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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Sleep Deprivation — The Effects of Sleep Deprivation

The Effects of Sleep Deprivation

Categories: Insomnia Sleep Deprivation

About this sample

Words: 751 |

Published: Jan 25, 2024

Words: 751 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Works Cited

Blass, Laurie et al. 21St Century Reading. National Geographic Learning, 2016.
Peri, Camille. "10 Things To Hate About Sleep Loss". WebMD, 2014, https://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/features/10-results-sleep-loss.

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Essays About Dreams In Life: 14 Examples And Topic Ideas

Dreams in life are necessary; if you are writing essays about dreams in life, you can read these essay examples and topic ideas to get started.

Everyone has a dream – a big one or even a small one. Even the most successful people had dreams before becoming who they are today. Having a dream is like having a purpose in life; you will start working hard to reach your dream and never lose interest in life.

Without hard work, you can never turn a dream into a reality; it will only remain a desire. Level up your essay writing skills by reading our essays about dreams in life examples and prompts and start writing an inspiring essay today!

Writing About Dreams: A Guide

Essays about dreams in life: example essays, 1. chase your dreams: the best advice i ever got by michelle colon-johnson, 2. my dream, my future by deborah massey, 3. the pursuit of dreams by christine nishiyama, 4. my dreams and ambitions by kathy benson, 5. turning big dreams into reality by shyam gokarn, 6. my hopes and dreams by celia robinson, 7. always pursue your dreams – no matter what happens by steve bloom, 8. why do we dream by james roland, 9. bad dreams by eli goldstone, 10. why your brain needs to dream by matthew walker, 11. dreams by hedy marks, 12. do dreams really mean anything by david b. feldman, 13. how to control your dreams by serena alagappan, 14. the sunday essay: my dreams on antidepressants by ashleigh young, essays about dreams in life essay topics, 1. what is a dream, 2. what are your dreams in life, 3. why are dreams important in life, 4. what are the reasons for a person to dream big, 5. what do you think about dreams in life vs. short-term sacrifice, 6. what is the purpose of dreaming, 7. why are dreams so strange and vivid, 8. why do dreams feel so real, 9. why are dreams so hard to remember, 10. do dreams mean anything, what is a dream short essay, how can i write my dream in life.

Writing about dreams is an excellent topic for essays, brainstorming new topic ideas for fiction stories, or just as a creative outlet. We all have dreams, whether in our sleep, during the day, or even while walking on a sunny day. Some of the best ways to begin writing about a topic are by reading examples and using a helpful prompt to get started. Check out our guide to writing about dreams and begin mastering the art of writing today!

“Everyone has the ability to dream, but not everyone has the willingness to truly chase their dreams. When people aren’t living their dreams they often have limited belief systems. They believe that their current circumstances and/or surroundings are keeping them from achieving the things they want to do in life.”

In her essay, author Michelle Colon-Johnson encourages her readers to develop a mindset that will let them chase their dreams. So, you have to visualize your dream, manifest it, and start your journey towards it! Check out these essays about dreams and sleep .

“At the time when I have my job and something to make them feel so proud of me, I would like to give them the best life. I would like to make them feel comfortable and see sweet smiles on their faces. This is really the one I like to achieve in my life; mountains of words can’t explain how much I love and appreciate them.”

Author Deborah Massey’s essay talks about her dreams and everything she wanted to achieve and accomplish in her life. She also tells us that we must live our values, pursue our dreams, and follow our passions for the best future.

“Fast-forward 5+ years, and my first published book is coming out this May with Scholastic. And now, let me tell you the truth: I don’t feel any different. I’m extremely grateful for the opportunity, proud of the work I’ve done, and excited for the book’s release. But on a fundamental level, I feel the same.”

In her essay, author Christine Nishiyama shares what she felt when she first achieved one of her goals in life. She says that with this mindset, you will never feel the satisfaction of achieving your goal or the fulfillment of reaching your dream. Instead, she believes that what fulfills people is the pursuit of their dreams in life.

“My dream is to become a good plastic surgeon and day after day it has transformed into an ambition which I want to move towards. I do not want to be famous, but just good enough to have my own clinic and work for a very successful hospital. Many people think that becoming a doctor is difficult, and I know that takes many years of preparation, but anyone can achieve it if they have determination.”

Author Kathy Benson’s essay narrates her life – all the things and struggles she has been through in pursuing her dreams in life. Yet, no matter how hard the situation gets, she always convinces herself not to give up, hoping her dreams will come true one day. She believes that with determination and commitment, anyone can achieve their dreams and goals in life.

“I have always been a big dreamer and involved in acting upon it. Though, many times I failed, I continued to dream big and act. As long as I recollect, I always had such wild visions and fantasies of thinking, planning, and acting to achieve great things in life. But, as anyone can observe, there are many people, who think and work in that aspect.”

In his essay, author Shyam Gokarn explains why having a big dream is very important in a person’s life. However, he believes that the problem with some people is that they never hold tight to their dreams, even if they can turn them into reality. As a result, they tend to easily give up on their dreams and even stop trying instead of persevering through the pain and anguish of another failure.

“When I was younger, I’ve always had a fairytale-like dream about my future. To marry my prince, have a Fairy Godmother, be a princess… But now, all of that has changed. I’ve realized how hard life is now; that life cannot be like a fairy tale. What you want can’t happen just like that.”

Celia Robinson’s essay talks about her dream since she was a child. Unfortunately, as we grow old, there’s no “Fairy Godmother” that would help us when things get tough. Everyone wants to succeed in the future, but we have to work hard to achieve our dreams and goals.

“Take writing for example. I’ve wanted to be a professional writer since I was a little boy, but I was too scared that I wouldn’t be any good at it. But several years ago I started pursuing this dream despite knowing how difficult it might be. I fully realize I may not make it, but I’m completely fine with that. At least I tried which is more than most people can say.”

In his essay, author Steve Bloom encourages his readers always to pursue their dreams no matter what happens. He asks, “Would you rather pursue them and fail or never try?”. He believes that it’s always better to try and fail than look back and wonder what might have been. Stop thinking that failure or success is the only end goal for pursuing your dreams. Instead, think of it as a long journey where all the experiences you get along the way are just as important as reaching the end goal.

“Dreams are hallucinations that occur during certain stages of sleep. They’re strongest during REM sleep, or the rapid eye movement stage, when you may be less likely to recall your dream. Much is known about the role of sleep in regulating our metabolism, blood pressure, brain function, and other aspects of health. But it’s been harder for researchers to explain the role of dreams. When you’re awake, your thoughts have a certain logic to them. When you sleep, your brain is still active, but your thoughts or dreams often make little or no sense.”

Author James Roland’s essay explains the purpose of having dreams and the factors that can influence our dreams. He also mentioned some of the reasons that cause nightmares. Debra Sullivan, a nurse educator, medically reviews his essay. Sullivan’s expertise includes cardiology, psoriasis/dermatology, pediatrics, and alternative medicine. For more, you can also see these articles about sleep .

“The first time I experienced sleep paralysis and recognised it for what it was I was a student. I had been taking MDMA and listening to Django Reinhardt. My memories of that time are mainly of taking drugs and listening to Django Reinhardt. When I woke up I was in my paralysed body. I was there, inside it. I was inside my leaden wrists, my ribcage, the thick dead roots of my hair, the bandages of skin. This time the hallucinations were auditory. I could hear someone being beaten outside my door. They were screaming for help. And I could do nothing but lie there, locked inside my body . . . whatever bit of me is not my body. That is the bit that exists, by itself, at night.”

In her essay, Author Eli Goldstone talks about her suffering from bad dreams ever since childhood. She also talks about what she feels every time she has sleep paralysis – a feeling of being conscious but unable to move.

