Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science pp 4751–4760 Cite as
Malthus on Population
- Joseph R Burger 3 , 4
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An Essay on the Principle of Population ; Exponential growth ; Malthusian growth
An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Robert Malthus ( 1798 ) is a book widely viewed as having profound impact on the biological and social sciences by recognizing basic biophysical, demographic, and economic principles that can lead to population growth and possible collapse.
Introduction
Be fruitful and multiply. Fill the earth and govern it. Reign over the fish in the sea, the birds in the sky, and all the animals that scurry along the ground. – Genesis 1:28
The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence. – Malthus 1798
An Essay on the Principle of Population by the Reverend, Political Economist, and Demographer, Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834), is perhaps the most important document ever published on population, yet its central thesis continues to be highly controversial between natural and social scientists today....
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Burger, J.R. (2021). Malthus on Population. In: Shackelford, T.K., Weekes-Shackelford, V.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_1267
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An Essay on the Principle of Population
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Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) was an English cleric and scholar. Shannon C. Stimson holds the Leavey Chair in the Foundations of American Freedom at Georgetown University. Her books include After Adam Smith: A Century of Transformation in Politics and Political Economy , Ricardian Politics , both with Murray Milgate, and The American Revolution in the Law .
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An Essay on the Principle of Population
By thomas robert malthus.
There are two versions of Thomas Robert Malthus’s Essay on the Principle of Population . The first, published anonymously in 1798, was so successful that Malthus soon elaborated on it under his real name. * The rewrite, culminating in the sixth edition of 1826, was a scholarly expansion and generalization of the first.Following his success with his work on population, Malthus published often from his economics position on the faculty at the East India College at Haileybury. He was not only respected in his time by contemporaneous intellectuals for his clarity of thought and willingness to focus on the evidence at hand, but he was also an engaging writer capable of presenting logical and mathematical concepts succinctly and clearly. In addition to writing principles texts and articles on timely topics such as the corn laws, he wrote in many venues summarizing his initial works on population, including a summary essay in the Encyclopædia Britannica on population.The first and sixth editions are presented on Econlib in full. Minor corrections of punctuation, obvious spelling errors, and some footnote clarifications are the only substantive changes. * Malthus’s “real name” may have been Thomas Robert Malthus, but a descendent, Nigel Malthus, reports that his family says he did not use the name Thomas and was known to friends and colleagues as Bob. See The Malthus Homepage, a site maintained by Nigel Malthus, a descendent.For more information on Malthus’s life and works, see New School Profiles: Thomas Robert Malthus and The International Society of Malthus. Lauren Landsburg
Editor, Library of Economics and Liberty
First Pub. Date
London: J. Johnson, in St. Paul's Church-yard
1st edition
The text of this edition is in the public domain. Picture of Malthus courtesy of The Warren J. Samuels Portrait Collection at Duke University.
Table of Contents
- Chapter III
- Chapter VII
- Chapter VIII
- Chapter XII
- Chapter XIII
- Chapter XIV
- Chapter XVI
- Chapter XVII
- Chapter XVIII
- Chapter XIX
The following Essay owes its origin to a conversation with a friend, on the subject of Mr. Godwin’s Essay, on avarice and profusion, in his Enquirer. The discussion, started the general question of the future improvement of society; and the Author at first sat down with an intention of merely stating his thoughts to his friend, upon paper, in a clearer manner than he thought he could do in conversation. But as the subject opened upon him, some ideas occurred, which he did not recollect to have met with before; and as he conceived, that every, the least light, on a topic so generally interesting, might be received with candour, he determined to put his thoughts in a form for publication.
The Essay might, undoubtedly, have been rendered much more complete by a collection of a greater number of facts in elucidation of the general argument. But a long and almost total interruption, from very particular business, joined to a desire (perhaps imprudent) of not delaying the publication much beyond the time that he originally proposed, prevented the Author from giving to the subject an undivided attention. He presumes, however, that the facts which he has adduced, will be found, to form no inconsiderable evidence for the truth of his opinion respecting the future improvement of mankind. As the Author contemplates this opinion at present, little more appears to him to be necessary than a plain statement, in addition to the most cursory view of society, to establish it.
