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Types of academic writing

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The four main types of academic writing are descriptive, analytical, persuasive and critical. Each of these types of writing has specific language features and purposes.

In many academic texts you will need to use more than one type. For example, in an empirical thesis:

  • you will use critical writing in the literature review to show where there is a gap or opportunity in the existing research
  • the methods section will be mostly descriptive to summarise the methods used to collect and analyse information
  • the results section will be mostly descriptive and analytical as you report on the data you collected
  • the discussion section is more analytical, as you relate your findings back to your research questions, and also persuasive, as you propose your interpretations of the findings.

Descriptive

The simplest type of academic writing is descriptive. Its purpose is to provide facts or information. An example would be a summary of an article or a report of the results of an experiment.

The kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive assignment include: 'identify', 'report', 'record', 'summarise' and 'define'.

It’s rare for a university-level text to be purely descriptive. Most academic writing is also analytical. Analytical writing includes descriptive writing, but also requires you to re-organise the facts and information you describe into categories, groups, parts, types or relationships.

Sometimes, these categories or relationships are already part of the discipline, while in other cases you will create them specifically for your text. If you’re comparing two theories, you might break your comparison into several parts, for example: how each theory deals with social context, how each theory deals with language learning, and how each theory can be used in practice.

The kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment include: 'analyse', 'compare', 'contrast', 'relate', and 'examine'.

To make your writing more analytical:

  • spend plenty of time planning. Brainstorm the facts and ideas, and try different ways of grouping them, according to patterns, parts, similarities and differences. You could use colour-coding, flow charts, tree diagrams or tables.
  • create a name for the relationships and categories you find. For example, advantages and disadvantages.
  • build each section and paragraph around one of the analytical categories.
  • make the structure of your paper clear to your reader, by using topic sentences and a clear introduction.

In most academic writing, you are required to go at least one step further than analytical writing, to persuasive writing. Persuasive writing has all the features of analytical writing (that is, information plus re-organising the information), with the addition of your own point of view. Most essays are persuasive, and there is a persuasive element in at least the discussion and conclusion of a research article.

Points of view in academic writing can include an argument, recommendation, interpretation of findings or evaluation of the work of others. In persuasive writing, each claim you make needs to be supported by some evidence, for example a reference to research findings or published sources.

The kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment include: 'argue', 'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'.

To help reach your own point of view on the facts or ideas:

  • read some other researchers' points of view on the topic. Who do you feel is the most convincing?
  • look for patterns in the data or references. Where is the evidence strongest?
  • list several different interpretations. What are the real-life implications of each one? Which ones are likely to be most useful or beneficial? Which ones have some problems?
  • discuss the facts and ideas with someone else. Do you agree with their point of view?

To develop your argument:

  • list the different reasons for your point of view
  • think about the different types and sources of evidence which you can use to support your point of view
  • consider different ways that your point of view is similar to, and different from, the points of view of other researchers
  • look for various ways to break your point of view into parts. For example, cost effectiveness, environmental sustainability, scope of real-world application.

To present your argument, make sure:

  • your text develops a coherent argument where all the individual claims work together to support your overall point of view
  • your reasoning for each claim is clear to the reader
  • your assumptions are valid
  • you have evidence for every claim you make
  • you use evidence that is convincing and directly relevant.

Critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced undergraduate writing. It has all the features of persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one other point of view. While persuasive writing requires you to have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own.

For example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation or argument and then evaluate the merits of the argument, or give your own alternative interpretation.

Examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a journal article, or a literature review that identifies the strengths and weaknesses of existing research. The kinds of instructions for critical writing include: 'critique', 'debate', 'disagree' and 'evaluate'.

You need to:

  • accurately summarise all or part of the work. This could include identifying the main interpretations, assumptions or methodology.
  • have an opinion about the work. Appropriate types of opinion could include pointing out some problems with it, proposing an alternative approach that would be better, and/or defending the work against the critiques of others.
  • provide evidence for your point of view. Depending on the specific assignment and the discipline, different types of evidence may be appropriate, such as logical reasoning, reference to authoritative sources and/or research data.

Critical writing requires strong writing skills. You need to thoroughly understand the topic and the issues. You need to develop an essay structure and paragraph structure that allows you to analyse different interpretations and develop your own argument, supported by evidence.

This material was developed by the Learning Hub (Academic Language and Learning), which offers workshops, face-to-face consultations and resources to support your learning. Find out more about how they can help you develop your communication, research and study skills .

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What is Academic Writing? Common Types With Examples

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| Candace Osmond

Photo of author

Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond studied Advanced Writing & Editing Essentials at MHC. She’s been an International and USA TODAY Bestselling Author for over a decade. And she’s worked as an Editor for several mid-sized publications. Candace has a keen eye for content editing and a high degree of expertise in Fiction.

Every person experiences writing an academic paper at least once in their student life. This type of writing uses accurate language, facts, logical flow, and a formal tone to showcase their knowledge.

These academic writing styles and examples will help you receive a perfect score or get that research grant. Keep reading to know the elements and types of academic writing with examples. 

How is Academic Writing Different from Other Types of Writing?

An academic paper is writing used in universities and scholarly publications with a formal tone in its content. It includes essays, research papers, research proposals, and other documents for scholarly publication. 

Any academic writing has the same process as other texts. However, the topic, idea, and tone are different. For example, a journal article brings attention to unbiased information through a clear and precise thesis statement.

