and moderators of consumers’ opportunities to satisfy their music needs via alternative music and independent artists. In other words, research should study new methods for improving the opportunities for minor artists and independent labels using the existing technological instruments.

Concerning the negative effects of the digital revolution on the music markets, research has focused on the complex conditions of local record and music stores. In this regard, more conceptual papers are needed to evaluate new forms of experiential content through which local record stores can overcome the current crisis. Moreover, empirical analyses should be performed to obtain a deeper understanding of the cultural elements that increase consumers’ tendency to avoid traditional purchasing methods.

Multiple papers have debated the role of music festivals in business and management studies. Music festivals are widely recognized as complex phenomena in which the management instruments needed to achieve results should be organized and planned using holistic and innovative logic (Laberschek et al. 2020 ). Empirical research in this field has been sufficiently developed, and the literature indirectly calls for more conceptual studies. Specifically, it seems that in this field, practice is more advanced and faster compared with theory. Therefore, theoretical research should concentrate on multidisciplinary issues to ensure that festival managers have opportunities to build their style while drawing on solid and consolidated theoretical foundations; this will limit the chaotic and unpredictable events occurring in festivals at present.

First, the theoretical papers concentrate on the connection between chaos theory and management, applying these connections to music festival management. It is necessary to theorize new advancements in chaos management before they are applied in practice. Music festival management needs to refer to innovative and challenging management theory to develop new methods of obtaining economic, financial, social, and sustainable results from the event organization.

Second, conceptual research should be performed to increase the understanding of elements that improve consumers’ experience during festivals. Theorizing about management methods for niche festivals in which a specific kind of music is considered can help organizations stimulate consumers’ experience. In particular, theoretical studies of the foundation of the internationalization of festivals referring specifically to niche festivals can be critical for finding solutions to management issues (da Cunha Brandão and Oliveira 2019 ).

Third, the literature firmly calls for a better understanding of the conceptual foundations of the concept of value in music festivals. Holism, post-co-creativism, and the control of socioeconomic turbulence and chaotic issues related to the management of festivals are widely recognized as powerful instruments for value creation (e.g., Gozini and Tseane-Gumbi 2017 ; Robertson et al. 2018 ). Moreover, co-creation and co-innovation seem to play a critical role in the panorama of actors involved in these events. Similar practical consideration represents a strong call for pushing conceptual analyses to a higher level; in this way, management theory can overcome the limitations of being directly connected to managerial practices and can achieve a superior stage of abstraction.

In addition to the need for theoretical research, more empirical research is needed on the role of the music market in sustainability issues. There is still a distance between the sincere interest in sustainability management and its realization (e.g., Richardson 2019 ; Raffay-Danyi and Formadi 2022 ). Therefore, empirical research should consider single and multiple case studies concerning the positive effect on consumers’ experience and the benefits resulting from the application of sustainability management practices. A case study should be performed using longitudinal logic to highlight differences in terms of praxis and results and to guide future management when it comes to investing time and resources in implementing such logic efficiently.

Finally, the literature revealed considerable interest in the dualism between music and profits. The problem of musicians being reluctant to be considered entrepreneurs has been studied in a number of empirical publications. A possible promising lens for analysis could come from the psychological theory of professional identity (e.g., Marcia 1966 ). In particular, the literature could benefit from more qualitative research based on in-depth interviews and surveys analyzing the status of musicians’ identities in depth. The final aim of this research is to understand what identity status can lead musicians to overcome the obstacle of their reluctance to consider music in the same manner as all other fields. In this sense, more historical research could be beneficial to overcome the dualism between art and entrepreneurship. Harbor ( 2020 ) demonstrated that a considerable number of marketing interventions were used during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to promote music concerts and the arts. More historical references to the connection between entrepreneurship and the arts could be helpful in overcoming this problematic dualism.

Discussion and managerial implications

In the last decade, the music market has been greatly affected by the digital revolution, and technology has caused profound internal changes. This revolution has increased the opportunity for the diffusion of music through several services, means, and platforms, even though the oligopoly of major labels has continued to dominate the market. Nevertheless, the exploitation of these new opportunities is limited by the high level of financial and technical resources needed to access innovative technologies. Therefore, although the digital revolution has increased opportunities for minor artists and labels, the competition is still divided into two levels—the oligopoly of major labels and artists and the super competition of minor labels and artists. To overcome this limitation, futuristic strategies need to be conceptualized and operationalized, and most probably they will be based on the concept of “meaning” (Trabucchi et al. 2017 ).

Papies and van Heerde ( 2017 ) identified concerts as one of the most powerful instruments through which minor artists can improve their opportunities to flourish. The empirical literature concentrates on understanding the effects of specific management styles on the organization of events and festivals. Therefore, there is evidence of the fundamental role that concerts and live events will play in the future. Events are seen as chaotic and complex phenomena in which managerial styles cannot be centered on the organization but have to be based on co-creation and co-innovation, promoting revolutionary organization initiatives to enhance opportunities for minor artists and labels to emerge and succeed. Co-creation and co-innovation should be achieved through the involvement of musicians, record labels, and consumers, resulting in a mutually useful network in which access to high levels of financial resources is not an issue. In this sense, the philosophy through which musicians should interpret their role in society has to change in order to promote their role as self-entrepreneurs and to develop their business identity.

This review led to the identification of numerous managerial implications, mainly concentrated on event and store management, sustainable management logic, and the condition of musicians in the market. In terms of improving consumer engagement, managers should place more emphasis on consumers’ preferences than on the cost of performance (Kim et al. 2022 ). The literature highlights that consumers are still interested in the principal product of the music market— music (Papies and van Heerde 2017 ). In this sense, particular attention has to be paid to music festivals and events. During festivals, the aesthetic of the offering has been recognized as a fundamental factor in achieving the events’ objectives. Furthermore, surprising consumers with unique stimuli is critical to increase their engagement (Loureiro et al. 2021 ). In fact, organizations should challenge the status quo by collecting as much information as possible on the changing nature of their audiences. Hiring a community manager who conducts research on social media and promotes events depending on the participants’ preferences can be a strategic factor in improving the quality of integrated communication between organizations and consumers and in increasing loyalty among attendees (Llopis-Amorós et al. 2018 ). Moreover, managers should go beyond adapting their organizations to the changes related to social media platforms and should build solid relationships with their customers, thus increasing the opportunity to achieve greater loyalty and improving their opportunity to involve consumers in the process of co-creation (Choi and Burnes 2017 ).

The literature discusses sustainable management logic. In general, overcoming the traditional barriers and roles in management logic seems to be fundamental for the future of marketing strategies in this field (Vendrell-Herrero 2018 ). In particular, Kullak et al. ( 2021 ) suggested that managers of minor organizations should develop and coordinate a network in which actors have access to relevant resources. Moreover, as there is evidence about the difficult conditions of advertisement-related returns, music suppliers should differentiate their policies depending on this variable. Li et al. ( 2020 ) recommended that managers should choose an ownership, subscription, or mixed-pricing model according to their level of advertisement returns.

Sustainable management in music should be achieved through improving communication between suppliers and customers. In particular, it is perceived as critical to develop technological tools to allow for the establishment and maintenance of a relationship between distributors and consumers (Tran et al. 2018 ). In this sense, the literature recognizes that the technological revolution is one of the most important opportunities for music managers to change their organizational logic. Technology “favour[s] smaller, more flexible companies that are more conducive to innovation” (Renard and Hallam 2018 , p 182). Firms should put their traditional models and decision-making procedures under review, concentrating on changing definition of “meaning” that music consumers adopt over time (Trabucchi et al. 2017 ).