It is an obvious truth, which has been taken notice of by many writers, that population must always be kept down to the level of the means of subsistence; but no writer, that the Author recollects, has inquired particularly into the means by which this level is effected: and it is a view of these means, which forms, to his mind, the strongest obstacle in the way to any very great future improvement of society. He hopes it will appear that, in the discussion of this interesting subject, he is actuated solely by a love of truth; and not by any prejudices against any particular set of men, or of opinions. He professes to have read some of the speculations on the future improvement of society, in a temper very different from a wish to find them visionary; but he has not acquired that command over his understanding which would enable him to believe what he wishes, without evidence, or to refuse his assent to what might be unpleasing, when accompanied with evidence.
The view which he has given of human life has a melancholy hue; but he feels conscious, that he has drawn these dark tints, from a conviction that they are really in the picture; and not from a jaundiced eye or an inherent spleen of disposition. The theory of mind which he has sketched in the two last chapters, accounts to his own understanding in a satisfactory manner, for the existence of most of the evils of life; but whether it will have the same effect upon others, must be left to the judgement of his readers.
If he should succeed in drawing the attention of more able men, to what he conceives to be the principal difficulty in the way to the improvement of society, and should, in consequence, see this difficulty removed, even in theory, he will gladly retract his present opinions and rejoice in a conviction of his error.
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An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)
From the book the future of nature.
- Thomas Malthus
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An Essay on the Principle of Population
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An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Malthus was first published anonymously in 1798. Its core argument, that human population will inevitably outgrow its capacity to produce food, widely influenced the field of early 19th century economics and social science. Immediately after its first printing, Malthus’s essay garnered significant attention from his contemporaries, and he soon felt the need to reveal his identity. Although it was highly controversial, An Essay on the Principle of Population nevertheless left its impression on foundational 19th century theorists, such as naturalist Charles Darwin and economists Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx. Modern economists have largely dismissed the Malthusian perspective . Principally, they argue Malthus underappreciated the exponential growth brought about by the advent of the Industrial Revolution; by the discovery of new energy sources, such as coal and electricity; and later by further technological innovations. These modern criticisms are easily defended with historical retrospective.
Malthus’s essay has been revised several times since its publication. This summary focuses on the contents of the first edition. In 1806, Malthus revamped his work into four books to further discuss points of contention in the first edition and address many of the criticisms it received. Three more editions followed (published in 1807, 1817, and 1826 respectively), each modifying or clarifying points made in the second version.
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Although Malthus’s basic stance on the unsustainable growth of population to food production remains the same throughout all versions, the most dramatic change in format and content is found between the first and second editions. The first edition is notable for its long and detailed critique of the works of William Godwin, Marquis de Condorcet, and Richard Price on the perfectibility of humankind. Its lack of “hard data” and its unpracticed opinions on sex and reproduction were heavily criticized by his contemporaries. The 1806 publication, written at a later point in Malthus’s life, attempts to address these issues by focusing less on critiquing the works of other theorists and offering better data on the fluctuation of population growth throughout various European countries and colonies (Malthus, Thomas Robert. An Essay on the Principle of Population: the 1803 edition . Yale University Press. 2018).
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An Essay on the Principle of Population begins with a preface and is subsequently separated into eleven chapters. The preface reveals that a conversation with a friend on the future improvement of society was what sparked Malthus’s inspiration for this work. Chapter 1 further credits the works of David Hume, Alfred Russel, Adam Smith, and many others for inspiring his own writing. He postulates that population grows exponentially, whereas food production only increases in a linear fashion. This disparity in power will inevitably lead to overpopulation and an inadequate amount of food for subsistence.
Chapter 2 further details the above premise. Malthus imagines a world of abundance. In such a society of ease and leisure, no one would be anxious about providing for their families, which incentivizes them to marry early, causing birth rates to explode. When there are too many people and too little an increase in food to support them, the lower classes will be plunged into a state of misery. Thus, Malthus concludes that population growth only happens when there is an increase in subsistence, and misery and vice keep the world from overpopulation.
In chapters 3, 4, and 5, Malthus applies his theory to different stages of society. He argues that “savage” and shepherding societies never grow as fast as their “civilized” counterparts because various miseries keep their numbers in check. Among “savage” societies, a lack of food and a general disrespect of personal liberties prevent their numbers from increasing rapidly. Shepherding communities, meanwhile, often wage war over territories and suffer a high mortality rate. Civilized societies grew rapidly after adopting the practice of tilling, but due to exhausting most fertile land, their numbers no longer increase at the same rate as before.