A thesis statement includes the entire argument of your study or paper. It involves the central idea that shows your content reader what you will reveal or prove. Because it’s supposed to be objective, academic writing must have theories, causes, and effects.

This type of writing doesn’t always need to be based on facts. But it needs to be as objective and unbiased as possible. Here’s what differentiates academic writing from personal writing.

Academic Writing

Formal approach with an impersonal tone

Cites scholarly sources

Sentences are made of evidence, evaluations, and arguments.

Focused and well-structured

Personal Writing

Formal or informal approach may include conversational language.

Doesn’t require scholarly sources

Content is made of personal experiences

Long-winded

Elements of Academic Writing

The elements of academic writing vary according to the specific type of writing you’re producing. But here are some common elements of any academic writing assignment.

Academic Vocabulary

The best-known writers in any field of study know how to use jargon words in any report or essay to convey an academic tone. For the ordinary reader, everything might look like flowery language. But for readers in the same discipline, the writer makes convincing arguments.

An academic writing style always has a certain level of vocabulary. The two types include:

  • Academic vocabulary (more general).
  • Subject-vocabulary (for a particular field of study).

Some examples of general academic vocabulary include “analyze,” “concept,” and “construct.” In the field of law, some subject-vocabulary include “acquittal,” “dismissal,” “jurisdiction,” and “tribunal.”

Scholarly articles need to include proper citation styles to establish a more authoritative tone. The academic content must include research from reliable sources like studies and journal articles. 

Even if you only borrowed an idea and used it in a single sentence, you still need to follow proper referencing. Some style guides include Modern Language Association (MLA), Chicago Manual Style, and American Psychological Association (APA).

Academic content should also pay attention to the conventions of the reference list. Check the style guide to see how you should format the bibliography. Remember that other style guides also require footnotes. 

what are the different types of academic writing brainly

Well-Structured

Academic essay writing needs to have a proper outline to convey the entire message. First, academic articles should contain a research question or thesis statement to develop their argument. This should be in the introduction part.

The body of writing contains all supporting details. You may use headings to divide longer texts into chapters. Your body paragraph should also start with a topic sentence all the time.

Don’t forget to use transition words when expressing connections between your ideas. Use the proper punctuations with a variety of sentence lengths.

Uses Third Person Point of View Most of the Time

Academic writing usually uses a third-person point of view like “he,” “she,” or “they.” The writer doesn’t refer to themselves as “I” or “me.” Instead, they use “researcher” to name themselves. 

Doing so provides more objectivity to the paper, separating the author from the academic topics. It also stresses the academic style where the writer supports their focused argument and not their personal experience. 

But some academic journals now accept the first-person point of view, especially APA. It doesn’t necessarily mean the writer is using informal language. Using credible sources and academic vocabulary still keeps the paper’s formality.

Common Types of Academic Writing

There are different types of academic writing, including a book report, journal article, and dissertation. Here are the most common types:

  • Research paper.
  • Research proposal.
  • Thesis and dissertation.
  • Lab report.
  • Literature review,
  • Annotated bibliography. 

We can also categorize the major types of these papers into five. 

Descriptive Writing

Descriptive papers are the simplest types of writing that academic writers produce. It has several purposes, although it primarily offers facts and information in several fields of study. This academic writing can describe a phenomenon, person, place, case, or object.

You can also use personal experience when making descriptive essays. But effective writing includes using precise language to avoid turning it into personal writing. 

Analytical Writing

Most academic papers in universities aren’t entirely descriptive. A scientific question and an analysis typically follow a factual statement. Analytical writing includes reorganizing facts, showing relationships, and comparing information.

An academic study may include comparing and contrasting complex ideas and theories. 

Or you may deconstruct a single notion and contextualize it in a different social setting. You’ll find this writing style in reviews of literature.

When writing an analytical paper, always make the structure of your writing clear. Create an outline beforehand, and don’t forget to add accurate citations.

Persuasive Writing

Persuasive writing has the same characteristics as analytical writing, plus your point of view. This type of writing requires a coherent argument backed by relevant evidence throughout the paper.

The writer also has to include a recommendation, interpretation of findings, and an analysis of others’ scholarly writing. Some academic writing examples include persuasive essays and the final part of a research article.

Any persuasive assignment requires you to “discuss,” “evaluate,” or “argue.” As always, you need to add citations to your work to make yourself more credible. 

Critical Writing

Critical writing is a form of writing in college essays and postgraduate writing. Critical writing assignments follow a formal writing style with the added feature of another point of view.

What makes it different from persuasive writing is that a critical essay needs more than one point of view. And that includes your own. This writing should also have a strong statement or messages backed by authoritative sources. 

Academic Writing Example 1: Research Proposals

Colleges usually submit research proposals before conducting their studies. This form of academic writing is a concise yet coherent summary of your proposed research. It should contain the essential issues and questions that your research should address. 

Aside from outlining the general area of your study, the proposal also proves that your research will be unique and beneficial. Although it’s not a persuasive paper, it should convince the professor that your study is worth performing.

An excellent-quality paper also matches your research interest with the professor or supervisor. Consider it like an application on which potential advisers will pick if they want to support your research or not. 

The research proposal also allows you to demonstrate your skills and aptitude for the level of research you’re conducting. This is where you can prove that you can communicate complex ideas concisely and critically. 

Research Proposal Structure

The research proposal must always contain the following:

  • A cover letter addressed to whom you’re proposing. It must show a summary of your proposal and why they should approve it.
  • An introduction or abstract in a short paragraph.
  • The rationale, significance, and limitations of your research.
  • Your methods for conducting the study, including your budget. 