The problem of sustainability has also been analyzed in light of the difficulties that small music enterprises face when it comes to accessing high levels of financial support. For example, Andersén et al. ( 2019 ) showed that to improve their growth opportunities, small firms can exploit their relationships with environmental-oriented suppliers and their ability to develop green purchasing capabilities. The sustainable management logic also relates to an improvement in the congruency between in-store background music and the purchase experience that sellers want their customers to have. The literature highlights the importance of the correlation between advertising, music, and all other stimuli and environments in which purchasing takes place (Michel et al. 2017 ). In fact, the correct combination of music and advertising can be useful for changing brand perceptions. For example, an intense sound and low pitch can communicate masculinity, whereas high-pitched sounds can communicate femininity (Zoghaib 2019 ). Moreover, empirical evidence has shown that major tones and faster tempos improve the purchase experience (Liu et al. 2022 ). Music associated with different levels of arousal can be used to manipulate consumers’ feelings; for instance, uncomfortable situations can be smoothed out through background music characterized by low levels of arousal (Roy and Das 2022 ). Stable tonal structures can induce cheerfulness, whereas unstable tonal structures communicate sadness (Zoghaib 2019 ). Therefore, if sellers want to prolong consumers’ purchasing experiences and in-store visits, they should choose music of a low tempo and volume (Michel et al. 2017 ).

The literature discusses the position of musicians in the music business. In particular, various articles debate the opportunities that music allows professionals depending on their level of popularity. For example, Papies and van Heerde ( 2017 ) observed that concerts are critical for both famous musicians and musicians who are not famous. For famous musicians, concerts represent an opportunity to consolidate their position in the market. For less famous artists, concerts should be considered marketing strategies to increase their popularity, that is, as launching pads for their future careers.

Conclusions

Music comprises a dynamic, complex, and chaotic environment in which futuristic management styles and co-creation, co-innovation, and post co-creation logics should be considered in planning and operationalizing strategies at every level of competition. Although the digital revolution has transformed many aspects of the music business and management, several issues continue to limit its evolution. This SLR clarified that in the future, a considerably relevant role will be played by events, festivals, and concerts whereby innovative managerial styles can overcome the complex conditions of minor artists and labels and allow them to flourish. Nevertheless, the picture of music generated from the literature is still evolving. The future of the field seems to demand higher levels of philosophy around business issues and management styles through which obstacles relating to the position of musicians as entrepreneurs will be overcome, and products will be considered for their meaning rather than for their cost.

Open access funding provided by Università degli Studi G. D'Annunzio Chieti Pescara within the CRUI-CARE Agreement. The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Data availability

Declarations.

The author has no competing interests to declare.

Publisher's Note

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• Published: 27 July 2021

Cultural Divergence in popular music: the increasing diversity of music consumption on Spotify across countries

• Pablo Bello   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2343-9617 1 &
• David Garcia   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2820-9151 2 , 3 , 4  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  8 , Article number:  182 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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• Cultural and media studies

The digitization of music has changed how we consume, produce, and distribute music. In this paper, we explore the effects of digitization and streaming on the globalization of popular music. While some argue that digitization has led to more diverse cultural markets, others consider that the increasing accessibility to international music would result in a globalized market where a few artists garner all the attention. We tackle this debate by looking at how cross-country diversity in music charts has evolved over 4 years in 39 countries. We analyze two large-scale datasets from Spotify, the most popular streaming platform at the moment, and iTunes, one of the pioneers in digital music distribution. Our analysis reveals an upward trend in music consumption diversity that started in 2017 and spans across platforms. There are now significantly more songs, artists, and record labels populating the top charts than just a few years ago, making national charts more diverse from a global perspective. Furthermore, this process started at the peaks of countries’ charts, where diversity increased at a faster pace than at their bases. We characterize these changes as a process of Cultural Divergence, in which countries are increasingly distinct in terms of the music populating their music charts.

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Introduction

Digitization is arguably the biggest change the music market has undergone over the last decades. In 2016, digital sales already accounted for more than half of the revenues of the music industry (Coelho and Mendes, 2019 ). There are innumerable aspects on which digitization has impacted how we listen, produce, and commercialize music. For example, digital music is distributed at a null marginal cost, meaning that digital audio can be reproduced ad infinitum without an extra cost on the side of the record label. For the consumer, streaming has had homologous effects. In streaming platforms, listening to new music does not carry an extra monetary cost, as a listener only pays a flat monthly fee to subscribe to a platform like Spotify Footnote 1 . This way, time and search costs are the only ones remaining in the way of music exploration. On the distribution side, online catalogs of music are orders of magnitude larger than those of physical stores due to the lack of space constraints, making a more diverse offer of music (Anderson, 2006 ). There is evidence that the increased availability of music has been accompanied by an enhanced diversity and quantity of music consumption (Datta et al., 2018 ). In this paper, we explore the evolution of global diversity in the past years and find a clear trend towards global diversity in the music market.

Concerns of Cultural Convergence have been part of the public debate for decades. European governments, in particular, have made attempts to protect national cultural industries either directly (e.g. radio quotas) or indirectly (e.g. subsidizing national film production) (Ferreira and Waldfogel, 2010 ; Waldfogel, 2018 ). Because digitization granted easier access to imported goods, predictions were that national cultural products were doomed, especially in smaller countries. Nonetheless, scientific research has not yet provided a definitive answer to whether this fear was well-grounded or not. There is evidence that digitization might have accelerated cultural convergence across countries in popular music (Gomez-Herrera et al., 2014 ; Verboord and Brandellero, 2018 ) while others find an increasing interest in national artists (Achterberg et al., 2011 ; Ferreira and Waldfogel, 2010 ). Discrepancies most likely stem from the inconsistency in the sample of countries included in these studies and the limited granularity of data available. Therefore, the question of whether digitization and streaming are currently propelling cultural convergence is open for debate. For similar cultural products, such as YouTube videos, global convergence is limited by cultural values (Park et al., 2017 ).

The recent availability of datasets on music consumption across large numbers of countries has provided a way of overcoming some limitations of previous studies. In a recent example, Way and his collaborators, look at Spotify users’ listening behavior and find that “home bias”—the preference towards national artists—is on the rise globally (Way et al., 2020 ). A source of concern is the possible influence of a platform’s endogenous processes on the behavior of its users. For instance, what appears as an enhanced preference for national artists could be the result of changes in the recommendation algorithm. Alternatively, increased popularity of playlists like the New Music Friday, which are biased towards national artists (Aguiar and Waldfogel, 2018a ) could produce a similar effect. Although far from common, major changes in the recommendation system of Spotify happen, the latest one being announced in March of 2019 (Spotify, 2019 ). As a result, recommendations are now more personalized, which, if the nationality of a user is taken into account, could generate increasing divergence between countries by feeding users with national music. According to Spotify, up to one-fifth of their streams can be attributed to algorithmic recommendations (Anderson et al., 2020 ), which may be enough to sway macro-level trends in music consumption.

We deal with platform-specific confounders by supplementing our analysis of Spotify data with a dataset from iTunes. It must be noted, however, that changes similarly affecting both platforms may exist, such as the increasing use of recommendation systems or catalog expansions, as well as the mutual influence that would make these observations non-independent. Another caveat of using platform-specific data is the fact that users of such platforms might not be representative of the entire population. Spotify users are disproportionately young and male when compared to their countries’ population (Datta et al., 2018 ). Furthermore, the composition of users of a platform is in constant change and the timing of adoption correlates with individual listening habits. For instance, in Spotify, late adopters have a stronger preference for local music than those who joined the platform early on (Way et al., 2020 ). To minimize the impact of these issues, we reduce the sample of countries from the 59 available to 39, keeping those in which Spotify is strongly established. Therefore, we expect the population of users in these countries to be more stable than in recently incorporated ones such as India, in which market penetration is quickly expanding. Additionally, this can be considered as a within-sample comparison (Salganik, 2019 ), which, given the large user base of Spotify, is of interest in and on itself.