The following two chapters are notable because they are the only ones that contain hard data. Malthus cites philosopher Richard Price for his analysis of population in America and references demographer Johann Peter Süssmilch for his work on Prussia. Malthus uses both these examples to prove that population fluctuates in accordance with the quantity of food produced. Chapters 8 and 9 are dedicated to critiquing mathematician Marquis de Condorcet’s work while chapters 10 to 15 do the same for political philosopher William Godwin. Malthus rejects the idea of mankind as infinitely perfectible and dismisses charity as a method to relieve poverty.
Chapters 16 and 17 propose the increase of food production as the only solution to reduce extreme poverty and misery among the lower class. Malthus maintains that donating funds is but a temporary relief to aid the most unfortunate; only a permanent increase in agricultural yield can grow the lower class’s purchasing power. Nevertheless, the final two chapters remind readers that misery and happiness must coexist. The law of nature, the way of living intended by God and demonstrated by Malthus’s population theory, requires both wealth and poverty to function.
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An Essay on the Principle of Population (Oxford World's Classics) Paperback – November 11, 1999
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Part of: An Essay on the Principle of Population, 2 vols. [1826, 6th ed.] An Essay on the Principle of Population, vol. 1 [1826, 6th ed.]
- Thomas Robert Malthus (author)
Vol. 1 of the 6th expanded edition of Essay on the Principle of Population. In this work Malthus argues that there is a disparity between the rate of growth of population (which increases geometrically) and the rate of growth of agriculture (which increases only arithmetically). He then explores how populations have historically been kept in check.
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An Essay on the Principle of Population, or a View of its Past and Present Effects on Human Happiness; with an Inquiry into our Prospects respecting the Future Removal or Mitigation of the Evils which it Occasions (London: John Murray 1826). 6th ed.
The text is in the public domain.
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Critical Responses
William Godwin
A lengthy and belated reply to Malthus by the radical individualist Godwin. Whereas Malthus took a pessimistic view of the pressures of population growth, Godwin was more optimistic about the capacity of people to limit the growth of their families.
Morgan Rose
Malthus had no objection to the idea that wealth derived from manufacturing production could, subject to certain hindrances, be exchanged to increase the amount of food available. He seems only to have misjudged the degree to which those hindrances would be reduced over time. He did not recognize…
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While many liberty-loving economists are happy to correct the criticisms of Smith, many are equally happy to criticize Malthus for the Malthusian trap, not realizing that the usual portrayal of Malthus is equally false. Malthus shares far more with Smith than most expect. He is, in many ways, as…
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Malthus, Thomas - An Essay on the Principal of Population (1798)
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The Inquisitive Biologist
Reviewing fascinating science books since 2017, book review – an essay on the principle of population: the 1803 edition.
Overpopulation. Is there another topic more likely to bring about an uncomfortable silence during a dinner party? Possibly one of the last taboos even of our era, one name is intimately linked with this topic: Thomas Robert Malthus, author of the much-maligned An Essay on the Principle of Population . Originally published in 1798, Yale University Press here republishes the second edition of 1803, which is much expanded. As a bonus, they throw in five essays to place this work in context and discuss its relevance today. Why would you read a book that is over 200 years old? For the same reason evolutionary biologists still read On the Origin of Species – you cannot really properly discuss, let alone criticise a subject without reading its foundational text, now, can you?
“ An Essay on the Principle of Population: The 1803 Edition “, written by Thomas Robert Malthus, edited by Shannon C. Stimson , published by Yale University Press in March 2018 (paperback, 588 pages)
Not a facsimile reproduction, this reissue features a few typographical updates and some minor corrections, but by and large stays true to the original. It is not the first reissue, nor the most comprehensive. Cambridge University Press published a large two-volume “variorum” version in 1989 that reproduced the 1803 edition but also included additions made to subsequent editions. Even so, Yale’s version is more than adequate. The differences between the 1798 and 1803 edition were enormous, between subsequent editions not so much. As with any topic, I am always mildly shocked to see the vast body of scholarship on it, and two other recent books that are worth reading in this context are Malthus: The Life and Legacies of an Untimely Prophet and The New Worlds of Thomas Robert Malthus: Rereading the Principle of Population .
Briefly, Malthus argued that human population growth is naturally inclined to overtake and outstrip our ability to produce enough food. The inevitable consequences will be misery in the form of malnourishment, famines, and increased mortality, especially among the poorer classes of society. His ideas caused an uproar when published in 1798 and have remained hugely influential ever since, impacting such luminaries as Charles Darwin and modern authors such as Paul Ehrlich who wrote The Population Bomb .