Research Proposal Example

Here’s a great example of an excerpt from a research proposal in the field of criminology:

The empirical focus of the research will be strategies of restorative justice, as articulated by Thames Valley Police. Recent developments in restorative justice constitute a radical realignment in police practices, resulting in a more holistic and multi-level approach (involving all forms of police’ consumer’, including victims, offenders, families, local authorities and members of the business community). In this regard, Thames Valley offers a unique case of a self-styled ‘model’ of modern policing and is considered to be one of the most innovative forces in the country (see, for example, their Restorative Justice programme, 2001).

Academic Writing Example 2: Dissertations

Dissertations are another type of academic paper with definite writing rules. This document aims to give evidence of a candidate’s knowledge and skills in a scholarly method. But the content itself may serve educational purposes that contribute to the field of study. 

This academic paper typically has ten to twenty thousand words that answer a specific research question. The answer to the research question may be based on an experiment, empirical study, or literature review. 

To advisers and professors, the method of producing a dissertation matters more than the result. You can still create a dissertation without actual findings or if your tested hypothesis was wrong. 

You might have to conduct a study even before writing the dissertation. A needs analysis, survey, or experiment will help you determine the significant “problem” or “question” you want to address.

Let your supervisor or adviser direct how you will conduct your studies. They will instruct the scope, limitations, and method for your research. 

Dissertation Structure

Dissertations and thesis papers always pay attention to structure. Below is the academic paper format of a dissertation:

  • Introduction (including the background of the study and its significance).
  • Review of related literature.
  • Methodology.
  • Findings or data analysis.
  • Conclusion and recommendations. 

Dissertation Example

Here’s one example of an excerpt from a sample dissertation :

This chapter will discuss secondary research findings using the National Health Service as a case study. The secondary sources discussed will use all relevant material such as books, journal articles, publications from the National Health Service website and newspaper articles that have been reviewed by an individual or a group of individuals who are involved with a study or have performed extensive research within an area which is directly or indirectly related to the main question of this dissertation.

Academic Writing Example 3: Abstracts

The abstract summarizes your dissertation or research paper found at the start of the document. It’s composed of evidence-based arguments and research outcomes in concise sentences. 

This type of academic writing is the shortest and, therefore, the easiest. It usually has around 150-300 words only. The word limit depends on the style guide you’re following or the advice of your research adviser. 

There are several acceptable approaches to writing an abstract. The easiest way is to imitate the structure of your large paper. It should contain the introduction, method, findings, and conclusions. 

Although the abstract is the first part of your thesis or research paper, it’s usually the last you write. Remember that it’s not an excerpt from your report or a reflection of your work. It’s simply a summary of everything in one paragraph. 

Abstract Structure

Your abstract must contain the following in only a few sentences:

  • Conclusion.

Abstract Example

Here’s an example of an abstract whose research focuses on medicine:

The Southwest shrub Juniperus communis (Juniper Berry) has many significant medicinal value in the Native American culture that has not been proven scientifically. One of the popular uses of Juniper berries aside from its detoxifying action is its potential to repel insects. This study focuses on the development of insect repellant from its essential oil obtained through steam distillation. 50 g of fresh berries was collected and dried for 5 days and is placed in a still tank with 100 mL of water for steam distillation using the Flinn Scientific Borosilicate Lab Kit. Gather the extracted oil and dilute 70% in three separate containers to be transferred into spray bottles. Testing involved the spraying of the dilute sample into a class jar with Anopheles juidthae (common NM mosquito) and compared this to the effect of a commercial insect repellant. After testing and comparing the result, the commercial insect repellant significantly showed that it is a better insect repellant compared to the J. communis diluted essential oil. However, the essential oil has also an insect repellant potential.

Practice Your Academic Writing Skills

There are different types of academic writing styles you’ll encounter as you enter university or college. Whether it’s a dissertation, research paper, or persuasive essay, remember to use a formal and impersonal tone. Doing so will help you become more logical and objective. 

Keep practicing your academic writing skills to succeed in your field of study!

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7 Types of Academic Writing With Examples

Types of Academic Writing With Examples

What is Academic Writing? 

Academic writing is a kind of writing that is characterized by being objective, concise, and clear and is used to convey complex ideas and arguments. Academic writing is used in many different contexts, including essays, research papers, dissertations, academic journals, textbooks, and other scholarly publications. In order to be effective, it is needed in academic writing to adhere to a set of conventions and standards, such as using proper grammar and citation styles and sticking to a clear and logical structure.

Academic writing is often a collaborative effort between researchers and writers and is subject to peer review and editing. This process helps to ensure that the final product is accurate, reliable, and of high quality. 

Types of Academic Writing

Academic writing is a type of written work that is commonly used in academic settings and is characterized by a formal tone, the use of evidence and sources, and a clear structure. There are several different types of academic writing, each of which serves a different purpose and requires a different approach. 

Below are some of the most common 7 types of academic writing with examples:

1. Narrative Writing:

Narrative writing is one where a story is being told. It usually has a personal tone and is written in the first person, using "I" or "we." The purpose of this writing is to share an experience or event that has impacted the writer's life in some way, allowing the reader to gain a deeper understanding of the writer's thoughts, feelings, and perspectives.

In narrative writing, the writer will typically use personal experiences, anecdotes, or fictional events to illustrate a point or make an argument. 

For example, the above could be described as a personal experience, such as a memorable trip, and use that experience to reflect on a larger issue or theme.