“We often hear stories of people who’ve learned from their dreams or been inspired by them. Think of Paul McCartney’s story of how his hit song “Yesterday” came to him in a dream or of Mendeleev’s dream-inspired construction of the periodic table of elements. But, while many of us may feel that our dreams have special meaning or a useful purpose, science has been more skeptical of that claim. Instead of being harbingers of creativity or some kind of message from our unconscious, some scientists have considered dreaming to being an unintended consequence of sleep—a byproduct of evolution without benefit.”

Author Matthew Walker, a professor of psychology and neuroscience, shares some interesting facts about dreams in his essay. According to research, dreaming is more than just a byproduct of sleep; it also serves essential functions in our well-being.

“Dreams are basically stories and images that our mind creates while we sleep. They can be vivid. They can make you feel happy, sad, or scared. And they may seem confusing or perfectly rational. Dreams can happen at any time during sleep. But you have your most vivid dreams during a phase called REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, when your brain is most active. Some experts say we dream at least four to six times a night.”

In his essay, Author Hedy Marks discusses everything we need to know about dreams in detail – from defining a dream to tips that may help us remember our dreams. Hedy Marks is an Assistant Managing Editor at WebMD , and Carol DerSarkissian, a board-certified emergency physician, medically reviews his essay.

“Regardless of whether dreams foretell the future, allow us to commune with the divine, or simply provide a better understanding of ourselves, the process of analyzing them has always been highly symbolic. To understand the meaning of dreams, we must interpret them as if they were written in a secret code. A quick search of an online dream dictionary will tell you that haunted houses symbolize “unfinished emotional business,” dimly lit lamps mean you’re “feeling overwhelmed by emotional issues,” a feast indicates “a lack of balance in your life,” and garages symbolize a feeling of “lacking direction or guidance in achieving your goals.”

Author David B. Feldman, an author, speaker, and professor of counseling psychology, believes that dreams may not mean anything, but they tell us something about our emotions. In other words, if you’ve been suffering from a series of bad dreams, it could be worth checking in with yourself to see how you’ve been feeling and perhaps consider whether there’s anything you can do to improve your mood.

“Ever wish you could ice skate across a winter sky, catching crumbs of gingerbread, like flakes of snow, on your tongue? How about conquering a monster in a nightmare, bouncing between mountain peaks, walking through walls, or reading minds? Have you ever longed to hold the hand of someone you loved and lost? If you want to fulfill your fantasies, or even face your fears, you might want to try taking some control of your dreams (try being the operative). People practiced in lucid dreaming—the phenomenon of being aware that you are dreaming while you are asleep—claim that the experience allows adventure, self-discovery, and euphoric joy.”

In her essay, Author Serena Alagappan talks about lucid dreams – a type of dream where a person becomes conscious during a dream. She also talked about ways to control our dreams, such as keeping a journal, reciting mantras before bed, and believing we can. However, not everyone will be able to control their dreams because the levels of lucidity and control differ significantly between individuals.

“There was a period of six months when I tried to go off my medication – a slowly unfolding disaster – and I’d thought my dreams might settle down. Instead, they grew more deranged. Even now I think of the dream in which I was using a cigarette lighter to melt my own father, who had assumed the form of a large candle. I’ve since learned that, apart from more research being needed, this was probably a case of “REM rebound”. When you stop taking the medication, you’ll likely get a lot more REM sleep than you were getting before. In simple terms, your brain goes on a dreaming frenzy, amping up the detail.”

Author Ashleigh Young’s essay informs us how some medications, such as antidepressants, affect our dreams based on her own life experience. She said, “I’ve tried not to dwell too much on my dreams. Yes, they are vivid and sometimes truly gruesome, full of chaotic, unfathomable violence, but weird nights seemed a reasonable price to pay for the bearable days that SSRIs have helped me to have.”

In simple terms, a dream is a cherished aspiration, ambition, or ideal; is it the same as your goal in life? In your essay, explore this topic and state your opinion about what the word “dream” means to you.

This is an excellent topic for your statement or “about me” essay. Where do you see yourself in the next ten years? Do you have a career plan? If you still haven’t thought about it, maybe it’s time to start thinking about your future.

Having dreams is very important in a person’s life; it motivates, inspires, and helps you achieve any goal that you have in mind. Without dreams, we would feel lost – having no purpose in life. Therefore, in your essay, you should be able to explain to your readers how important it is to have a dream or ambition in life.

What are the reasons for a person to dream big?

Dreaming big sounds great; however, it’s easier said than done. First, you’ve got to have reasons to dream big, which will motivate you to achieve your goals in life. If you’re writing an essay about dreams in life, mention why most people dare to dream big and achieve more in life. Is it about freedom, money, praise from other people, satisfaction, or something else entirely?

For example, you could watch movies, play video games, relax every night, or give up all of them to learn a complex skill – what would you choose, and why? In your essay about dreams in life, answer the question and include other examples about this topic so your readers can relate.

There are many answers to this question – one is that dreams may have an evolutionary function, testing us in scenarios crucial to our survival. Dreams may also reduce the severity of emotional trauma. On the other hand, some researchers say dreams have no purpose or meaning, while some say we need dreams for physical and mental health. Take a closer look at this topic, and include what you find in your essay.

Weird dreams could result from anxiety, stress, or sleep deprivation. So, manage your stress levels, and stick to a sleep routine to stop having weird dreams. If you wake up from a weird dream, you can fall back asleep using deep breaths or any relaxing activity. You can research other causes of weird dreams and ways to stop yourself from having them for your essay about dreams and sleep.

The same areas of the brain that are active when we learn and process information in the actual world are active when we dream, and they replay the information as we sleep. Many things we see, hear, and feel in our everyday lives appear in our dreams. If you want to write an informative essay about dreams and sleep, look into more details about this topic.

Tip: When editing for grammar, we also recommend taking the time to improve the readability score of a piece of writing before publishing or submitting it.

People may not remember what happened in their dreams. Studies show that people tend to forget their dreams due to the changing levels of acetylcholine and norepinephrine during sleep. This will be quite an exciting topic for your readers because many people can relate. That being said, research more information about this topic, and discuss it in detail in your essay.

Although some people believe that dreams don’t mean anything, many psychologists and other experts have theorized about the deeper meaning of dreams. Therefore, your essay about dreams and sleep should delve deeper into this topic. If you’re stuck picking your next essay topic, check out our round-up of essay topics about education .

FAQS on Essays About Dreams in Life

There are many great short essays about dreams; you can write your own too! Some great examples include Do Dreams Really Mean Anything? by David B. Feldman and Dreams by Hedy Marks.

Writing about your dreams in life is a fantastic creative outlet and can even help you plan your future. Use a prompt to get started, like “What are your dreams in life?” or “What do you aspire to be in ten years?” and begin writing without thinking too much about it. See where the pen takes you and start mapping out your future with this writing exercise.

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A Systematic Review of Sleep Deprivation and Neurobehavioral Function in Young Adults

Stephanie griggs.

Case Western Reserve University, Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Cleveland, Ohio, USA 44106

Alison Harper

Case Western Reserve University, Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Department of Anthropology, Cleveland, Ohio, USA 44106

Ronald L. Hickman, Jr

Ruth M. Anderson Endowed Professor of Nursing and Associate Dean for Research Case Western Reserve University, Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Cleveland, OH, USA 44106

To examine the effect of sleep deprivation (total and partial) on neurobehavioral function compared to a healthy sleep opportunity (7–9 hours) in young adults 18–30 years.

Background:

More than one-third of young adults are sleep deprived, which negatively affects a range of neurobehavioral functions, including psychomotor vigilance performance (cognitive), affect, and daytime sleepiness.

A systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on sleep deprivation and neurobehavioral function. Multiple electronic databases (Cochrane Central Registry of Controlled Trials [CENTRAL], PubMed, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science) were searched for relevant RCTs published in English from the establishment of each database to December 31, 2020.

Nineteen RCTs were selected (N = 766, mean age = 23.7 ± 3.1 years; 44.8% female). Seven were between-person (5 were parallel-group designs and 2 had multiple arms), and 12 were within-person designs (9 were cross over and 3 used a Latin square approach). Total sleep deprivation had the strongest detrimental effect on psychomotor vigilance performance, with the largest effects on vigilance tasks in young adults in the included studies.

Conclusion:

Acute sleep deprivation degrades multiple dimensions of neurobehavioral function including psychomotor vigilance performance, affect, and daytime sleepiness in young adults. The effect of chronic sleep deprivation on the developing brain and associated neurobehavioral functions in young adults remains unclear.

1. Introduction

Sleep loss has a negative effect on multiple neurobehavioral functions, such as psychomotor vigilance performance (cognitive), daytime sleepiness, and affect ( Franzen et al., 2011 ; Van Dongen et al., 2003 ). Degradation of vigilance following sleep deprivation is one of the most robust alterations in healthy young adults aged 18–30 years ( Lim & Dinges, 2010 ). Multiple dimensions of neurobehavioral impairment are differentially affected by sleep deprivation ( Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). Sleep deprivation affects regions of the prefrontal cortex ( Chee & Choo, 2004 ), which continues to mature up to the late ‘20s ( Johnson et al., 2009 ), leading to executive dysfunctions with the prefrontal cortex ( Dinges et al., 1997 ; Nilsson et al., 2005 ). The prefrontal cortex is most vulnerable to the effects between states of sleep and wake due to the metabolic change associated with sleep deprivation ( Muzur et al., 2002 ).

Biological, social, and environmental factors converge, resulting in sleep deprivation in more than one-third (32.3%) of young adults ( Peltzer & Pengpid, 2016 ). Sleep deprivation contributes to a negative interaction between homeostatic and circadian processes. In young adulthood, there is reduced homeostatic sleep pressure (adenosine) accumulation during wakefulness, a delay in sleep timing, and a delay in releasing the onset of melatonin that peaks in the mid-’20s ( Crowley & Carskadon, 2010 ; Fischer et al., 2017 ). Motor vehicular accident risk increases at the circadian cycle nadir following total sleep deprivation which, correlates with slowing of psychomotor vigilance performance ( Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ).

The broad effect of sleep manipulation (sleep deprivation, sleep restriction, and sleep improvement) on cognitive functioning in adolescents aged 10 – 19 years was addressed in one previous systematic review ( de Bruin et al., 2017 ). In the systematic review, the effect of total sleep deprivation was examined in 4 studies, partial sleep deprivation in 10 studies, sleep extension in one study, and cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia in one study and 45 unique cognitive tests were reported where a vast array of cognition was assessed ( de Bruin et al., 2017 ). In the review, partial sleep deprivation had a small or no effect on cognitive functioning, total sleep deprivation negatively affected psychomotor vigilance performance, and sleep extension improved working memory in the adolescents studied ( de Bruin et al., 2017 ). However, conclusions could not be made about the specific domains affected by sleep manipulation due to the differences and quantity of tests ( de Bruin et al., 2017 ). The extent of the associations between total and partial sleep deprivation and neurobehavioral impairment (e.g., decrements in psychomotor vigilance performance – cognitive performance impairment, affect, and daytime sleepiness) remains unclear.

The primary aim of this research was to determine the effect of sleep deprivation compared to healthy sleep opportunity (sleep duration 7–9 hours) on psychomotor vigilance performance as measured by psychomotor vigilance testing (PVT) only. PVT-related outcomes may include mean and median response time, reciprocal response time slowest 10%, mean reaction time fastest 10%, number of lapses (No. of times RT is > 500 ms lapses). The secondary aim of this research was to determine the effect of sleep deprivation on affect or daytime sleepiness compared to a healthy sleep opportunity. Secondary outcomes were change in affect or daytime sleepiness outcomes measured by diagnostic criteria or self-reported questionnaires.

Our focus is on young adults aged 18 to 30 years who are at a key developmental stage at a great risk of sleep deprivation and sleep deprivation-related neurobehavioral impairment. This focus addresses a significant gap in the existing literature. Additionally, the focus on sleep deprivation with a primary outcome of psychomotor vigilance performance to assess cognitive performance via psychomotor vigilance testing, a proven assay for evaluating vigilance ( Dinges et al., 2004 ), will allow a common outcome to be synthesized across studies.

2.1. Design

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses Statement guidelines were followed for this systematic review ( Nagendrababu et al., 2019 ). We registered our protocol with the PROSPERO registry before implementing the search in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (Prospero; registration number CRD42021225200).

2.2. Search methods

Studies with participants between the ages of 18 to 30 years were included. Sampling adults across the lifespan has a great potential to underestimate the effects of sleep deprivation in young adults. The following studies were included in this systematic review: (1) randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of young adults published in English; (2) data collected for both the intervention and control group(s); (3) sample mean age from 18 to 30 years; and (4) one or more objectively measured neurobehavioral-related outcomes (e.g., mean reaction time, median reaction time, reciprocal response time slowest 10%, mean reaction time fastest 10%, number of lapses (No. of times RT is > 500 ms lapses) by psychomotor vigilance testing only. Additionally, affect or daytime sleepiness outcomes were also extracted if available. We excluded studies of people with: (1) known sleep disorders; (2) chronic medical; (3) severe psychiatric illness (e.g., bipolar disorder, schizophrenia); (4) Body Mass Index (BMI) > 35 kg/m 2 in addition to (5) night shift workers.

The following databases were searched with controlled vocabulary and keywords: Cochrane Central Registry of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), PubMed, PsycINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science. Articles published in English from the establishment of each database to December 13, 2020 were searched. We provide the PubMed search terms in Table 1 . We adjusted the syntax for the search strategies for each database as appropriate.

Database: PubMed ALL Search Strategy

The search was conducted under the guidance of a health science librarian with input from the primary and senior investigator. Also, an ancestry/bibliographic search was conducted to identify additional articles until the end of December 2020.

2.3. Search outcome

All 4,149 references were imported to Covidence ™ (Veritas Health Information) and duplicates were removed. A total of 3,110 were screened through Covidence ™ . Two reviewers independently screened all titles and abstracts with 93% agreement. Next, the two reviewers independently assessed full texts. A third reviewer resolved any disagreements regarding eligibility when consensus was not reached among the first two reviewers. The largest study was included when more than one article included the same trial and/or participants.

2.4. Quality appraisal

The risk of bias in the included studies was assessed independently by two reviewers using the Cochrane risk of bias tool through Covidence ™ ( Jørgensen et al., 2016 ). Sequence generation, concealment of allocation, blinding of outcome assessment blinding, >80% incomplete outcome data (< 80%), selective reporting of outcomes, and ‘other issues’ were the components of the risk of bias tool. The blinding domain was omitted as the intervention was sleep deprivation, and thus it would not be possible to blind participants.

2.5. Data abstraction and synthesis

A customized spreadsheet was used to extract and record data from the papers. Study characteristics, total or partial sleep deprivation with hours and length of time, age, measures used, the sample size (intervention and control groups), along with means and standard deviations of data were extracted. We contacted corresponding authors when insufficient or unclear data were reported. Extracted data were compared between the two reviewers, and disagreements were resolved by consultation with data in original papers and discussion.