In this paper, we tackle the question of whether digitized music consumption is globalizing or not by looking at the ecology of the national music charts of Spotify and iTunes in the past few years. In other words, by observing the global diversity in the charts we can discern whether popular music is converging or diverging across countries. More diversity across countries would be a sign of Cultural Divergence. On the other hand, a decrease in diversity would be indicative of a process of Cultural Convergence across countries. We utilize the Rao-Stirling measure of diversity and its components (Stirling, 2007 ) to describe these trends. We find upward trends in the cross-national diversity of songs, artists, and labels, starting in 2017 in Spotify as well as in iTunes and ending in 2020 for Spotify. Popular music is thus diverging across countries in what we define as Cultural Divergence. To complement previous studies, we also look at the diversity of artists and labels and find that these have increased in parallel. Ultimately, this paper describes trends in popular music across a large sample of countries, giving a more clear perspective of the cultural dynamics in the digital era.

Research background

Winner-takes-all.

Cultural markets often exhibit a highly skewed distribution of success (e.g. Keuschnigg, 2015 , Salganik et al., 2006 ). In the music market in particular, a few hits expand across the globe while the majority of popular songs only hoard local success (see Fig. 1 ). Such inequalities are partly due to the scalability of cultural products, a property that refers to the fact that most of their cost is fixed – although this property does not apply to all cultural markets, being the art field an exception – while marginal costs are relatively low. For instance, once a song is recorded or a book is written, the cost of making another copy is insignificant when compared to the initial cost of producing it, measured in time, creativity, or money, making these products scalable to large audiences. As a result, demand is highly concentrated on the best alternatives, even when they are only marginally better than the rest (Rosen, 1981 ).

Bars represent the percentage of songs that got to the charts of exactly x countries. The green line represents the total number of streams that songs on each bin have accumulated while in the charts, as a measure of popularity in the period of analysis (2017-mid 2020).

Oftentimes this is an oversimplified view, since quality in cultural products is hard to define, and it is perceived (between others) as a function of previous success, thus creating path dependencies in the popularity of cultural products and artists. This process can be viewed as one in which information is accumulated, with consumers relying on it to moderate the quality uncertainty of their selection of cultural products (Giles, 2007 ). Information is aggregated in the form of consumer reviews, sales rankings, or top charts. In a pathbreaking experimental study, Salganik et al. ( 2006 ) found that information on other listener’s musical preferences results in an amplified inequality of popularity when compared to a world of independent listeners. Using social cues in the form of aggregated information might be beneficial for individuals in cultural markets in which preference is a matter of taste, but there are multiple strategies to leverage such information and its fit varies between individuals (Analytis et al., 2018 ). In the case of artists, during their careers, “small differences in talent become magnified in larger earning differences” (Rosen, 1981 ). This “superstar effect”—defined as the previous success of an artist—is the most important predictor of the popularity of a song, even when controlling for other factors (Interiano et al., 2018 ). Thus, the huge inequalities of success stemming from the scalability of cultural products and the social influence mechanisms intervening in their spread allows for the possibility of a few songs and artists to dominate the charts across the globe.

In principle, both scalability, as well as social influence processes, may have gained bearing after digitization and streaming. On the one hand, digitization reduced the marginal costs of music production by eliminating the need to manufacture an album. Some transaction costs for digital music remain, such as copyrights and distributing platform fees, but overall, the barriers for music to flow across countries are substantially lower than in the pre-digital era. On the other hand, information is more abundant than ever before. Users can get near-real-time data on the listening decisions of millions of other users. On Spotify, anyone can search through the Top 50 playlists tailored for every country. Each of them contains the most popular songs on the platform, which are updated daily. These playlists are extremely popular among users, for instance, the Top 50 Global has over 15 million followers. This deluge of information is complemented with second-order feedback effects (Easley and Kleinberg, 2010 ) such as recommender systems, which might be luring listeners towards the most popular songs. For Spotify, there is evidence that users who rely more heavily on algorithmic recommendations listen to less diverse music and podcasts than those who discover music for themselves (Anderson et al., 2020 , Holtz et al., 2020 ). In short, there are arguments to think that the winner-takes-all effects characteristic of the music market might be gaining bearing under the digital regime, decreasing the diversity and increasing the concentration of the market in the hands of a few hit songs, superstar artists, and major labels.

The long tail

The idea of the long tail, first proposed by Anderson ( 2004 ) in a widely circulated press article sustains that online retailing has led to increased diversity in the consumption of music. This happened because online retailers do not have the limitations of shelf space that traditional brick-and-mortar stores have, and so their catalogs can be virtually unlimited in size. The unlimited digital space can be filled with niche products that do not attract huge audiences but, bit by bit, make a difference in terms of profits generated. In the book following his article, Anderson ( 2006 ) goes beyond the original argument, suggesting that the Internet has a carrying capacity for cultural products previously unattainable and its impact on cultural markets has been broader than initially expected. Not only the distribution but also the production of cultural goods has thrived as a result of the new technologies for distribution (e.g. online retailers), production (e.g. cheaper software), and consumption (e.g. flat fees). Some have even qualified these changes as a renaissance of cultural markets (Waldfogel, 2018 ).

More recently, Aguiar and Waldfogel have argued that the idea of the long tail fails to account for the unpredictability of success in cultural markets (Aguiar and Waldfogel, 2018b ; Waldfogel, 2017 , 2020 ). When confronted with new artists, for instance, record labels have a scant capacity to assess what will be the success of those artists. Under such uncertainty, producers strive to pick those with better prospects but there will inevitably be miscalculations (e.g. the infamous Decca audition of The Beatles) and artists that were deemed unworthy of being promoted will end up reaping huge success, and the same in the opposite direction. In other words, before digitization, market intermediaries held most of the decision power over which products or artists were worthy of being produced and which ones did not, the inevitable result of which was that some hits were lost. The reduced costs of production and promotion of digital cultural goods have made possible the production of these products. Unlike what the original idea of the long tail proposed, not all of them will be niche products and some will end up achieving unexpected popularity. The same goes for independent record labels, which now have better opportunities to promote their artists even with small budgets. There is evidence that indie artists and labels have gained relevance under the digital music regime (Coelho and Mendes, 2019 ). For instance, top-selling albums in the US produced by independent labels increased from 12% in 2000 to 35% in 2010 (Waldfogel, 2015 ).

Waldfogel and Aguiar refer to this phenomenon as the random long tail of music production. The random long tail contains those cultural goods that despite not being attractive to traditional intermediaries can be brought into production and, due to the inherent unpredictability of cultural markets, sometimes reach unexpected success. Accordingly, the more unpredictable a cultural market is, the greater the number of unexpected hits. For instance, the success of songs is more difficult to predict than that of movies, whose box-office earnings heavily depend on the budget and cast of the film (Aguiar and Waldfogel, 2018b ). In summary, these studies put forward a vision of the music market in the digital era as more diverse and unpredictable.

Methods and data

Although there are multiple approaches to the study of diversity in social phenomena, Stirling’s ( 2007 ) is one of the most influential and widely applied. More importantly, the Rao–Stirling diversity index has already been used to study diversity in music taste, although at a different level of analysis than here (Park et al., 2015 ; Way et al., 2019 ). The Rao–Stirling index consists of three components: variety, balance, and disparity.

Variety is a function of the number of distinct units (songs, artists, or labels) in the charts on a given day. The more unique units the more variety there is in the charts. Naturally, in the case of songs variety is bounded by the fact that the same song cannot occupy more than one chart position per country so changes in variety should be interpreted, rather than the absolute size of the indicators (which also applies to the other measures of song diversity). We measure variety as the number of distinct units divided by the total number of chart positions. Balance refers to how evenly distributed the system is across units. Here we measure balance as 1−Gini, a common measure of the inequality of a distribution. In this case, it is the distribution of chart positions across songs, artists, or labels. The more equally distributed positions are the higher the balance in the system. Importantly, balance does not give any information about the number of units in the charts (variety). For instance, label balance would be highest if two labels produce all the songs in the charts with equal shares as well as if every song in the charts was produced by a different label (and there were no songs in more than one chart-country). The disparity is defined not by categories themselves but by the qualities of such categories or elements. In other words, the disparity is a measure of how different the elements of a system are. We define the qualities of a song by its acoustic features Footnote 2 and then calculate the euclidean distance between songs. In the case of artists, we define them by the central tendency of the acoustic features of their songs on the charts. The Rao–Stirling index combines variety, balance, and disparity into a single indicator of diversity Footnote 3 .