Narrative writing can be based on real-life events or fictional stories, and they often use descriptive language and sensory details to create a vivid and engaging picture for the reader. They also typically follow a clear chronological order and have a clear beginning, middle, and end. Here is an example of narrative writing:

Example: Conquering a fear 

I have always been afraid of heights. The thought of standing on a tall building or looking over the edge of a cliff makes my heart race and my palms sweat. I have tried to overcome this fear many times, but nothing seemed to work. That was until I took a trip to the Grand Canyon.

As soon as we arrived at the Grand Canyon, I was struck by its beauty. The vast expanse of the canyon and the deep chasms that cut into the earth were both awe-inspiring and intimidating. I was nervous about hiking to the bottom of the canyon, but I was determined to overcome my fear.

As we began our descent, I was filled with a mixture of excitement and fear. The trail was narrow and steep, and I felt my heart pounding in my chest. However, as I continued on, I realized that I was actually enjoying the experience. The breathtaking views and the sense of accomplishment I felt with each step helped me to push through my fear.

When we finally reached the bottom of the canyon, I was filled with a sense of pride and accomplishment. I had done something that I never thought I would be able to do, and I had done it without letting my fear get the best of me.

2. Descriptive Writing:  

Descriptive writing is a type of writing that is used to describe a person, place, object, or experience. The purpose of this type of writing is to help the reader to visualize the experience and feel as though they were actually there. The writer needs to use vivid language and sensory details to bring the subject to life for the reader.

For example, if you were writing descriptive writing about a beach, you might want to describe the sound of the waves crashing against the shore, the feel of the sand between your toes, the smell of salt in the air, and the sight of the seagulls flying overhead. By providing these sensory details, the reader is able to imagine the experience and feel as though they are actually at the beach.

It is important to note that descriptive writing should not just be a list of facts and details. Instead, the writer should use the details to create a vivid image in the reader's mind and to evoke an emotional response. The writer should also aim to create a connection between the reader and the subject of the writing.

3. Expository Writing: 

Expository writing is a type of writing that explains and clarifies a subject or an issue. The goal of this type of writing is to inform the reader about the topic in   a clear, concise, and objective manner. Expository writing does not aim to persuade the reader or present the writer's opinion, but instead, it provides the reader with information that is well-researched and well-organized.

For example, if you were writing about climate change, you might begin by defining what climate change is and explaining the various causes and effects. You might then go on to discuss the scientific evidence supporting the existence of climate change and the steps that can be taken to mitigate its impact. Your writing might also provide an overview of the current state of the climate and the efforts that are being made to address the issue.

Another example of an expository writing might be about the history of the internet. In this writing, you might begin by discussing the origins of the internet and how it has evolved over the years. You might then go on to discuss the various technologies that have contributed to the growth of the internet, including the development of the World Wide Web, social media, and e-commerce. Your writing might also provide an overview of the current state of the internet and its impact on society.

4. Argumentative Writing:  

An argumentative writing is a type of writing that presents a thesis or claim and then uses evidence and logic to support that thesis. The purpose of an argumentative writing is to persuade the reader of the writer's point of view. 

For example, an argumentative writing might argue that schools should ban junk food, and then provide evidence and statistics to support this claim. 

5. Compare and Contrast Writing: 

A compare and contrast writing is a type of writing that compares two or more things and then discusses their similarities and differences. The purpose of a compare and contrast writing is to help the reader understand the similarities and differences between two or more things. For example, a compare and contrast writing might compare and contrast two different types of music, such as rock and classical. Following is an example of Compare and Contrast 

Example: Comparison of Online Learning and Traditional Classroom Learning

Introduction- 

  • Definition of online learning and traditional classroom learning
  • Thesis statement: Online learning and traditional classroom learning have similarities and differences that affect student  learning outcomes.

Body Paragraph 1: Similarities

  • Both types of learning require a teacher and a curriculum.
  • Both types of learning require assignments, exams, and grades.

Body Paragraph 2: Differences

  • Online learning provides flexibility in  scheduling and location.
  • Traditional classroom learning provides face-to-face interaction with teachers and peers.

Body Paragraph 3: Similarities

  • Both types of learning require students to be self-motivated and disciplined.
  • Both types of learning can be tailored to individual learning styles.

Body Paragraph 4: Differences

  • Online learning can lack the structure and social support of traditional classroom learning.
  • Traditional classroom learning can be less accessible to students with disabilities or who live far from campus.

Conclusion -

  • Recap  of similarities and differences between online learning and traditional classroom learning.
  • Final thoughts on the benefits and drawbacks of each approach.

6. Cause and Effect Writing:  

A cause-and- effect writing is a type of writing that explains how one thing leads to another. The purpose of cause-and-effect writing is to help the reader understand how and why things happen. For example, cause-and-effect writing might explain how climate change is causing sea levels to rise, and the effects that this is having on coastal communities.

Example:   The Causes and Effects of Climate Change

Introduction:

Climate change is a global phenomenon that has become a major concern in recent years. This writing aims to explore the causes and effects of climate change.

Body Paragraph 1: 

The primary cause of climate change is human activities, including burning fossil fuels and deforestation. These activities release large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which trap heat and cause the planet to warm.

Body Paragraph 2: 

The effects of climate change are widespread and varied, including rising sea levels, more frequent and severe natural disasters, and changes in weather patterns that impact agriculture and food security.