“Why would you read a book that is over 200 years old? For the same reason evolutionary biologists still read On the Origin of Species […] “
Malthus argued that population checks came in the form of either positive checks (misery such as famine, infanticide, warfare, etc.) and preventive checks (moral restraint in the form of putting off marriage and delaying having children). A large part of his work consists of convincing the reader of the need to exercise moral restraint as the more humane option to keep population growth in check (remember, this was a time when contraception barely existed, and marriage was generally the necessary precursor to having lots of children). The first edition was based mostly on conjecture and arguments from first principles. Based on critique, he much expanded the second edition, adding two whole sections (books 1 and 2) based on extensive reading of literature and his own travels around parts of Europe. Here, he surveys checks to population in both the developing world and the Ancient World (amongst the Greeks and Romans), as well as the developed world.
Part of what landed Malthus in hot water was his opposition to the English Poor Laws that were operational at the time. This was a social benefit system for poor people with large families. He argued that this only exacerbated the problem of overpopulation. After all, why bother to carefully consider whether or not to have children and whether you can support them? Heck, why even stick around in a marriage that no longer contents you when the state will provide when you abandon your wife and children? Of course, his views also ran counter to Christian doctrine to go forth and people the Earth – ironic, given that Malthus was himself part of the clergy of the Church of England. Rather than relying on benefits, it was in the hands of the poor to improve their livelihood. Those unwilling to provide for themselves and their family had no right to demand benefits, whether monetary or otherwise, and Malthus strongly argued for the abolishment of the Poor Laws.
Much ink has been spilt in the subsequent two centuries to point out some of his errors. He got certain facts flat out wrong, and his expansion of the essay with a body of supporting material after publication runs the risk of cherry-picking data. It seems he ignored certain findings inconsistent with his claims. And, of course, he did not, and could not possibly, foresee how technological and scientific developments improved both our agricultural yields (e.g. the Green Revolution), as well as our overall health (e.g. vaccines). It is important to place this work in the context of its time. And that is where the introduction and the essays are invaluable, providing much-needed context, explaining the state of the world at the time, as well as the other key players and writings that Malthus was responding to.
“It is important to place this work in the context of its time. And that is where the introduction and the essays are invaluable […]”
Another area where the book is a product of its time is the text itself. It was written in a time of colonialism when the inhabitants of many parts of the world were thought of as “savages”, and Africa was a continent of “negroes”. The attitudes of that time colour this work. And, as was usual, the writing can be rather long-winded and narrative in style, with complex sentences running many lines, full of subclauses. The language employed is necessarily somewhat antiquated and at times quaint. Especially when discussing the “virtue of chastity” and “the passion between the sexes” I could not help but smirk sometimes. Nevertheless, once you get into the rhythm of the writing style of the time, I found Malthus’s essay surprisingly readable. Though I do think he could have compacted the first two books in a bunch of tables. Modern editors would have a field day with writing of this kind…
Of all the essays, especially Kenneth Binnmore’s contribution stood out for me, answering that all-important question: “Was he right or was he wrong?”. Malthus’s argument was one of cold and rational logic. Even though he got some of the particulars wrong, and some scenarios that he put forth were hypothetical more than anything else, Binnmore argues that his main point stands to this day. And I thoroughly agree with that assessment. We have bought ourselves time with our technological prowess and our population has much increased as a consequence – something for which Malthus made allowance in his argument – but it has come at a hefty price to the environment. Those who argue that this can go on forever, that infinite growth is an option, live in looney-land as far as I’m concerned.
As mentioned in my review of The Wizard and the Prophet , the contemporary discussion on how to tackle our environmental woes has split into two opposing camps of techno-optimists and those who champion green solutions such as sustainable development and green energy, but largely ignores overpopulation. Malthus’s call to curb population growth is thus as relevant as ever. How we should go about this is something I will write more about in my next review of Should We Control World Population? Meanwhile, Yale University Press is to be congratulated in again making available such an important text and adding valuable context with the essays included.
Disclosure: The publisher provided a review copy of this book. The opinion expressed here is my own, however.
Other recommended books mentioned in this review:
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The book An Essay on the Principle of Population was first published anonymously in 1798, [1] but the author was soon identified as Thomas Robert Malthus.
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) demonstrated perfectly the propensity of each generation to overthrow the fondest schemes of the last when he published An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), in which he painted the gloomiest picture imaginable of the human prospect.