We followed guidance on the conduct of a narrative synthesis described by Popay et al. (2006) . Three standardized data tables were used to organize the data which included (1) all studies, (2) between-persons designs, and (3) within-person designs. We started with a preliminary synthesis to organize findings from the studies to describe patterns along with direction and size of the effect when effects were reported. Next, we explored relationships considering factors that might explain any differences in significance or direction/size of the effect if applicable. Lastly, we assessed the robustness of the synthesis to draw conclusions and assess generalizability/reproducibility of the findings. Significant PVT outcomes and the effect size if applicable are presented in Table 2 . The between-person and within-person designs were considered and described separately as within-person comparisons have the advantage of a smaller within-person variation and possibility of a carryover effect ( Jones & Kenward, 2014 ).

Characteristics of studies

Note: ACT, actigraphy; PSG, polysomnography; TSD, total sleep deprivation; PSD, partial sleep deprivation; Lab, controlled setting; 1:1 parallel group design; multi-arm, more than two experimental conditions - only the TSD condition is listed on the table when the study has multiple arms; NR: not reported. All studies were randomized controlled trials. Data from two studies are presented in one article.

3.1. Study selection

We identified 19 RCTs and present results below. We contacted seven corresponding authors; two responded, one shared additional data, and one provided additional clarification on their data. The study selection process is illustrated in Figure 1 .

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PRISMA Flow Diagram

3.2. Characteristics of the included studies

A summary of the details of the 19 RCTs included in this systematic review is presented in Table 2 . A total of 766 young adults with mean ages ranging from 20.2 to 27.5 years (mean age, 23.7 ± 3.09 years; 55.2% male) were included in these RCTs. BMI was only reported in one trial, and the mean was 20.0 ± 1.9 kg/m 2 . Seven were between-person (5 were parallel-group designs and 2 had multiple arms), and 12 were within-person designs (9 were cross over and 3 used a Latin square approach).

Sleep was measured via polysomnography in 9 studies and with actigraphy in eight studies ( Table 2 ). The setting for a majority of these studies was a controlled laboratory (e.g., temperature, sound, avoidance of alcohol and caffeine) except for four studies ( Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Rossa et al., 2014 ; Schwarz et al., 2016 ; Schwarz et al., 2013 ). The RCTs were conducted in the following countries: the United States (8), Italy (2), Finland (1), Australia (1), Japan (1), South China (1), Singapore (2), Canada (1), and Germany (2). All RCTs had a sleep deprivation experimental condition (15 were total sleep deprivation ranging from 24 hours to 72 hours and four were partial sleep deprivation of 4-hours per night ranging from one night to four nights) and a healthy sleep opportunity (duration of 7–9 hours) comparison condition.

The dose-response effect of total and partial sleep deprivation on psychomotor vigilance performance was examined in three different RCTs ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ; Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). Acute sleep deprivation was assessed in two trials ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ) and chronic sleep deprivation in the other trial ( Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). All trials had one 8-hour condition and one total sleep deprivation condition, but total sleep deprivation varied in each of the trials and was for one night in one trial ( Jewett et al., 1999 ), two nights in the second trial ( Drake et al., 2001 ), and three nights in the third trial ( Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). The comparison groups also varied in dose and length with 8-hours, 5-hours, or 2-hours for one night ( Jewett et al., 1999 ); 8-hours for four nights, 6-hours for four nights, and 4-hours for two nights ( Drake et al., 2001 ); and 8-hours, 6-hours, or 4-hours per night for 14 nights ( Van Dongen et al., 2004 ).

The daytime sleepiness measures used in the trials included a 9-item self-report Karolinska Sleepiness Scale ( Akerstedt & Gillberg, 1990 ), 7-item self-report Stanford Sleepiness Scale ( Babkoff et al., 1991 ), a visual analogue scale ( Monk, 1989 ), and objective pupillography as a physiological daytime sleepiness indicator ( Lüdtke et al., 1998 ). The affect measures included the 10-item positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS) ( Watson et al., 1988 ), 100mm visual analogue profile of mood states (POMS) ( McNair et al., 1971 ), and visual analogue scale ( Tempesta et al., 2014 ).

3.3. Risk of bias

A graph summarizing the risk of bias of the included studies is presented in Table 3 and Figure 2 . We determined that a majority of the studies were of high quality, with an overall low risk of bias ( n = 8). Sequence generation was judged six times to be both low and high risk, as allocation of the participants was low risk, but the time in between the sleep deprivation trial and the control condition for cross-over studies was only a week; therefore, there was a high likelihood of carryover effects from sleep deprivation. Incomplete outcome data was unclear in 6 trials, and selective outcome reporting was unclear in one. Selective outcome reporting was determined to be both low risk and high risk as it was low risk for objective measures but high risk for self-reported measures like affect and daytime sleepiness. Other source of bias was high risk in four studies due to the trials being held outside of a controlled laboratory setting.

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Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment Across Studies (Higgins et al., 2011)

Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment

3.4. Effect of sleep deprivation by outcome

3.4.1. effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance.

The effect of total sleep deprivation on cognitive performance was tested in 6 RCT’s using a between-person comparison ( n = 272); four were parallel-group ( Esposito et al., 2015 ; Franzen et al., 2008 ; Tucker et al., 2009 ; Whitney et al., 2015 ) and two had multiple-arms ( Jewett et al., 1999 ; Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). In these RCTs, the total sleep deprivation condition ranged from 24 hours to 72 hours, and all trials had a healthy sleep opportunity condition for comparison. Significant declines in psychomotor vigilance performance were observed in all trials using a between-person comparison with a slower mean reaction time in three trials ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Esposito et al., 2015 ; Tucker et al., 2009 ; Van Dongen et al., 2004 ), increased slowest 10% in one trial ( Esposito et al., 2015 ), and a higher number of lapses in four trials ( Esposito et al., 2015 ; Franzen et al., 2008 ; Haavisto et al., 2010 ; Whitney et al., 2015 ). The effect sizes ranged from small ( Franzen et al., 2008 ) to medium ( Whitney et al., 2015 ) and were not reported in four between-person comparison trials ( Esposito et al., 2015 ; Haavisto et al., 2010 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ; Tucker et al., 2009 ). In Haavisto’s trial of 20 young adults comparing 4 hours of partial sleep deprivation ( n = 13) to healthy sleep opportunity ( n = 7), lapses increased significantly for the partial sleep deprivation group compared to the healthy sleep opportunity group (0.92 ± 0.73 to 3.54 ± 0.73 vs. 0.62 ± 1.00 to 0.90 ± 1.00, p = .0321, respectively) and there was a tendency that the slowest 10% of all responses were slower in the partial sleep deprivation group, but the group difference was not significant ( p = .16) ( Haavisto et al., 2010 ).

The effect of total sleep deprivation on psychomotor vigilance performance was tested in nine RCT’s using a within-person comparison ( n = 375) ( Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Lin et al., 2020 ; Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ; Robillard et al., 2011 ; Rossa et al., 2014 ; Schwarz et al., 2016 ; Schwarz et al., 2013 ; Tempesta et al., 2014 ; Yeo et al., 2015 ), three of which used a Latin square approach ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Honn et al., 2020 ). Total sleep deprivation ranged from 32 to 62 hours, and the cross-over between the sleep deprivation and healthy sleep opportunity conditions ranged from one week to one month. One night of total sleep deprivation resulted in significant decrements in psychomotor vigilance performance in four of the cross-over trials ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ; Robillard et al., 2011 ) with a slower mean reaction time in four trials ( Adler et al., 2017 ; Drake et al., 2001 ; Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ; Robillard et al., 2011 ), slower median reaction time in two of the trials ( Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ), and a higher number of lapses in two of the trials ( Lin et al., 2020 ; Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ).