Body Paragraph 3: 

The effects of climate change also have economic and social impacts, such as the displacement of people due to flooding and drought, and the economic costs of responding to and mitigating the effects of climate change.

Conclusion: 

In conclusion, climate change is a complex phenomenon with far-reaching effects on the planet, people, and the economy. Addressing the causes of climate change and adapting to its effects will require global cooperation and concerted action.

7. Persuasive Writing:  

Persuasive writing is a type of writing that tries to convince the reader to agree with the writer's point of view. The purpose of persuasive writing is to persuade the reader to take a particular action or to adopt a certain viewpoint. For example, persuasive writing might argue that schools should require students to wear uniforms, and then provide evidence and arguments to support this claim.

Here's an example of persuasive writing:

Title: The Benefits of Exercise for a Healthy Life

Regular exercise is an essential component of a healthy lifestyle. This writing argues that exercise not only improves physical health but also has numerous mental and emotional benefits.

Body Paragraph 1:

Exercise is crucial for maintaining a healthy weight and reducing the risk of chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. It improves cardiovascular health, strengthens muscles, and boosts immunity.

Exercise is also beneficial for mental health, reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression, and improving cognitive function. It can boost self-confidence, increase motivation, and reduce stress levels.

Exercise is an excellent way to socialize and meet new people. It can provide a sense of community and belonging, whether it's through group fitness classes or team sports.

Body Paragraph 4: 

Exercise can be enjoyable and fulfilling, providing a sense of accomplishment and pride. It can be a source of inspiration and motivation, helping individuals achieve their goals and live more fulfilling life.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, regular exercise offers numerous benefits for physical, mental, and emotional health. Whether it's through sports, outdoor activities, or gym workouts, exercise is an essential component of a healthy and happy life . So, it's time to prioritize exercise in our daily routines to enjoy its many benefits.

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Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise. Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts within a community of scholarly experts and practitioners.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020.

Importance of Good Academic Writing

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I.  The Big Picture Unlike creative or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the paper.

II.  Tone The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III.  Diction Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV.  Language The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi- dimensional . Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty. Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they," "we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.'  ["in other words"], 'e.g.' ["for example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very," "incredible," "huge," etc.].

V.  Punctuation Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and, therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases [e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with "nevertheless", "therefore", "even so," and "for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI.  Academic Conventions Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes or endnotes is a key feature of academic writing. It is essential to always acknowledge the source of any ideas, research findings, data, paraphrased, or quoted text that you have used in your paper as a defense against allegations of plagiarism. Even more important, the scholarly convention of citing sources allow readers to identify the resources you used in writing your paper so they can independently verify and assess the quality of findings and conclusions based on your review of the literature. Examples of other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings, properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language, avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions [e.g., isn't], and using first person and second person pronouns only when necessary.

VII.  Evidence-Based Reasoning Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem. However, what is valued in academic writing is that statements are based on evidence-based reasoning. This refers to possessing a clear understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that exist within, and often external to, your discipline concerning the topic. You need to support your arguments with evidence from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed] sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument; the quality of the evidence you cite will determine the strength of your argument. The objective is to convince the reader of the validity of your thoughts through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended courses of action.

VIII.  Thesis-Driven Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving solutions to the questions applied to investigating the research problem. Note that a problem statement without the research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering information or data to better understand the problem.

IX.  Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way: One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented during class. This is also one of the main functions of academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as possible.  As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing complex information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a better understanding of the research problem.

Academic Writing. Writing Center. Colorado Technical College; Hartley, James. Academic Writing and Publishing: A Practical Guide . New York: Routledge, 2008; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Roy. Improve Your Writing Skills . Manchester, UK: Clifton Press, 1995; Nygaard, Lynn P. Writing for Scholars: A Practical Guide to Making Sense and Being Heard . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2015; Silvia, Paul J. How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2007; Style, Diction, Tone, and Voice. Writing Center, Wheaton College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.

Strategies for...

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of research jargon is language specific to a particular community of practitioner-researchers . Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of a each discipline may have subtle differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of their work.

Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately and applied under the appropriate conditions . Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline. These can be found by either searching in the USC Libraries catalog by entering the disciplinary and the word dictionary [e.g., sociology and dictionary] or using a database such as Credo Reference [a curated collection of subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, guides from highly regarded publishers] . It is appropriate for you to use specialist language within your field of study, but you should avoid using such language when writing for non-academic or general audiences.

Problems with Opaque Writing

A common criticism of scholars is that they can utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1.   Excessive use of specialized terminology . Yes, it is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear, concise, and elegant prose that minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2.   Inappropriate use of specialized terminology . Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study. However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--do not just guess or assume! Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC Libraries catalog or the Credo Reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

  • Personal nouns . Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.
  • Directives . Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes. Note that an exception to this can be found in various forms of action research that involve evidence-based advocacy for social justice or transformative change. Within this area of the social sciences, authors may offer directives for action in a declarative tone of urgency.
  • Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms . Academic writing relies on excellent grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang terms because they can be open to interpretation. Your writing should be direct and concise using standard English.
  • Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not have confusing language . By doing so, you  help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting the design and purpose of your study.
  • Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack context or specificity.
  • Numbered lists and bulleted items . The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and avoid checkmarks or other symbols.
  • Descriptive writing . Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study. In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you can not assume the reader knows the key aspects of the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
  • Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though, because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE:   Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting someone.  A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted text to indicate that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source had grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Murray, Rowena  and Sarah Moore. The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach . New York: Open University Press, 2006; Johnson, Eileen S. “Action Research.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by George W. Noblit and Joseph R. Neikirk. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2020); Oppenheimer, Daniel M. "Consequences of Erudite Vernacular Utilized Irrespective of Necessity: Problems with Using Long Words Needlessly." Applied Cognitive Psychology 20 (2006): 139-156; Ezza, El-Sadig Y. and Touria Drid. T eaching Academic Writing as a Discipline-Specific Skill in Higher Education . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2020; Pernawan, Ari. Common Flaws in Students' Research Proposals. English Education Department. Yogyakarta State University; Style. College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas: 1.   Clear Writing . The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts. Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully. 2.  Excellent Grammar . Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek detailed feedback from professors. Take advantage of the Writing Center on campus if you need help. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly improve academic writing [see sub-tab for proofreading you paper ].