Additionally, we introduce Zeta diversity, a measure from biology. Zeta diversity was developed by Hui and McGeoch ( 2014 ) to tackle the issues with pairwise measures of diversity. Aggregated pairwise distance measures are consistently biased (Baselga, 2013 ) and, when the number of sites (countries) is large, they approximate their upper limit (Hui and McGeoch, 2014 ). More importantly, Zeta diversity gives a more nuanced view of the interplay between global and local hits. The distribution of the number of countries in which a song reaches the charts is right-skewed, as shown in Fig. 1 , meaning that most songs enter the charts of just one or two countries. As a consequence, what aggregated measures such as Rao–Stirling mainly capture is the effect of local hits. The influence of global hits is mostly null in such measures because of their paucity. Zeta diversity, on the other hand, measures distances at multiple orders. For instance, Zeta of order 3 ( ζ 3 ) represents the expected number of songs shared by groups of three countries. It is calculated by looking at all possible combinations of three countries and calculating the number of songs that each group shares. Higher orders or Zeta (e.g. songs shared by groups of 10 or more countries) capture the prevalence of more global hits. Here, we characterize Zeta by its central tendency, but other options are possible. As the order of Zeta increases its value decreases monotonically since there are always fewer songs charting in groups of three countries than in groups of two. In short, Zeta diversity gives us a more nuanced view of the distribution of success of songs across the charts compared to other diversity measures.

The data for the study comes from Spotify’s top 200 charts and iTunes’ top 100. We illustrate the analysis focusing on Spotify’s data because of the larger sample of countries (39 vs. 19). The entire list of countries can be found in Supplementary Table S1 online. Because iTunes data could not be retrieved from an official source (instead we obtained it through Kworb.com), the results are reported only as a means of externally validating our main findings. Spotify’s data covers the period from 2017-01-01 to 2020-06-20, iTunes top 100 daily charts for the period 2013-08-14 to 2020-07-16.

Figure 2 shows distances between countries as a function of the songs shared between their charts within a year. Countries appear geographically clustered. One cluster is formed by Western countries of which Spain is the exception, being part of a different cluster, together with the Latin American countries. The third cluster encapsulates the Asian countries and Brazil. There are some noticeable anomalies, such as the closeness between Turkey and Brazil. Upon closer examination, most of the songs shared between them are produced in the United States. This is likely the result of the small market penetration of Spotify, making for a user base of early adopters more internationally oriented. Alternatively, it could be the result of a small catalog of local music. In any case, the observable consequence is an over-representation of international (and mainly US) hits in both countries’ charts.

Jaccard distances calculated over annually constructed incidence matrices. Countries are colored according to the continent they belong to (red: Americas, yellow: Europe, blue: Asia, Green: Oceania).

Although positions are fairly stable over the years, if anything, clusters of countries seem to consolidate, being these three groups more clearly discernible in 2020 than in 2017. Following Park et al. ( 2017 ) we also look at the relationship between countries as a projection of the two-mode network between countries and songs. The modularity of the network indicates the degree to which countries are clustered into modules beyond what would be expected on a random network. Modularity increased consistently from 2017 up to 2020 (see Supplementary Fig. S4 ) indicating that countries within clusters are becoming more similar in their music charts and, at the same time, drifting away from other clusters. These results are consistent with general notions of cultural, geographical, and linguistic distance which elsewhere have been proved to be the main determinants of music taste similarities between countries (Moore et al., 2014 ; Pichl et al., 2017 ; Schedl et al., 2017 ) although with a few exceptions such as the above-mentioned.

Seen as a whole, the diversity of songs, artists, and labels has increased during this period. Variety has grown not only on Spotify but on iTunes as well (Fig. 3 ). The resemblance between the two trends is startling, especially if we consider how different these platforms are, one being a streaming platform with growing popularity (Spotify) while the other (iTunes) is a digital music shop whose user base is in decay. The resemblance between the trends points to the external validity of the observations, although there could be some degree of influence between the platforms and thus they cannot be regarded as completely independent observations. The upward tendency in variety starts in 2017 and plateaus at the end of 2019 on Spotify while it keeps increasing in iTunes.

Values range from 0 (same set of songs in every country) to 1 (no overlap between the charts). Calculated for countries in both datasets (16 countries) and the same chart size (100 positions). Time series are calculated with daily frequency and smoothed over a 10-day window. Both Spotify and iTunes display consistent trends of increasing variety over time.

The increase in song diversity can be observed in Fig. 4 . Balance, disparity, and variety have all increased during the period. The disparity indicator also shows a strong seasonal burst around Christmas. This is consistent with other findings, suggesting that in countries in the Northern Hemisphere musical intensity declines around Christmas while the opposite is true for the Southern Hemisphere (Park et al., 2019 ). Overall diversity (Rao–Stirling index) rises from 2017 up to 2020 and then plateaus. Hence, not only there are more distinct songs in the charts (variety) but these are acoustically more dissimilar (disparity) and their distribution over the chart slots is more equal (balance) than at the beginning of the period.

Diversity, measured as balance, disparity, variety, or a combination of them, has been increasing consistently across countries with a plateau at the beginning of the year 2020. Besides the secular growth, disparity shows a strong seasonal component centered around Christmas.

As for songs, the diversity of artists has also grown. However, the trend is distinct at the head of the charts than at the bottom. By slicing charts at certain ranking positions we create a top 10, top 50, and top 200 for each country. When it comes to balance and variety, the increase has been more pronounced at the head of the charts, which already presented a higher level at the beginning of the observed period. However, disparity is lowest within the top 10, indicating that the group of artists with songs on the head of the charts are stylistically more similar than those who just make it to the charts (a group that subsumes the former). What we can derive from these trends is that, while there are proportionally more unique artists at the top of the charts, the music that those artists produce is relatively similar, as if there was an acoustic “recipe” for reaching the peak of the charts. In general, artist diversity as a whole has increased at a similar pace across strata of the charts (Fig. 5 c).

All the components of artist diversity have increased steadily during the period. As for songs, artist disparity bursts around Christmas. While balance and variety are higher at the peak of the charts, disparity shows the opposite pattern.

The increasing diversity of songs and artists in the charts has been accompanied by a more equally distributed market for record labels (Fig. 6 a). Again, the trend is steeper if we look only at the head of the charts. The number of distinct labels with at least one song in the charts has also increased in a stratified manner (Fig. 6 b). In general, labels had on average fewer artists and songs on the charts at the end of the period. While in the first 6 months of 2017 labels had on average 5.88 songs on the charts (and 2.19 artists), for the first half of 2020 it was one less song (and only 1.66 artists). Interestingly, the number of songs that each artist got on the charts has increased slightly, going from 2.67 in 2017 to 2.96 in 2020 (comparing the first half of each year).

The left panel shows the balance of labels over time for three sizes of the top chart, displaying increases over time especially for the highest positions in the chart. The right panel shows the variety of labels on the charts. The same patterns as for balance can be observed.

We can take a closer look at the interplay between local and global hits through the Zeta diversity measure. Figure 7 presents the results for monthly Zeta diversity measures of orders 2—which is equivalent to pairwise distances—up to 20—the mean number of common songs shared by groups of 20 countries. We observe that across all orders of Zeta the mean diversity tends to decrease with time (brighter colors) which is consistent with the previous results Footnote 4 . When we look at the decay of Z -values along orders of Zeta ( x -axis) we observe that it gets steeper over time. In other words, the slope of the regression with Z -values ( y -axis) as a dependent variable and Z -order ( x -axis) as a predictor gets greater with time. Table 1 presents the results of a linear regression model that shows the increase in steepness over time. The substantive interpretation is that global hits have taken the lion’s share of the increase in diversity, becoming an increasingly rare phenomenon.

The x -axis represents the order of Zeta and the y -axis the z -value, or mean percentage of songs shared across groups of x countries. Both axes are represented on a log10 scale. The function of Zeta with order shifts down over time and becomes steeper.