The difference was not significant between the total sleep deprivation and healthy sleep opportunity condition in Tempesta et al. 2014 ’s cross-over trial of 25 young adults (mean age 23.8 ± 2.4 years). In this trial, a 5-minute PVT on a computer was used when a 10-minute PVT was used in most studies which may have affected these outcomes ( Tempesta et al., 2014 ). The reaction time was slower in the sleep deprivation condition in one trial; however, whether the difference between the two conditions was significant was not reported as the focus of the analysis was not on change in PVT performance ( Honn et al., 2020 ). In the cross-over trials where significant decrements in psychomotor vigilance performance from total sleep deprivation were reported, effect sizes ranged from medium ( Rossa et al., 2014 ) to large ( Lin et al., 2020 ). The effect size was not reported in four trials ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ; Robillard et al., 2011 ). Differences in age and sex were not discussed in all but two studies reported in one paper ( Honn et al., 2020 ), where no significant group differences in age or sex were found (p = 0.24 and 0.26 respectively).

3.4.2. Dose-response effects on cognitive performance from sleep deprivation

The dose-response effect of sleep deprivation on psychomotor vigilance performance was tested in 3 RCTs ( n = 121) ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ; Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). Greater psychomotor vigilance performance impairment was observed in all three trials with larger doses of sleep deprivation ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ). In Jewett’s trial of 61 young adults (0-hours, 2-hours, 5-hours, or 8-hours for one night), all PVT metrics improved as sleep duration increased ( p < .0002), particularly between the 0-hour and 2-hour sleep conditions; however, only a slight improvement was observed between the 5-hour and 8-hour sleep conditions with a 2.14-hour decay mean rate for all PVT metrics. Chronic sleep deprivation (8-hours, 6-hours, 4-hours – time in bed (TIB) per night for 14 nights) resulted in cumulative dose-dependent deficits in psychomotor vigilance performance, and daytime sleepiness showed an acute response but did not differentiate between the 6-hour and 4-hour conditions in Van Dongen’s trial of 48 young adults (mean age 26 ± 3.6 y). In this same trial, deficits in cognitive performance were equivalent between the chronic sleep deprivation of sleep to 6-hours or less per night over 10 nights and up to 2-nights of total sleep deprivation conditions ( Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). In Drake’s trial of 12 young adults using a Latin square design (no sleep loss-8 hours TIB for 4-nights; slow: 6-hours TIB hours for 4 nights; intermediate: 4-hours TIB for two nights; and rapid: 0-hours TIB for one night), higher impairment of cognitive performance impairment with rapid loss of sleep loss as opposed to when loss of sleep occurred or accumulated over time ( Drake et al., 2001 ). Also, alertness levels were lower in the 6-hour per night condition relative to the 8-hour condition in the same trial ( Drake et al., 2001 ). We present a dose response graph comparing pooled baseline to partial sleep deprivation conditions (6- and 4-hour sleep duration) and total sleep deprivation (0-hour sleep duration) mean reaction time as measured by the PVT over the days of monitoring in Figure 3 .

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Dose Response graph Note: 1 day = 24 hours; 0-hour time in bed is total sleep deprivation; 4 and 6-hour time in bed is partial sleep deprivation; and 8-hour time in bed is a healthy sleep opportunity.

3.4.3. Effect of sleep deprivation on daytime sleepiness

The effect of sleep deprivation on self-reported daytime sleepiness was assessed in 5 trials ( n = 135) using a between-person comparison ( Esposito et al., 2015 ; Franzen et al., 2008 ; Haavisto et al., 2010 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ; Van Dongen et al., 2004 ) and objective daytime sleepiness was additionally assessed in one of the trials ( Franzen et al., 2008 ). Trials of total sleep deprivation ( Esposito et al., 2015 ; Franzen et al., 2008 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ; Van Dongen et al., 2004 ) and partial sleep deprivation ( Haavisto et al., 2010 ) resulted in significantly higher daytime sleepiness ratings in the sleep deprivation as opposed to the healthy sleep opportunity conditions. In comparison to the PVT, the largest magnitude of effects were seen in all measures of daytime sleepiness (2 objective and 1 self-report) in Franzen et al. 2008 ’s trial of 29 young adults following one night of total sleep deprivation ( n = 15) compared to a healthy sleep opportunity condition ( n = 14) (mean sleep latency test F = 25.08, p < .001, n 2 = 0.501, pupillary unrest test F = 11.58, p = .002, n 2 = 0.317, visual analogue scale F = 42.80, p <.001, n 2 = 0.631).

The effect of total sleep deprivation on self-reported daytime sleepiness was assessed in 4 cross-over trials ( Lin et al., 2020 ; Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ; Tempesta et al., 2014 ; Yeo et al., 2015 ). Results were not reported in 3 trials ( Patanaik, Zagorodnov, & Kwoh, 2014 ; Tempesta et al., 2014 ; Yeo et al., 2015 ). The effect of one night of total sleep deprivation on self-reported daytime sleepiness was only significant in one of the cross-over trials (F 1,28.95 = 103.09; p < 0.01) ( Tempesta et al., 2014 ); whereas a marginal increase in daytime sleepiness was noted in the other cross-over trial, but the effect was not significant ( t = −1.890, p = 0.071, Cohen’s d = −0.39) ( Lin et al., 2020 ). On the other hand, the effect of partial sleep deprivation (4-hours for one night) on self-reported daytime sleepiness relative to healthy sleep opportunity was significant in 3 cross-over trials with a medium effect size ( Rossa et al., 2014 ; Schwarz et al., 2016 ; Schwarz et al., 2013 ). Also, the partial sleep deprivation as opposed to the healthy sleep opportunity condition displayed higher objective daytime sleepiness via the pupillary unrest test (5.7 ± 2.1 vs. 4.5 ± 2.1 mm/min, p = .002) with a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.55) ( Schwarz et al., 2016 ).

3.4.4. Effect of sleep deprivation on affect

The effect of sleep deprivation on affect was only assessed in one trial using a between persons comparison ( Franzen et al., 2008 ). Those in the total sleep deprivation condition (n = 14) as opposed to the healthy sleep opportunity condition (n = 15) had a higher negative mood ( F = 4.76, p = .039), lower positive affect ( F = 4.78, p = .038), but the change in negative affect was not significant ( F = 1.74, p = .20) ( Franzen et al., 2008 ).

The effect of sleep deprivation on affect was assessed in 5 RCTs using a within-person comparison ( n = 178) ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Lin et al., 2020 ; Rossa et al., 2014 ; Tempesta et al., 2014 ). The effect of one night of total sleep deprivation resulted in a significant negative effect on affect in 3 trials relative to the healthy sleep opportunity condition ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Lin et al., 2020 ). Compared to a healthy sleep opportunity, both positive affect and negative affect were significantly reduced when participants were totally sleep deprived in one cross-over trial ( Lin et al., 2020 ) and partially sleep-deprived (4-hours one night) in another cross over trial ( Rossa et al., 2014 ). The effect size was small in the partial-sleep deprivation cross over trial ( Rossa et al., 2014 ), medium in one of the total sleep deprivation cross-over trials (Cohen’s d = 0.51) ( Lin et al., 2020 ), and not reported in the other two trials ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Kaida & Niki, 2014 ). Lastly, there was a significant interaction between sleep loss and negative affect in working memory performance, but not with PVT performance in Tempesta et al. (2014) ‘s cross-over trial of 25 young adults.