Refer to these three basic resources to help your grammar and writing skills:

  • A good writing reference book, such as, Strunk and White’s book, The Elements of Style or the St. Martin's Handbook ;
  • A college-level dictionary, such as, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary ;
  • The latest edition of Roget's Thesaurus in Dictionary Form .

3.  Consistent Stylistic Approach . Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability. Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

II. Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the following elements in your writing.

  • It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
  • Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
  • You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
  • You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
  • The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
  • The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
  • You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
  • You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
  • Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
  • Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
  • The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.

Boscoloa, Pietro, Barbara Arféb, and Mara Quarisaa. “Improving the Quality of Students' Academic Writing: An Intervention Study.” Studies in Higher Education 32 (August 2007): 419-438; Academic Writing. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Academic Writing Style. First-Year Seminar Handbook. Mercer University; Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Cornell University; Candlin, Christopher. Academic Writing Step-By-Step: A Research-based Approach . Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2016; College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Style . College Writing. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Invention: Five Qualities of Good Writing. The Reading/Writing Center. Hunter College; Sword, Helen. Stylish Academic Writing . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012; What Is an Academic Paper? Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing

In the English language, we are able to construct sentences in the following way: 1.  "The policies of Congress caused the economic crisis." 2.  "The economic crisis was caused by the policies of Congress."

The decision about which sentence to use is governed by whether you want to focus on “Congress” and what they did, or on “the economic crisis” and what caused it. This choice in focus is achieved with the use of either the active or the passive voice. When you want your readers to focus on the "doer" of an action, you can make the "doer"' the subject of the sentence and use the active form of the verb. When you want readers to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself, you can make the effect or the action the subject of the sentence by using the passive form of the verb.

Often in academic writing, scholars don't want to focus on who is doing an action, but on who is receiving or experiencing the consequences of that action. The passive voice is useful in academic writing because it allows writers to highlight the most important participants or events within sentences by placing them at the beginning of the sentence.

Use the passive voice when:

  • You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
  • It is not important who or what did the action;
  • You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

  • Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
  • Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.

NOTE: Consult with your professor about using the passive voice before submitting your research paper. Some strongly discourage its use!

Active and Passive Voice. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Diefenbach, Paul. Future of Digital Media Syllabus. Drexel University; Passive Voice. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.  

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8 Types of Academic Writing

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Identifying the keywords in your assignment instructions can help you understand the type of writing that you are expected to do.

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If you are a beginning academic writer, in your first semester of university studies, you will likely start with some descriptive writing.

By the end of your first semester, you may be expected to include analysis, persuasion, and critique in your writing. Most of the academic writing you will do as a university student will include a combination of these different types of writing.

Pencil crayons lay on a piece of paper. Each pencil crayon has been used to draw on stripe of a rainbow.

Below, we’ll look more closely at the four different types of writing (descriptive, analytical, persuasive, and critical)  and consider strategies for developing ideas.

Click on the titles to expand the sections.

  • Description and discussion of types of writing reproduced, with permission, from "Types of Academic Writing" by University of Sydney Learning Centre https://sydney.edu.au/students/writing/types-of-academic-writing.html ↵

Academic Writing Basics Copyright © 2019 by Megan Robertson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Academic writing: purpose, features and rules

Academic writing: purpose, features and rules

Have you heard any transfer rumors regarding David De Gea? Squadra azzurra was really good last night. “Red Devils” always have a tough experience at Stamford Bridge. Now these kinds of questions are specific to one particular sports field – soccer. Most of the sentences above make no sense to people who don’t know anything about the game. If one wants to join the conversation about soccer, there are terms he/she has to be familiar with in order to understand the talk. More than that, if you want to be an effective participant, you have to learn how to play their language game with all of the specific terms and values. And just like with soccer (or any other sports really), academic discourse also has its own lingo. In other words, there are certain terms you must accept and use in order to be successful in this field. So basically whenever you enter any college or university, you enter an academic community that has its values and shares certain ways of writing and speaking. In this article we would like to focus on features of academic writing which will hopefully help you be a better student and handle assignments efficiently.

academic writing service

Features of Academic Writing

Many people ask “How does academic writing differ from other forms of writing?” This is a good question, and the answer will clear things out about what academic writing style is all about. Obviously, there are many distinctive features, but before we get to that, one has to know some rules of academic writing. First of all, it is correct grammar, clear organization of written content and proper academic writing format. These are fundamental things (not even rules actually) one has to adhere to in this type of writing. The actual rules are all about the proper use of literary devices, word choice, style and values. The general purpose of academic writing is to present information in order to display a clear understanding of a particular subject. There are different types of academic writing however, and each of them has its specific purpose (explain, describe, retell, persuade, etc.) Now as we have covered the basics, let’s move on to the actual features of this type of writing.