By analyzing 4 years of data of music charts in 39 countries, we find clear evidence of increased diversity in the music charts across countries. In the short period covered by this study, the number of unique songs, artists, and labels on the charts in our sample of countries has grown considerably. Despite the concerns expressed by several governments, particularly in Europe (Waldfogel, 2018 , p. 220), popular music is not increasingly globalized. Instead, countries’ popular music was amidst a process of Cultural Divergence that seemed to have come to a halt at the end of the observed period. The increase in diversity seems to be driven by a segmentation of the music market rather than an evenly heightened idiosyncrasy of music consumption. In other words, countries that were already close to one another in taste are becoming more similar but increasingly different from other clusters of countries. Such clusters appear strongly determined, but not only, by geographical and cultural distance. Research shows that regional clusters also differ in the acoustic properties of the music that their populations listen to (Park et al., 2019 ). Therefore, although diversity is usually taken as a positive trait of a system, the segmentation which is driving the increase in diversity can be a source of concern.

We also show that diversity has been on the rise in terms of artists and record labels. Particularly, the rise of label diversity rules out the possibility that the big labels are producing pop music fitted to different markets, as the proponents of glocalization would argue. As a consequence of these trends, not only songs might be increasingly distinct across countries, but also their production and distribution.

Whether it is the preferences of users or shifts in the production and distribution of music that are driving these changes is not clear. The possibility that Cultural Divergence is the result of a random long tail in music production is more consistent with the pace and ubiquity of these changes than preference-based accounts of the same phenomenon. Therefore, as an alternative to preference-based explanations of the increase in home bias (Way et al., 2020 ) and global diversity, we propose that these observations could be explained by changes in music production. One first source of concern with the preference-based explanation stems from the speed and ubiquity of the observed changes. Cultural shifts of this scale are generally slow, comparable in speed to the evolution of traits in animal populations (Lambert et al., 2020 ). Also, there is evidence that changes in the aggregated preferences of a population are mostly driven by generational replacement (Vaisey and Lizardo, 2016 ). Instead, we argue that field configurations can more rapidly sway macro-patterns by conditioning the opportunities of individuals. In the case of music, the random long tail of music production may have increased the available options of users to express their idiosyncratic preferences, which, being to some extent geographically determined (Ferreira and Waldfogel, 2010 ; Gomez-Herrera et al., 2014 ; Way et al., 2020 ), would likely result in national music charts drifting away from each other.

Methodologically, this research shows the potential of Zeta diversity, a measure devised for the study of biodiversity, to gauge the globalization of cultural products at different levels. Since truly global hits are extremely rare phenomena when compared to songs that reach in small groups of culturally similar countries, they carry very low weight when calculating pairwise distances, which is a common way of looking at cross-national diversity. National charts could drift apart without affecting the likelihood of the eventual hit to spread globally and conventional pairwise measures would not pick this dynamic. As we show, this has not been the case for the music market, in which the positive trend in diversity has been accompanied by a significant decrease in the spread of global hits. The application of Zeta diversity is not without issues, one of them being that its calculation is computationally demanding when compared with the other measures of diversity presented here, because of its combinatorial nature. In return, it offers relatively stable estimates of rare events, a useful feature when studying heavy-tailed distributions in general, and cultural markets in particular, in which global hits are highly unlikely but more consequential in terms of collective attention than the more common local hits. More broadly, our analysis applies mathematical methods from ecology to analyze the consumption of cultural content. This interface between disciplines has other applications, for example, to understand the dynamical reorganization of user activity on social media (Palazzi et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, our work builds on existing literature utilizing methods from ecology to study musical taste and consumption (Park et al., 2015 ; Way et al., 2019 ).

To conclude, our results run counter to the notion of an unbounded market that can be distilled from the idea of globalization. It also challenges the expectations of the winner-takes-all set of theories that predict heightened inequality in the distribution of success under decreased restrictions to global expansion. Instead, the music market has become, in this short period, more hostile to the spread of hits across the globe. From a positive perspective, this means that “national cultures” are not disappearing, although this might come at the expense of a more segmented market in bundles of culturally similar countries, and the risks associated with such segmentation if spread, for instance, from esthetic to normative judgments.

Data availability

Data and code for the analyses are available at https://github.com/PabloBelloDelpon/Spotify_paper .

Users also have the option to get free access to a limited version of the platform, which is ad-supported.

Spotify measures the acoustic features of each song and groups them into the followingcategories, all of which we include in the analysis: danceability, energy, key, loudness, mode,speechiness, acousticness, instrumentalness, liveness, valence, tempo, and duration.

More precisely, Rao–Stirling is calculated as in Stirling ( 2007 ): D  = ∑ it ( i ≠ j ) d ij   ⋅   p i   ⋅   p j , where p i and p j are the proportions of elements i and j in the system and did is the euclidean distance between their respective acoustic representations.

Zeta diversity is measured in the opposite direction than the previous indicators of diversity. Higher values indicate more overlap of songs across charts and smaller values indicate less overlap.

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Acknowledgements

D.G. acknowledges funding from the Vienna Science and Technology Fund (WWTF) through project VRG16-005. We thank Marc Keuschnigg and Paul Schuler for their insightful comments on previous versions of this article.

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Bello, P., Garcia, D. Cultural Divergence in popular music: the increasing diversity of music consumption on Spotify across countries. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 8 , 182 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00855-1

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EDITORIAL article

Editorial: the impact of music on human development and well-being.

• 1 Department of Culture, Communication and Media, University College London, London, United Kingdom
• 2 Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
• 3 School of Humanities and Communication Arts, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
• 4 Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Editorial on the Research Topic The Impact of Music on Human Development and Well-Being

Music is one of the most universal ways of expression and communication for humankind and is present in the everyday lives of people of all ages and from all cultures around the world ( Mehr et al., 2019 ). Hence, it seems more appropriate to talk about musics (plural) rather than in the singular ( Goble, 2015 ). Furthermore, research by anthropologists as well as ethnomusicologists suggests that music has been a characteristic of the human condition for millennia (cf. Blacking, 1976 ; Brown, 1999 ; Mithen, 2005 ; Dissanayake, 2012 ; Higham et al., 2012 ; Cross, 2016 ). Nevertheless, whilst the potential for musical behavior is a characteristic of all human beings, its realization is shaped by the environment and the experiences of individuals, often within groups ( North and Hargreaves, 2008 ; Welch and McPherson, 2018 ). Listening to music, singing, playing (informally, formally), creating (exploring, composing, improvising), whether individually and collectively, are common activities for the vast majority of people. Music represents an enjoyable activity in and of itself, but its influence goes beyond simple amusement.

These activities not only allow the expression of personal inner states and feelings, but also can bring about many positive effects in those who engage in them. There is an increasing body of empirical and experimental studies concerning the wider benefits of musical activity, and research in the sciences associated with music suggests that there are many dimensions of human life—including physical, social, educational, psychological (cognitive and emotional)—which can be affected positively by successful engagement in music ( Biasutti and Concina, 2013 ). Learning in and through music is something that can happen formally (such as part of structured lessons in school), as well as in other-than-formal situations, such as in the home with family and friends, often non-sequentially and not necessarily intentional, and where participation in music learning is voluntary, rather than mandated, such as in a community setting (cf. Green, 2002 ; Folkestad, 2006 ; Saether, 2016 ; Welch and McPherson, 2018 ).

Such benefits are evidenced across the lifespan, including early childhood ( Gerry et al., 2012 ; Williams et al., 2015 ; Linnavalli et al., 2018 ), adolescence ( McFerran et al., 2018 ), and older adulthood ( Lindblad and de Boise, 2020 ). Within these lifespan perspectives, research into music's contribution to health and well-being provides evidence of physical and psychological impacts ( MacDonald et al., 2013 ; Fancourt and Finn, 2019 ; van den Elzen et al., 2019 ). Benefits are also reported in terms of young people's educational outcomes ( Guhn et al., 2019 ), and successful musical activity can enhance an individual's sense of social inclusion ( Welch et al., 2014 ) and social cohesion ( Elvers et al., 2017 ).