4. Discussion

In this systematic review, the effect of sleep deprivation on neurobehavioral functioning (psychomotor vigilance performance, affect, and daytime sleepiness) in young adults was examined. The primary aim of this study was to examine the effect of sleep deprivation on psychomotor vigilance performance. The largest effects with significant decrements on the most PVT metrics were found in total sleep deprivation studies ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Esposito et al., 2015 ; Franzen et al., 2008 ; Honn et al., 2020 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ; Kaida & Niki, 2014 ; Lin et al., 2020 ; Patanaik, Zagorodnov, Kwoh, et al., 2014 ; Robillard et al., 2011 ; Tempesta et al., 2014 ; Tucker et al., 2009 ; Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). There was a dose-response relationship between the rate of sleep loss and psychomotor vigilance performance measured via PVT. Also, adaptation occurred with a slower accumulation of sleep loss ( Drake et al., 2001 ; Jewett et al., 1999 ; Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). The short time constant that was observed in one of the trials (0h to 2h conditions) ( Jewett et al., 1999 ) indicates that the first few hours of sleep may serve to restore psychomotor vigilance decrements following sleep deprivation. This may partially explain why a nap affords recovery disproportionate to its duration ( Jewett et al., 1999 ).

The second aim of this systematic review was to determine how sleep deprivation affected daytime sleepiness. Daytime sleepiness was measured via self-report in a majority of the trials with the Karolinska Sleepiness Test or Stanford Sleepiness Test and objectively with the Multiple Sleep Latency Test and Pupillary Unrest Index ( Lüdtke et al., 1998 ) in two trials ( Franzen et al., 2008 ; Schwarz et al., 2016 ). Most of the trials included acute sleep deprivation, however in the trial where partial sleep deprivation was examined over 14-days ( Van Dongen et al., 2004 ), chronic partial sleep deprivation of 4 – 6 hours resulted in an initial elevation of self-report ratings on both the Stanford Sleepiness Scale and Karolinska Sleepiness Scale, but as the study progressed only minor further increases in self-report daytime sleepiness that did not mirror the decrements in PVT performance were observed. Even at the end of the 14 days, participants only reported feeling slightly sleepy ( Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). This suggests that there is an adaptation to chronic partial sleep deprivation especially considering the chronic partial sleep deprivation condition was compared to a total sleep deprivation condition ruling out the potential for a ceiling effect as the total sleep deprivation condition showed considerably greater levels of daytime sleepiness after two nights ( Van Dongen et al., 2004 ). Another consideration when assessing daytime sleepiness is that it might be intertwined with affect and related to the same latent construct making it difficult to differentiate perceptions of daytime sleepiness from mood; therefore, it is warranted to include physiologic measures more sensitive than self-report measures as suggested by Franzen et al, 2008 .

Regarding our final aim to determine the effect of sleep deprivation on affect, it must be highlighted that affect was only assessed in one-third of the studies. Also, the designs and instruments to measure affect varied, making it difficult to draw conclusions. Nonetheless, both partial and total sleep deprivation conditions resulted in worsened affect in the young adults in the selected studies, which is consistent with other young adult and adolescent studies ( Baum et al., 2014 ; Franzen et al., 2008 ; Haavisto et al., 2010 ). Studies where objective physiological and/or neural measures of affect were assessed provide additional verification of the emotional dysregulation following sleep deprivation. This was demonstrated in two of the trials in the current review with additional measures of pupillary affective response ( Franzen et al., 2008 ; Schwarz et al., 2016 ). In previous research, a 60% amplification in reactivity of the amygdala assessed using functional MRI (fMRI) was observed following one night of total sleep deprivation (n = 14) in response to negative pictures triggering emotions, when compared to a healthy sleep opportunity condition ( n = 12) ( Yoo et al., 2007 ).

Limitations

There are some limitations of this systematic review that should be considered. First, regarding sample characteristics, we included individuals free of medical, psychiatric, and sleep disorders with previous healthy weight and sleep schedules, limiting the generalizability of these findings. Second, although psychomotor vigilance performance was a common outcome across studies, only 6 used a parallel-group design, and with a lack of baseline and outcome data reporting, we could not conduct a meta-analysis. Baseline and some post-intervention values were not available to calculate mean change in these studies, so our results are fully based on a narrative review. Third, although outcomes were common via the PVT, the heterogeneity across designs, analyses, and objectives made the synthesis and analysis difficult. We recommend more transparent data reporting in the future, particularly through the inclusion of baseline data. This would allow for meta-analyses to be performed in the future, allowing the effects to be pooled to advance the science. Also, because of the different designs and analyses, a determination about reproducibility could not be made.

Objective assessments and physiologic measures (e.g., the Multiple Sleep Latency test and Pupillary Unrest Index) were more precise and sensitive, which may have affected the self-reported daytime sleepiness and affective outcomes. A larger effect size was reported for the physiologic measures (daytime sleepiness and affect regulation) as opposed to the self-report mood and PVT outcomes in one of the trials ( Franzen et al., 2008 ).

5. Conclusions

We determined that sleep deprivation degrades young adults’ neurobehavioral functioning. These results are congruent with adult and adolescent studies, where total sleep deprivation (as opposed to partial sleep deprivation) has a substantial detrimental effect on psychomotor vigilance performance, with the largest effects for vigilance tasks ( de Bruin et al., 2017 ; Lim & Dinges, 2010 ). The studies were all based on acute sleep deprivation, so it was not possible to determine if psychomotor vigilance deficits accumulate over time during chronic sleep deprivation, which is most consistent with real-world settings ( Goel et al., 2009 ). This is important as young adult brains are sensitive to sleep loss, as indicated by imaging studies examining the prefrontal cortex ( Chee & Choo, 2004 ). There is considerable evidence that the prefrontal cortex continues to develop into early adulthood which may affect speed of performance on psychomotor vigilance tasks, although this association has not been examined longitudinally ( Chee & Choo, 2004 ; Gied et al., 1999; Muzur et al., 2002 ). Thus, the effects of chronic sleep deprivation on the psychomotor vigilance performance of the developing brain remain unclear. Also, though our primary intention was to assess the effect of sleep deprivation on psychomotor vigilance performance via PVT, daytime sleepiness was only assessed in 10 and affect in 6 of the studies limiting the ability to comprehensively assess neurobehavioral function among young adults in the included studies.

The findings presented underscore the importance of measuring different neurobehavioral function metrics (e.g., psychomotor vigilance - cognitive performance via PVT, daytime sleepiness via self-report and objective measures, and affect) when studying their response to sleep and wakefulness. Larger RCTs that include an objective to examine the effect of sleep deprivation on neurobehavioral function under controlled conditions are needed to reveal predictors and negative effects of acute and chronic sleep deprivation in this high-risk group. Researchers should also consider including moderators (e.g., age, sex, dose) when these larger studies are available for meta-analysis. Nurses working across tertiary care and the community are well-positioned to take the lead on advocating for policies and practices promoting a healthy sleep opportunity and sleep education to optimize brain development in this age group.

Total and partial sleep deprivation lead to significant decrements in neurobehavioral function (cognitive performance, affect, and sleepiness) in young adults.
Adaptation to sleep loss can occur when it accumulates over time.
The focus of the current literature is on short term sleep loss limiting the ability to draw inference to real world settings where sleep loss occurs at a more stable state over time (e.g., chronic partial sleep deprivation).
The prefrontal cortex continues to develop until the late 20’s, thus the effects of sleep loss over time in the developing brain remain unclear.

Acknowledgements:

The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of DG in screening for inclusion and assisting with quality assessment.

Funding Statement:

This work was supported by American Academy of Sleep Medicine Foundation (AASM), 220-BS-19 and the National Institute for Nursing Research (NINR), K99NR018886. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the AASM Foundation or NIH.

Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

CRediT authorship contribution statement: Stephanie Griggs: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing – original draft, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Alison Harper: Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing – original draft. Ronald L. Hickman: Supervision, Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – review and editing, Project administration.

Declaration of competing interests: No conflict of interest has been declared by the authors.

Contributor Information

Stephanie Griggs, Case Western Reserve University, Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Cleveland, Ohio, USA 44106.

Alison Harper, Case Western Reserve University, Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Department of Anthropology, Cleveland, Ohio, USA 44106.