Effective academic writing assumes the abundant use of specific dates and figures. Vague word combinations like “a lot of people” or “someone said” aren’t considered good academic writing expressions. 50 thousand, 76%, 1789 miles, year 2011 – these are the words that fit the academic context much better. This would be quite typical academic sentence, for example: Biologist had attempted to synthesize molecular developments for the previous 10 years .

Another example:

“A study conducted in 2019 found that 87% of participants reported experiencing symptoms of anxiety, compared to only 43% of participants in a similar study conducted in 2009.” .

This sentence uses specific dates and figures to convey precise information about the study and its results. Instead of using vague words like “many” or “some,” it provides exact percentages and years to support its claims. This type of precision is important in academic writing because it helps to ensure accuracy and credibility in the research being presented.

If you compare your everyday talk with academic writing, you will easily notice that written language is more complex. It is more sophisticated also from the grammatical standpoint as it utilizes more subordinate and “that-to” complement clauses as well as more attributive adjectives. Academic writing also features more lexical variations in comparison to spoken language. For example, if you could say to your friend something like “Violence has changed once quiet US cities” in academic writing it would look more like “The cities in the United States of America had once been quiet, but they changed when people became violent.”

“Through a comparative analysis of three different novels, this study aims to examine the intricate ways in which cultural identity is represented and constructed within the literary discourse of postcolonial literature.” .

This sentence is more complex than everyday language because it contains multiple clauses and uses a more formal and academic tone. The sentence includes a subordinate clause (“through a comparative analysis of three different novels”) and a relative clause (“in which cultural identity is represented and constructed within the literary discourse of postcolonial literature”). Additionally, the sentence uses attributive adjectives (“cultural,” “literary,” and “postcolonial”) and more precise and formal phrasing (“aims to examine the intricate ways” instead of “wants to look at how”). These elements contribute to the complexity of academic writing and help convey a more formal and academic tone.

Informal language assumes the abundant use of colloquial expressions like “sort of”, “stuff”, etc. along with abbreviated forms of words and phrasal word verbs (for instance, put off). If you have ever read any of the articles on academic writing tips, you must know that the aforementioned informalities are not appropriate in this context.

Here is an example of a sentence that demonstrates formality in academic writing:

“When writing academically, it’s important to avoid using colloquial expressions like ‘sort of’ and ‘stuff’, as well as abbreviations and phrasal verbs like ‘put off’. These informalities might be fine in everyday conversation, but they don’t meet the formal standards required in academic writing.”

This sentence maintains a conversational tone while still conveying the necessary information about formality in academic writing. It uses contractions and a more natural sentence structure, while still conveying the importance of avoiding informal language. Additionally, it uses simple phrasing and avoids overly technical or complex language, making the information more accessible to a wider audience.

Objectivity

This may well be the hardest requirement of academic writing for students as they often tend to focus on what they feel and believe when writing their assignments. The thing is that when we are talking about objectivity, we mean that the main emphasis should be on the presented information and/or arguments rather than what you “think about the issue”. Professors in colleges aren’t particularly interested in just what you think; instead, they need to know what you have studied, how you can back up your arguments, and how you can draw your conclusions. So if you have to write an academic paper, forget about appealing to reader’s emotions as well as using “I”, “me”, “in my opinion”, etc.

Example of objectivity: “Recent studies have indicated a correlation between excessive social media usage and increased levels of anxiety and depression among young adults.”

In this example, the writer presents a factual statement based on research findings without inserting personal beliefs or opinions. The statement focuses on the relationship between social media usage and mental health issues as indicated by scientific studies. This objective approach allows the reader to evaluate the evidence and draw their conclusions based on the presented information.

In contrast, a subjective statement might look like this: “I think social media is ruining the mental health of young adults, as I’ve seen many of my friends become more anxious and depressed after spending too much time online.”

In the subjective example, the writer relies on personal observations and opinions rather than empirical evidence. By using phrases like “I think” and “my friends,” the writer makes the statement about their perspective, which is not the main focus in academic writing.

Being accurate in the use of vocabulary is another important requirement for all academic papers. In everyday conversations, words like “money”, “cash” and “funds” can be used interchangeably. However, when you work on an academic paper, you have to be accurate in using these terms appropriately because each one of them has its specific meaning and context. Despite the fact that they all seem to present pretty much the same concept, these terms have their own distinctive features and applications.

Example of accuracy: “During an economic crisis, central banks may inject funds into the financial system by increasing the money supply, which can be in the form of cash or electronic deposits.”

In this example, the writer demonstrates accuracy by using the terms “money”, “cash”, and “funds” appropriately and distinguishing between their specific meanings within the context of economics. “Money” refers to the general concept of a medium of exchange used for transactions, which can take various forms. “Cash” specifically denotes physical currency, such as banknotes and coins. “Funds” pertain to financial resources or assets, which can be allocated or transferred for specific purposes.

By using these terms accurately, the writer conveys a clear and precise understanding of the economic concepts involved. This clarity allows readers to grasp the intended meaning without confusion or misinterpretation.

In contrast, an inaccurate statement might look like this: “During an economic crisis, central banks may inject cash into the financial system by increasing the funds supply, which can be in the form of money or electronic deposits.”

In the inaccurate example, the writer has interchangeably used the terms “cash” and “funds,” leading to confusion and a lack of clarity. This imprecision hinders the reader’s ability to fully comprehend the intended message.