This special issue provides a collection of 21, new research articles that deepen and develop our understanding of the ways and means that music can impact positively on human development and well-being. The collection draws on the work of 88 researchers from 17 different countries across the world, with each article offering an illustration of how music can relate to other important aspects of human functioning. In addition, the articles collectively illustrate a wide range of contemporary research approaches. These provide evidence of how different research aims concerning the wider benefits of music require sensitive and appropriate methodologies.

In terms of childhood and adolescence, for example, Putkinen et al. demonstrate how musical training is likely to foster enhanced sound encoding in 9 to 15-year-olds and thus be related to reading skills. A separate Finnish study by Saarikallio et al. provides evidence of how musical listening influences adolescents' perceived sense of agency and emotional well-being, whilst demonstrating how this impact is particularly nuanced by context and individuality. Aspects of mental health are the focus for an Australian study by Stewart et al. of young people with tendencies to depression. The article explores how, despite existing literature on the positive use of music for mood regulation, music listening can be double-edged and could actually sustain or intensify a negative mood.

A Portuguese study by Martins et al. shifts the center of attention from mental to physical benefits in their study of how learning music can support children's coordination. They provide empirical data on how a sustained, 24-week programme of Orff-based music education, which included the playing of simple tuned percussion instruments, significantly enhanced the manual dexterity and bimanual coordination in participant 8-year-olds compared to their active control (sports) and passive control peers. A related study by Loui et al. in the USA offers insights into the neurological impact of sustained musical instrument practice. Eight-year-old children who play one or more musical instruments for at least 0.5 h per week had higher scores on verbal ability and intellectual ability, and these correlated with greater measurable connections between particular regions of the brain related to both auditory-motor and bi-hemispheric connectivity.

Younger, pre-school children can also benefit from musical activities, with associations being reported between informal musical experiences in the home and specific aspects of language development. A UK-led study by Politimou et al. found that rhythm perception and production were the best predictors of young children's phonological awareness, whilst melody perception was the best predictor of grammar acquisition, a novel association not previously observed in developmental research. In another pre-school study, Barrett et al. explored the beliefs and values held by Australian early childhood and care practitioners concerning the value of music in young children's learning. Despite having limited formal qualifications and experience of personal music learning, practitioners tended overall to have positive attitudes to music, although this was biased toward music as a recreational and fun activity, with limited support for the notion of how music might be used to support wider aspects of children's learning and development.

Engaging in music to support a positive sense of personal agency is an integral feature of several articles in the collection. In addition to the Saarikallio team's research mentioned above, Moors et al. provide a novel example of how engaging in collective beatboxing can be life-enhancing for throat cancer patients in the UK who have undergone laryngectomy, both in terms of supporting their voice rehabilitation and alaryngeal phonation, as well as patients' sense of social inclusion and emotional well-being.

One potential reason for these positive findings is examined in an Australian study by Krause et al. . They apply the lens of self-determination theory to examine musical participation and well-being in a large group of 17 to 85-year-olds. Respondents to an online questionnaire signaled the importance of active music making in their lives in meeting three basic psychological needs embracing a sense of competency, relatedness and autonomy.

The use of public performance in music therapy is the subject of a US study by Vaudreuil et al. concerning the social transformation and reintegration of US military service members. Two example case studies are reported of service members who received music therapy as part of their treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder, traumatic brain injury, and other psychological health concerns. The participants wrote, learned, and refined songs over multiple music therapy sessions and created song introductions to share with audiences. Subsequent interviews provide positive evidence of the beneficial psychological effects of this programme of audience-focused musical activity.

Relatedly, McFerran et al. in Australia examined the ways in which music and trauma have been reported in selected music therapy literature from the past 10 years. The team's critical interpretive synthesis of 36 related articles led them to identify four different ways in which music has been used beneficially to support those who have experienced trauma. These approaches embrace the use of music for stabilizing (the modulation of physiological processes) and entrainment (the synchronization of music and movement), as well as for expressive and performative purposes—the fostering of emotional and social well-being.

The therapeutic potential of music is also explored in a detailed case study by Fachner et al. . Their research focuses on the nature of critical moments in a guided imagery and music session between a music therapist and a client, and evidences how these moments relate to underlying neurological function in the mechanics of music therapy.

At the other end of the age span, and also related to therapy, an Australian study by Brancatisano et al. reports on a new Music, Mind, and Movement programme for people in their eighties with mild to moderate dementia. Participants involved in the programme tended to show an improvement in aspects of cognition, particularly verbal fluency and attention. Similarly, Wilson and MacDonald report on a 10-week group music programme for young Scottish adults with learning difficulties. The research data suggest that participants enjoyed the programme and tended to sustain participation, with benefits evidenced in increased social engagement, interaction and communication.

The role of technology in facilitating access to music and supporting a sense of agency in older people is the focus for a major literature review by Creech , now based in Canada. Although this is a relatively under-researched field, the available evidence suggests that that older people, even those with complex needs, are capable of engaging with and using technology in a variety of ways that support their musical perception, learning and participation and wider quality of life.

Related to the particular needs of the young, children's general behavior can also improve through music, as exampled in an innovative, school-based, intensive 3-month orchestral programme in Italy with 8 to 10-year-olds. Fasano et al. report that the programme was particularly beneficial in reducing hyperactivity, inattention and impulsivity, whilst enhancing inhibitory control. These benefits are in line with research findings concerning successful music education with specific cases of young people with ADHD whose behavior is characterized by these same disruptive symptoms (hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity).

Extra-musical benefits are also reported in a study of college students (Bachelors and Masters) and amateur musicians in a joint Swiss-UK study. Antonini Philippe et al. suggest that, whilst music making can offer some health protective effects, there is a need for greater health awareness and promotion among advanced music students. Compared to the amateur musicians, the college music students evaluated their overall quality of life and general and physical health more negatively, as did females in terms of their psychological health. Somewhat paradoxically, the college students who had taken part in judged performances reported higher psychological health ratings. This may have been because this sub-group were slightly older and more experienced musicians.

Music appears to be a common accompaniment to exercise, whether in the gym, park or street. Nikol et al. in South East Asia explore the potential physical benefits of synchronous exercise to music, especially in hot and humid conditions. Their randomized cross-over study (2019) reports that “time-to-exhaustion” under the synchronous music condition was 2/3 longer compared to the no-music condition for the same participants. In addition, perceived exertion was significantly lower, by an average of 22% during the synchronous condition.

Comparisons between music and sport are often evidenced in the body of existing Frontiers research literature related to performance and group behaviors. Our new collection contains a contribution to this literature in a study by Habe et al. . The authors investigated elite musicians and top athletes in Slovenia in terms of their perceptions of flow in performance and satisfaction with life. The questionnaire data analyses suggest that the experience of flow appears to influence satisfaction with life in these high-functioning individuals, albeit with some variations related to discipline, participant sex and whether considering team or individual performance.

A more formal link between music and movement is the focus of an exploratory case study by Cirelli and Trehub . They investigated a 19-month-old infant's dance-like, motorically-complex responses to familiar and unfamiliar songs, presented at different speeds. Movements were faster for the more familiar items at their original tempo. The child had been observed previously as moving to music at the age of 6 months.

Finally, a novel UK-based study by Waddington-Jones et al. evaluated the impact of two professional composers who were tasked, individually, to lead a 4-month programme of group composing in two separate and diverse community settings—one with a choral group and the other in a residential home, both funded as part of a music programme for the Hull City of Culture in 2017. In addition to the two composers, the participants were older adults, with the residential group being joined by schoolchildren from a local Primary school to collaborate in a final performance. Qualitative data analyses provide evidence of multi-dimensional psychological benefits arising from the successful, group-focused music-making activities.

In summary, these studies demonstrate that engaging in musical activity can have a positive impact on health and well-being in a variety of ways and in a diverse range of contexts across the lifespan. Musical activities, whether focused on listening, being creative or re-creative, individual or collective, are infused with the potential to be therapeutic, developmental, enriching, and educational, with the caveat provided that such musical experiences are perceived to be engaging, meaningful and successful by those who participate.