Ronald L. Hickman, Jr, Ruth M. Anderson Endowed Professor of Nursing and Associate Dean for Research Case Western Reserve University, Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Cleveland, OH, USA 44106.

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That Place Right Before You Dream

Trying lewis carroll’s cures for insomnia..

Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, pen name Lewis Carroll, is best known as the Victorian-era author of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland . Now, out of obscurity, comes Lewis Carroll’s Guide for Insomniacs , a charmingly odd little book. From reasoning problems to poetry writing to how to greet a ghost—all activities for what Carroll calls insomnia’s “wakeful hours”—it’s composed of fun, or fun-ish, recommendations for ways to pass your sleep-deprived time. Insomnia, Carroll tries to convince us from beyond the grave, is an opportunity, rather than an affliction.

Writer, broadcaster, and former British Member of Parliament Gyles Brandreth, who compiled the book in the 1970s, writes in the new introduction to this second edition that he first learned of Carroll’s insomnia when he was commissioned to write a play based on the author’s life and work. The revelation shaped Brandreth’s approach to the project. “In the first act of my one-man play,” he writes, “the great man was in his Oxford college rooms talking to himself as he tried (and failed) to get to sleep. In the second act, he was in bed having dreams (and nightmares) peopled by the characters he had created, from the Mad Hatter to the Frumious Bandersnatch .”

This makes for a neat two-act structure. But for Carroll, waking and dreaming were not quite the opposites they seem to be. And since he believed dreaming to be a source of creativity, it follows that to him, sleeplessness might also be useful.

This is all well and good. But it’s especially hard for me when I get insomnia because I’m a teacher. I have to be on every day, all day; students demand nothing less. I’ve always suffered from intermittent insomnia, but, mercifully, never the kind that lasts more than a day or two. Dread is always my first response because my mind immediately fast-forwards to the next day, when I’ll be teaching one class after another with my response time compromised, a dangerous proposition when operating the heavy machinery of a middle school classroom. In recent years insomnia has usually hit me on Sundays, if it’s going to hit at all. That’s the worst because then not only do I start to shoulder the weight of the week without sleep, but I’m deprived of the good mood necessary for my students to mirror to make for a happy, functional classroom.

And as a teacher, I’ve taught Carroll’s books nearly every year I’ve been in the classroom. For my students and me, whether or not I’m teaching after a sleepless night, these days are always a wild tumble down the original rabbit hole into a dream for which we don’t need to be asleep. This is Wonderland-dream thinking, where stuff doesn’t make sense but also really does.

I always appreciate our classroom conversations about the White Rabbit, the Caterpillar, the Cheshire Cat, and all the rest of the exemplars of Wonderland’s rational madness. But most of all, I enjoy talking about a certain mad tea party with a Hatter, a March Hare, and a Dormouse. As the characters speak in turn, thoughts get tossed around like grenades, exploding in shrapnel of reason and absurdity. The wild chitchat gives Alice the chance to confront the difficulty she had with the Caterpillar: working out who she is, as best she can, with the words she has. Caught in a very lucid dream that might as well be waking, Alice struggles with who she is, how she feels, and making sense of whatever the hell is going on around her. Maybe, in 2024, you know the feeling?

Reading Lewis Carroll with my students has taught me that waking and dreaming aren’t as easily separable as we might want to think—and that we, as if in Wonderland, should lean into rationality and idiosyncrasy, waking and dreaming, to make sense of the world and ourselves.

OK , I thought, what do I have to lose? I tried the Guide for Insomniacs out one Sunday. Midnight came and went, and I remained wakeful and angsting for sleep. I’ve learned over the years that staying in bed when I have insomnia is too torturous for me to endure, so I got up and moved out to the couch, switched on a lamp with modest light, took out a little Moleskine book I usually use for reporting, and attempted some of Carroll’s exercises.

I started with the ones included in the “Rhymes at Midnight” section of the book, whose title I’d like to think is a sly allusion to a line of Shakespeare’s Falstaff in Henry IV (“We have heard the chimes at midnight ”). Carroll’s first suggestion is to write verses with a moral. Here’s what I came up with:

Sleep Is Good I wonder where sleep may be. I’ve let cares seize my mind. Fingers tighten, breathing, I plead With hostile sleep, how unkind. But I know sleep is not out there. It is in me, yet to emerge. I touch the tousled mess of my hair, Dreaming, eyes open, of latent sleep’s urge.

From there, Carroll suggests writing “dilutions,” which are poems in which the first line of each stanza is borrowed from the lines of stanza of a preexisting poem. You then are to write stanzas off those borrowed lines. Still feeling angsty and way too awake, I chose the final tercet (and the one line preceding it) from a translation of French poet Charles Baudelaire’s “ The Sadness of the Moon .”

Some pious poet, enemy of sleep, In greatest thrall To the mystery of it all, Takes in his hollow hand the tear of snow Clutching it close, Enduringly ephemeral, somehow, Whence gleams of iris and of opal start, Lights in purple black haze, Sleep turns inward on itself, And hides it from the Sun, deep in his heart, Where what matters endures, Through early dark, through early light.

Finally, still awake but maybe fading some, I tried—again per Carroll’s suggestion—writing an acrostic. His example is written off the name of one of his friends, but I chose “White Rabbit,” because, you know:

W ho do you think you are, H appy you can sleep, I gnoring the stupid hell T hat rages round each day. E veryone is appalled by you. R ight now I lie awake, A fraid waking is the worst kind of dream. B ut sleep will come when it’s ready. B ut oh how it eludes me now. I n terror, this inspires my scream, T ill a white rabbit wakes me into dream.

Finally, appropriately, I fell asleep after writing these lines. It worked!

The sections of this little book that I didn’t use but that might appeal to others include “Pillow Problems,” “Night Writing,” and “Ghosts and Nightcaps.” “Pillow Problems” offers math problems, puzzles, tangrams , a labyrinth, and word problems for the irrepressible problem-solvers out there. “Night Writing” includes instructions for how to use a nyctograph and alphabet cipher but is most endearingly archaic when it lays out the etiquette for proper letter writing.

The “Ghosts and Nightcaps” section includes recommendations for proper eating and drinking for rest, but also, in a wonderful bit of weirdness, Carroll’s matter-of-fact instructions for how to greet a ghost. “When encountering a ghost for the first time,” he writes, “it is necessary to remain as calm as may be and to retain the normal courtesies of civil society.” If that doesn’t work, he notes, you can try keeping your fears at bay by conjuring a ghost all your own, using shadow puppets (instructions included).

But it was “Rhymes at Midnight” that saw me off to slumber, after all, because it offered the best mix of aesthetic engagement and slight compositional angst, an approach that, for more emo-inclined types like me, is quite suitable. After my poetry exercises, I could even feel my consciousness unspooling till I could follow the thread down the rabbit hole. Now, I have to say, I might even use Carroll’s guide again. It made insomnia feel kind of funny and dark and thought-provoking, casting a spell over the experience much like that produced by reading about Wonderland’s twisted magic characters.

With insomnia, it’s often hard to remember that sleep will come at some point. When it does come and you wake up refreshed, it might be right to try, however you can, to keep one foot in the waking world and one foot in the dreaming world. That might seem bonkers, but then again, the glories and hilarities of Lewis Carroll would be lost on those who don’t heed the Cheshire Cat’s abiding insight: We’re all mad here.

Problem of Sleep Deprivation Cause and Effect Essay

Introduction.

What is Sleep Deprivation?

Causes of Sleep Deprivation

Effects of Sleep Deprivation

Managing Sleep Deprivation

Works cited.

The functioning of the human body is influenced by a number of factors, which are mainly determined by the health status of an individual. Oftentimes, people seek medication when the body deviates from its normal and usual functioning mechanisms. Through different activities and processes, the body is able to use energy and replenish itself. Sleeping is one of the activities that has a direct effect on the functioning of the body.