Now that you know the academic writing definition and the distinctive features of this kind of writing, you can be more productive when handling your college assignments. There are a lot of students who have a difficult time when tasked with writing essays and research projects simply because they don’t understand the requirements of academic writings and, consequently, what they are asked to produce. A lot of them are shocked to find out their grades when they receive their papers. The problem is that the majority of students don’t understand what academic writing is all about. If you learn the aforementioned features and do your best to adhere to them when working on your college assignment, then most likely you won’t be disappointed with your essay grades ever since.

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Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles

Published on June 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on November 7, 2022.

A citation style is a set of guidelines on how to cite sources in your academic writing . You always need a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize a source to avoid plagiarism . How you present these citations depends on the style you follow. Scribbr’s citation generator can help!

Different styles are set by different universities, academic associations, and publishers, often published in an official handbook with in-depth instructions and examples.

There are many different citation styles, but they typically use one of three basic approaches: parenthetical citations , numerical citations, or note citations.

Parenthetical citations

  • Chicago (Turabian) author-date

CSE name-year

Numerical citations

CSE citation-name or citation-sequence

Note citations

  • Chicago (Turabian) notes and bibliography

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Types of citation: parenthetical, note, numerical, which citation style should i use, parenthetical citation styles, numerical citation styles, note citation styles, frequently asked questions about citation styles.

The clearest identifying characteristic of any citation style is how the citations in the text are presented. There are three main approaches:

  • Parenthetical citations: You include identifying details of the source in parentheses in the text—usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if relevant ( author-date ). Sometimes the publication date is omitted ( author-page ).
  • Numerical citations: You include a number in brackets or in superscript, which corresponds to an entry in your numbered reference list.
  • Note citations: You include a full citation in a footnote or endnote, which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

Citation styles also differ in terms of how you format the reference list or bibliography entries themselves (e.g., capitalization, order of information, use of italics). And many style guides also provide guidance on more general issues like text formatting, punctuation, and numbers.

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In most cases, your university, department, or instructor will tell you which citation style you need to follow in your writing. If you’re not sure, it’s best to consult your institution’s guidelines or ask someone. If you’re submitting to a journal, they will usually require a specific style.

Sometimes, the choice of citation style may be left up to you. In those cases, you can base your decision on which citation styles are commonly used in your field. Try reading other articles from your discipline to see how they cite their sources, or consult the table below.

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) recommends citing your sources using Chicago author-date style . AAA style doesn’t have its own separate rules. This style is used in the field of anthropology.

APA Style is defined by the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . It was designed for use in psychology, but today it’s widely used across various disciplines, especially in the social sciences.

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The citation style of the American Political Science Association (APSA) is used mainly in the field of political science.

The citation style of the American Sociological Association (ASA) is used primarily in the discipline of sociology.

Chicago author-date

Chicago author-date style is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the sciences and social sciences.

The citation style of the Council of Science Editors (CSE) is used in various scientific disciplines. It includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the name-year system.

Harvard style is often used in the field of economics. It is also very widely used across disciplines in UK universities. There are various versions of Harvard style defined by different universities—it’s not a style with one definitive style guide.

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MLA style is the official style of the Modern Language Association, defined in the MLA Handbook (9th edition). It’s widely used across various humanities disciplines. Unlike most parenthetical citation styles, it’s author-page rather than author-date.

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The American Chemical Society (ACS) provides guidelines for a citation style using numbers in superscript or italics in the text, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list at the end. It is used in chemistry.

The American Medical Association ( AMA ) provides guidelines for a numerical citation style using superscript numbers in the text, which correspond to entries in a numbered reference list. It is used in the field of medicine.

CSE style includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the citation-name and citation-sequence systems. Your references are listed alphabetically in the citation-name system; in the citation-sequence system, they appear in the order in which you cited them.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) provides guidelines for citing your sources with IEEE in-text citations that consist of numbers enclosed in brackets, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list. This style is used in various engineering and IT disciplines.

The National Library of Medicine (NLM) citation style is defined in Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (2nd edition).

Vancouver style is also used in various medical disciplines. As with Harvard style, a lot of institutions and publications have their own versions of Vancouver—it doesn’t have one fixed style guide.

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The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the main style guide for legal citations in the US. It’s widely used in law, and also when legal materials need to be cited in other disciplines.

Chicago notes and bibliography

Chicago notes and bibliography is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the humanities.

The Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities ( OSCOLA ) is the main legal citation style in the UK (similar to Bluebook for the US).

There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:

  • Parenthetical citations : Including identifying details of the source in parentheses —usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if available ( author-date ). The publication date is occasionally omitted ( author-page ).
  • Numerical citations: Including a number in brackets or superscript, corresponding to an entry in your numbered reference list.
  • Note citations: Including a full citation in a footnote or endnote , which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

  • APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
  • MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
  • Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
  • Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:

  • Chicago author-date , CSE , and Harvard , used across various sciences
  • ACS , used in chemistry
  • AMA , NLM , and Vancouver , used in medicine and related disciplines
  • AAA , APA , and ASA , commonly used in the social sciences

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

MLA Style  is the second most used citation style (after APA ). It is mainly used by students and researchers in humanities fields such as literature, languages, and philosophy.

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Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles. Scribbr. Retrieved February 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/citation-styles/

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what are the different types of academic writing brainly

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    An abstract concisely explains all the key points of an academic text such as a thesis, dissertation or journal article. It should summarize the whole text, not just introduce it. An abstract is a type of summary, but summaries are also written elsewhere in academic writing.

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