Collectively, these studies also celebrate the multiplicity of ways in which music can be experienced. Reading across the articles might raise a question as to whether or not any particular type of musical experience is seen to be more beneficial compared with another. The answer, at least in part, is that the empirical evidence suggests that musical engagement comes in myriad forms along a continuum of more or less overt activity, embracing learning, performing, composing and improvising, as well as listening and appreciating. Furthermore, given the multidimensional neurological processing of musical experience, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that it is perhaps the level of emotional engagement in the activity that drives its degree of health and well-being efficacy as much as the activity's overt musical features. And therein are opportunities for further research!

Author Contributions

The editorial was drafted by GW and approved by the topic Co-editors. All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the Edited Collection, and have approved this editorial for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We are very grateful to all the contributing authors and their participants for their positive engagement with this Frontiers Research Topic, and also for the Frontiers staff for their commitment and support in bringing this topic to press.

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Keywords: music, wider benefits, lifespan, health, well-being

Citation: Welch GF, Biasutti M, MacRitchie J, McPherson GE and Himonides E (2020) Editorial: The Impact of Music on Human Development and Well-Being. Front. Psychol. 11:1246. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01246

Received: 12 January 2020; Accepted: 13 May 2020; Published: 17 June 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Welch, Biasutti, MacRitchie, McPherson and Himonides. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Graham F. Welch, graham.welch@ucl.ac.uk ; Michele Biasutti, michele.biasutti@unipd.it

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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The Top 10 Most Interesting Music Research Topics

Music is a vast and ever-growing field. Because of this, it can be challenging to find excellent music research topics for your essay or thesis. Although there are many examples of music research topics online, not all are appropriate.

This article covers all you need to know about choosing suitable music research paper topics. It also provides a clear distinction between music research questions and topics to help you get started.

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What makes a strong music research topic.

A strong music research topic must be short, straightforward, and easy to grasp. The primary aim of music research is to apply various research methods to provide valuable insights into a particular subject area. Therefore, your topic must also address issues that are relevant to present-day readers.

Also, for your research topic to be compelling, it should not be overly generic. Try to avoid topics that seem to be too broad. A strong research topic is always narrow enough to draw out a comprehensive and relevant research question.

Tips for Choosing a Music Research Topic

• Check with your supervisor. In some cases, your school or supervisor may have specific requirements for your research. For example, some music programs may favor a comparative instead of a descriptive or correlational study. Knowing what your institution demands is essential in choosing an appropriate research topic.
• Explore scientific papers. Journal articles are a great way to find the critical areas of interest in your field of study. You can choose from a wide range of journals such as The Journal of Musicology and The Journal of the Royal Musical Association . These resources can help determine the direction of your research.
• Determine your areas of interest. Choosing a topic you have a personal interest in will help you stay motivated. Researching music-related subjects is a painstakingly thorough process. A lack of motivation would make it difficult to follow through with your research and achieve optimal results.
• Confirm availability of data sources. Not all music topics are researchable. Before selecting a topic, you must be sure that there are enough primary and secondary data sources for your research. You also need to be sure that you can carry out your research with tested and proven research methods.
• Ask your colleagues: Asking questions is one of the many research skills you need to cultivate. A short discussion or brainstorming session with your colleagues or other music professionals could help you identify a suitable topic for your research paper.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

A research topic is a particular subject area in a much wider field that a researcher chooses to place his emphasis on. Most subjects are extensive. So, before conducting research, a researcher must first determine a suitable area of interest that will act as the foundation for their investigation.

Research questions are drawn from research topics. However, research questions are usually more streamlined. While research topics can take a more generic viewpoint, research questions further narrow the focus down to specific case studies or seek to draw a correlation between two or more datasets.

How to Create Strong Music Research Questions

Strong music research questions must be relevant and specific. Music is a broad field with many genres and possible research areas. However, your research question must focus on a single subject matter and provide valuable insights. Also, your research question should be based on parameters that can be quantified and studied using available research methods.

Top 10 Music Research Paper Topics

1. understanding changes in music consumption patterns.

Although several known factors affect how people consume music, there is still a significant knowledge gap regarding how these factors influence listening choices. Your music research paper could outline some of these factors that affect music consumer behavior and highlight their mechanism of action.

2. Hip-hop Culture and Its Effect on Teenage Behavior

In 2020, hip-hop and RnB had the highest streaming numbers , according to Statista. Without a doubt, hip-hop music has had a significant influence on the behavior of young adults. There is still the need to conduct extensive research on this subject to determine if there is a correlation between hip-hop music and specific behavioral patterns, especially among teenagers.

3. The Application of Music as a Therapeutic Tool

For a long time, music has been used to manage stress and mental health disorders like anxiety, PTSD, and others. However, the role of music in clinical treatment still remains a controversial topic. Further research is required to separate fact from fiction and provide insight into the potential of music therapy.

4. Contemporary Rock Music and Its Association With Harmful Social Practices

Rock music has had a great influence on American culture since the 1950s. Since its rise to prominence, it has famously been associated with vices such as illicit sex and abuse of recreational drugs. An excellent research idea could be to evaluate if there is a robust causal relationship between contemporary rock music and adverse social behaviors.

5. The Impact of Streaming Apps on Global Music Consumption

Technology has dramatically affected the music industry by modifying individual music consumption habits. Presently, over 487 million people subscribe to a digital streaming service, according to Statista. Your research paper could examine how much of an influence popular music streaming platforms like Spotify and Apple Music have had on how we listen to music.

6. Effective American Music Education Practices

Teaching practices have always had a considerable impact on students’ academic success. However, not all strategies have an equal effect in enhancing learning experiences for students. You can conduct comparative research on two or more American music education practices and evaluate their impact on learning outcomes.

7. The Evolution of Music Production in the Technology-driven Era

One of the aspects of music that is experiencing a massive change is sound production. More than ever before, skilled, tech-savvy music producers are in high demand. At the moment, music producers earn about $70,326 annually, according to ZipRecruiter. So, your research could focus on the changes in music production techniques since the turn of the 21st century.

8. Jazz Music and Its Influence on Western Music Genres

The rich history of jazz music has established it as one of the most influential genres of music since the 19th century. Over the years, several famous composers and leading voices across many other western music genres have been shaped by jazz music’s sound and culture. You could carry out research on the influence of this genre of music on modern types of music.

9. The Effect of Wars on Music

Wars have always brought about radical changes in several aspects of culture, including music styles. Throughout history, we have witnessed wars result in the death of famous musicians. If you are interested in learning about music history in relation to global events, a study on the impact of wars on music will make an excellent music research paper.

10. African Tribal Percussion

African music is well recognized for its unique application of percussion. Historically, several tribes and cultures had their own percussion instruments and original methods of expression. Unfortunately, this musical style has mainly gone undocumented. An in-depth study into ancient African tribal percussion would make a strong music research paper.

Other Examples of Music Research Topics & Questions

Music research topics.

• Popular musical styles of the 20th century
• The role of musical pieces in political movements
• Biographies of influential musicians during the baroque period
• The influence of classical music on modern-day culture
• The relationship between music and fashion

Music Research Questions

• What is the relationship between country music and conservationist ideologies among middle-aged American voters?
• What is the effect of listening to Chinese folk music on the critical thinking skills of high school students?
• How have electronic music production technologies influenced the sound quality of contemporary music?
• What is the correlation between punk music and substance abuse among Black-American males?
• How does background music affect learning and information retention in children?

Choosing the Right Music Research Topic

Your research topic is the foundation on which every other aspect of your study is built. So, you must select a music research topic that gives you room to adequately explore intriguing hypotheses and, if possible, proffer practically applicable solutions.

Also, if you seek to obtain a Bachelor’s Degree in Music , you must be prepared to conduct research during your study. Choosing the right music research topic is the first step in guaranteeing good grades and delivering relevant, high-quality contributions in this constantly expanding field.