This sleep deprivation essay explores how the functioning of the human body is influenced by various factors, primarily determined by an individual’s health status. While most people do not understand the implications of sleep, human effectiveness solely depends on the amount of time dedicated to sleeping. However, for various reasons, people fail to get enough sleep daily, weekly, or on a regular basis.

What Is Sleep Deprivation?

This cause and effect of sleep deprivation essay defines sleep deprivation as a condition occurring among human beings when they fail to get enough sleep. Sleep deprivation is defined as a condition that occurs when human beings fail to get enough sleep. Many experts argue that sleep deficiency is widespread even though most people do not consider it to be a serious issue, which affects their (Gaine et al.). Sleep deprivation has become a major problem in the United States, with almost 47 million suffering from the condition (Wang and Xiaomin). This lack of sleep can lead to a variety of physical and mental health issues, impacting daily functioning and quality of life.

The present essay about sleep deprivation defines sleep deprivation as a condition that occurs among human beings when they fail to get enough sleep. Many experts argue that sleep deficiency is widespread even though most people do not consider it to be a serious issue that affects their lives. Sleep deprivation has become a major problem in the United States, with almost forty-seven million suffering from the condition (Wang and Xiaomin). Among other reasons, one may get insufficient sleep in a day as a result of various factors. Some people sleep at the wrong time due to busy daily schedules, while others have sleep disorders, which affect their sleeping patterns. The following segment of the paper discusses the causes of deprivation.

Sleep deprivation may occur as a result of factors that are not known to the patients. This is based on the fact that sleep deprivation may go beyond the number of hours one spends in bed. In some cases, the quality of sleep matters in determining the level of deprivation.

In this context, it is possible for one to be in bed for more than eight hours but suffer from the negative effects of sleep deprivation. Whilst this is the case, there are people who wake every morning feeling tired despite having spent a recommended number of hours in bed (Griggs et al.14367).

Sleep deprivation can be caused by medical conditions, which may include but are not limited to asthma, arthritis, muscle cramps, allergies, and muscular pain. These conditions have been classified by researchers as common medical conditions that largely contribute to most of the cases of sleep deprivation being witnessed in the United States.

Similarly, these medical conditions have a direct impact on not only the quality but also the time one takes in bed sleeping. It is worth noting that sometimes people are usually unconscious to realize that their sleep is not deep enough (Wang and Xiaomin). This also explains the reason why it is not easy for a person to recall any moment in life when he or she moved closer to waking up.

Treatment of cases like sleep apnea is important because it affects the quality of sleep without necessarily awakening the victim. This is because medical surveys have revealed fatal effects of sleep apnea, especially on the cardiovascular system. Besides these, one is likely to experience breathing difficulties caused by insufficient oxygen.

Even though the treatment of sleep deprivation is important, it has been found that some drugs used to treat patients may worsen the case or lead to poor quality of sleep. It is, therefore, necessary for the doctor to determine the best drugs to use. Discussions between doctors and victims are imperative in order to understand patients’ responses (Conroy et al. 185).

Sleep deprivation is also caused by sleep cycle disruptions, which interfere with the fourth stage of sleep. Oftentimes, these disruptions are described as night terrors, sleepwalking, and nightmares.

Though these disorders are known not to awaken a person completely, it is vital to note that they may disrupt the order of sleep cycles, forcing a person to move from the fourth stage to the first one. Victims of these disruptions require attention in order to take corrective measures.

In addition, there are known environmental factors which contribute to several cases of sleep deprivation. However, doctors argue that the impact on the environment is sometimes too minimal to be recognized by people who are affected by sleep deficiency (Gaine et al.). In other words, these factors affect the quality of sleep without necessarily arousing a person from sleep.

Common examples include extreme weather conditions, like high temperatures, noise, and poor quality of the mattress. As a result, they may contribute to a person’s awakening, depending on the intensity when one is sleeping.

Moreover, the impact of these factors may develop with time, thus affecting one’s quality of sleep. In addition, most of the environmental factors that contribute to sleep deprivation can be fixed easily without medical or professional skills. Nevertheless, the challenge is usually how to become aware of their existence.

Lastly, sleep deprivation is caused by stress and depression, which have been linked to other health disorders and complications. Together with some lifestyles in America, these factors are heavily contributing to sleep deficiency in most parts of the world. Even though they might not be acute enough to awaken an individual, their cumulative effects usually become significant.

There are countless stressors in the world that affect youths and adults. While young people could be concerned with passing exams, adults are normally preoccupied with pressure to attain certain goals in life. These conditions create a disturbed mind, which may affect a person’s ability to enjoy quality sleep.

Sleep deprivation has a host of negative effects which affect people of all ages. The commonest effect is stress. Most people who suffer from sleep deficiency are likely to experience depression frequently as compared to their counterparts who enjoy quality sleep (Conroy et al. 188). As a result, stress may lead to poor performance among students at school.

Research has revealed that students who spend very few hours in bed or experience disruptions during sleep are likely to register poor performance in their class assignments and final exams. Additionally, sleep deprivation causes inefficiency among employees.

For instance, drivers who experience this disorder are more likely to cause accidents as compared to those who are free from it (Griggs et al.14367). This is based on the fact that un-refreshed people have poor concentration and low mastery of their skills.

Besides stress and anxiety, sleep deprivation has a wide-range of health-related effects. For instance, medical experts argue that people who spend less than six hours in bed are likely to suffer from high blood pressure. Quality sleep gives the body an opportunity to rest by slowing down the rate at which it pumps blood to the rest of the body (Wang and Xiaomin).

Inadequate sleep implies that the heart has to work without its normal and recommended rest. Additionally, sleep deprivation is known to affect the immune system. People who experience this disorder end up with a weakened immune system, leaving the body prone to most illnesses. This reduced immune response accumulates and may become fatal with time.

Sleep paralysis is also a common effect of inadequate sleep. This is due to disruption of the sleep cycle. It primarily occurs when the body is aroused during the fourth stage of the sleep cycle. In this case, the body is left immobile as the mind regains consciousness. Due to this conflict, one may experience pain and hallucinations.

Based on the negative effects of sleep deprivation, there is a need to manage this disorder among Americans. Firstly, it is necessary for people to seek medical advice concerning certain factors which could be contributing to this condition, like stress and infections (Wang and Xiaomin).

Proper counseling is also vital in stabilizing a person’s mental capacity. Physical exercises are also known to relieve a person from stressful conditions, contributing to sleep deficiency. Lastly, it is essential to ensure that the environment is free from noise and has regulated weather conditions.

Sleep deprivation remains a major problem in America, affecting millions of people. As discussed above, sleep deprivation is caused by a host of factors, ranging from environmental to health-related issues. Moreover, sleep deficiency has countless effects, most of which may become fatal in cases where the disorder is chronic.

Conroy, Deirdre A., et al. “ The Effects of COVID-19 Stay-at-home Order on Sleep, Health, and Working Patterns: A Survey Study of US Health Care Workers. ” Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine , vol. 17, no. 2, Feb. 2021, pp. 185–91.

Gaine, Marie E., et al. “ Altered Hippocampal Transcriptome Dynamics Following Sleep Deprivation. ” Molecular Brain, vol. 14, no. 1, Aug. 2021.

Griggs, Stephanie, et al. “ Socioeconomic Deprivation, Sleep Duration, and Mental Health During the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic. ” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 19, no. 21, Nov. 2022, p. 14367.

Wang, Jun, and Xiaomin Ren. “ Association Between Sleep Duration and Sleep Disorder Data From the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and Stroke Among Adults in the United States .” Medical Science Monitor , vol. 28, June 2022.

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