Music Research Topics FAQ

A good music research topic should be between 10 to 12 words long. Long, wordy music essay topics are usually confusing. They can make it difficult for readers to understand the goal of your research. Avoid using lengthy phrases or vague terms that could confuse the reader.

Journal articles are the best place to find helpful resources for your music research. You can explore reputable, high-impact journal articles to see if any research has been done related to your chosen topic. Journal articles also help to provide data for comparison while carrying out your research.

Primary sources carry out their own research and cite their own data. In contrast, secondary sources report data obtained from a primary source. Although primary sources are regarded as more credible, you can include a good mixture of primary and secondary sources in your research.

The most common research methods for music research are qualitative, quantitative, descriptive, and analytical. Your research strategy is arguably the most crucial part of your study. You must learn different research methods to determine which one would be the perfect fit for your particular research question.

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Topics

120 Music Research Paper Topics

How to choose a topic for music research paper:.

Music Theory Research Paper Topics:

• The influence of harmonic progression on emotional response in music
• Analyzing the use of chromaticism in the compositions of Johann Sebastian Bach
• The role of rhythm and meter in creating musical tension and release
• Examining the development of tonality in Western classical music
• Exploring the impact of cultural and historical context on musical form and structure
• Investigating the use of polyphony in Renaissance choral music
• Analyzing the compositional techniques of minimalist music
• The relationship between melody and harmony in popular music
• Examining the influence of jazz improvisation on contemporary music
• The role of counterpoint in the compositions of Ludwig van Beethoven
• Investigating the use of microtonality in experimental music
• Analyzing the impact of technology on music composition and production
• The influence of musical modes on the development of different musical genres
• Exploring the use of musical symbolism in film scoring
• Investigating the role of music theory in the analysis and interpretation of non-Western music

Music Industry Research Paper Topics:

• The impact of streaming services on music consumption patterns
• The role of social media in promoting and marketing music
• The effects of piracy on the music industry
• The influence of technology on music production and distribution
• The relationship between music and mental health
• The evolution of music genres and their impact on the industry
• The economics of live music events and festivals
• The role of record labels in shaping the music industry
• The impact of globalization on the music industry
• The representation and portrayal of gender in the music industry
• The effects of music streaming platforms on artist revenue
• The role of music education in fostering talent and creativity
• The influence of music videos on audience perception and engagement
• The impact of music streaming on physical album sales
• The role of music in advertising and brand marketing

Music Therapy Research Paper Topics:

• The effectiveness of music therapy in reducing anxiety in cancer patients
• The impact of music therapy on improving cognitive function in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease
• Exploring the use of music therapy in managing chronic pain
• The role of music therapy in promoting emotional well-being in children with autism spectrum disorder
• Music therapy as a complementary treatment for depression: A systematic review
• The effects of music therapy on stress reduction in pregnant women
• Examining the benefits of music therapy in improving communication skills in individuals with developmental disabilities
• The use of music therapy in enhancing motor skills rehabilitation after stroke
• Music therapy interventions for improving sleep quality in patients with insomnia
• Exploring the impact of music therapy on reducing symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The role of music therapy in improving social interaction and engagement in individuals with schizophrenia
• Music therapy as a non-pharmacological intervention for managing symptoms of dementia
• The effects of music therapy on pain perception and opioid use in hospitalized patients
• Exploring the use of music therapy in promoting relaxation and reducing anxiety during surgical procedures
• The impact of music therapy on improving quality of life in individuals with Parkinson’s disease

Music Psychology Research Paper Topics:

• The effects of music on mood and emotions
• The role of music in enhancing cognitive abilities
• The impact of music therapy on mental health disorders
• The relationship between music and memory recall
• The influence of music on stress reduction and relaxation
• The psychological effects of different genres of music
• The role of music in promoting social bonding and cohesion
• The effects of music on creativity and problem-solving abilities
• The psychological benefits of playing a musical instrument
• The impact of music on motivation and productivity
• The psychological effects of music on physical exercise performance
• The role of music in enhancing learning and academic performance
• The influence of music on sleep quality and patterns
• The psychological effects of music on individuals with autism spectrum disorder
• The relationship between music and personality traits

Music Education Research Paper Topics:

• The impact of music education on cognitive development in children
• The effectiveness of incorporating technology in music education
• The role of music education in promoting social and emotional development
• The benefits of music education for students with special needs
• The influence of music education on academic achievement
• The importance of music education in fostering creativity and innovation
• The relationship between music education and language development
• The impact of music education on self-esteem and self-confidence
• The role of music education in promoting cultural diversity and inclusivity
• The effects of music education on students’ overall well-being and mental health
• The significance of music education in developing critical thinking skills
• The role of music education in enhancing students’ teamwork and collaboration abilities
• The impact of music education on students’ motivation and engagement in school
• The effectiveness of different teaching methods in music education
• The relationship between music education and career opportunities in the music industry

Music History Research Paper Topics:

• The influence of African music on the development of jazz in the United States
• The role of women composers in classical music during the 18th century
• The impact of the Beatles on the evolution of popular music in the 1960s
• The cultural significance of hip-hop music in urban communities
• The development of opera in Italy during the Renaissance
• The influence of folk music on the protest movements of the 1960s
• The role of music in religious rituals and ceremonies throughout history
• The evolution of electronic music and its impact on contemporary music production
• The contribution of Latin American musicians to the development of salsa music
• The influence of classical music on film scores in the 20th century
• The role of music in the Civil Rights Movement in the United States
• The development of reggae music in Jamaica and its global impact
• The influence of Mozart’s compositions on the classical music era
• The role of music in the French Revolution and its impact on society
• The evolution of punk rock music and its influence on alternative music genres

Music Sociology Research Paper Topics:

• The impact of music streaming platforms on the music industry
• The role of music in shaping cultural identity
• Gender representation in popular music: A sociological analysis
• The influence of social media on music consumption patterns
• Music festivals as spaces for social interaction and community building
• The relationship between music and political activism
• The effects of globalization on local music scenes
• The role of music in constructing and challenging social norms
• The impact of technology on music production and distribution
• Music and social movements: A comparative study
• The role of music in promoting social change and social justice
• The influence of socioeconomic factors on music taste and preferences
• The role of music in constructing and reinforcing gender stereotypes
• The impact of music education on social and cognitive development
• The relationship between music and mental health: A sociological perspective

Classical Music Research Paper Topics:

• The influence of Ludwig van Beethoven on the development of classical music
• The role of women composers in classical music history
• The impact of Johann Sebastian Bach’s compositions on future generations
• The evolution of opera in the classical period
• The significance of Mozart’s symphonies in the classical era
• The influence of nationalism on classical music during the Romantic period
• The portrayal of emotions in classical music compositions
• The use of musical forms and structures in the works of Franz Joseph Haydn
• The impact of the Industrial Revolution on the production and dissemination of classical music
• The relationship between classical music and dance in the Baroque era
• The role of patronage in the development of classical music
• The influence of folk music on classical composers
• The representation of nature in classical music compositions
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Blended Finance

Blended finance---the use of public and philanthropic funding to crowd in private capital---is a potential way to finance a more sustainable world. While blended finance holds the promise of being catalytic in mobilizing vast amounts of private capital, little is known about this practice. In this paper, we provide a conceptual framework that formalizes the decision-making of development finance institutions (DFIs) that engage in blended finance. We then provide empirical evidence on blended finance using data from a major DFI. The key variable we study is the level of concessionality, which captures the subsidy from the blended co-investment. Our findings indicate that DFIs provide higher concessionality for projects that have a higher sustainability impact per dollar invested. Moreover, the concessionality is higher for projects in countries with higher political risk and a higher degree of information asymmetries. In such cases, the blending tends to also include risk-management provisions. These findings are consistent with the predictions from our conceptual framework, in which DFIs have a limited budget that they allocate across projects to create societal value.

We are grateful to Matthieu Pegon for helpful comments. We thank Chandana Yelkur for excellent research assistance. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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