T. R. MALTHUS An Essay on the Principle of Population CAMBRIDGE TEXTS IN THE HISTORY OF POLITICAL THOUGHT Series editors RAYMOND GEUSS Professor of Political Science, Columbia University QUENTIN SKINNER Professor of Political Science in the University of Cambridge
In his 1798 book An Essay on the Principle of Population, Malthus observed that an increase in a nation's food production improved the well-being of the population, but the improvement was temporary because it led to population growth, which in turn restored the original per capita production level.
An Essay on the Principle of Population, as it Affects the Future Improvement of Society with Remarks on the Speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and Other Writers. Thomas Malthus London Printed for J. Johnson, in St. Paul's Church-Yard 1798. © 1998, Electronic Scholarly Publishing Project http://www.esp.org
Thomas Robert Malthus An Essay on the Principle of Population By Thomas Robert Malthus There are two versions of Thomas Robert Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population. The first, published anonymously in 1798, was so successful that Malthus soon elaborated on it under his real name.
In 1798 Thomas Malthus published anonymously An Essay on the Principle of Population. In subsequent editions (published from 1803 to 1826), he expanded his argument, adding more factual material and illustrations. Malthus also published a variety of pamphlets and tracts on economics and the book-length summary Principles of Political Economy ...
An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Robert Malthus ( 1798) is a book widely viewed as having profound impact on the biological and social sciences by recognizing basic biophysical, demographic, and economic principles that can lead to population growth and possible collapse.
The book was an instant success. Well written, it argued that population tended to grow at a geometric (exponential) rate, whereas the resources needed to support the population would only grow at an arithmetic (linear) rate. ... "An Essay on the Principle of Population" thrust Malthus into the public eye and dealt such a lethal blow to utopian ...
Yale University Press, Feb 13, 2018 - Business & Economics - 448 pages. Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population remains one of the most influential works of political economy ever written. Most widely circulated in its initial 1798 version, this is the first publication of his benchmark 1803 edition since 1989.
Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population remains one of the most influential works of political economy ever written. Most widely circulated in its initial 1798 version, this is the first publication of his benchmark 1803 edition since 1989.
of the checks to population in the less civilized parts of the world, and in past times. download; xml; of the checks to population in the different states of modern europe. download; xml; of the different systems or expedients which have been proposed or have prevailed in society, as they affect the evils arising from the principle of ...
In 1798 Thomas Malthus wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population. It posed the conundrum of geometrical population growth's outstripping arithmetic expansion in resources. Malthus, who was an Anglican clergyman, recommended late marriage and sexual abstinence as methods of birth control.
Authors Praise Related Books Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population remains one of the most influential works of political economy ever written. Most widely circulated in its i...
Essay on the Principle of Population. The first, published anonymously in 1798, was so successful that Malthus soon elaborated on it under his real name. * The rewrite, culminating in the sixth edition of 1826, was a scholarly expansion and generalization of the first.Following his success with his work on population, Malthus published often ...
About this eBook. Produced by Charles Aldarondo. HTML version by Al Haines. Public domain in the USA. 211 downloads in the last 30 days. Project Gutenberg eBooks are always free! Free kindle book and epub digitized and proofread by volunteers.
"An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)" In The Future of Nature: Documents of Global Change edited by Libby Robin, Sverker Sörlin and Paul Warde, 15-30. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013. ... From the book. The Future of Nature. Chapters in this book (51) Frontmatter. Contents. Preface. How to Use This Book. Introduction ...
An Essay on the Principle of Population. Patricia James. Cambridge University Press, 2008 - Business & Economics - 865 pages. Published in two volumes, these books provide a student audience with an excellent scholarly edition of Malthus' Essay on Population. Written in 1798 as a polite attack on post-French revolutionary speculations on the ...
An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Malthus was first published anonymously in 1798. Its core argument, that human population will inevitably outgrow its capacity to produce food, widely influenced the field of early 19th century economics and social science.
An Essay on the Principle of Population (Oxford World's Classics) $14.95. (150) Only 1 left in stock - order soon. As the world's population continues to grow at a frighteningly rapid rate, Malthus's classic warning against overpopulation gains increasing importance. An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) examines the tendency of human ...
Vol. 1 of the 6th expanded edition of the work. There are two versions of Thomas Robert Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population. The first, published anonymously in 1798, was so successful that Malthus soon elaborated on it under his real name. The rewrite, culminating in the sixth edition of 1826, was a scholarly expansion and ...
An illustration of an open book. Books. An illustration of two cells of a film strip. Video. An illustration of an audio speaker. Audio. An illustration of a 3.5" floppy disk. ... Malthus, Thomas - An Essay on the Principal of Population (1798) Bookreader Item Preview
" An Essay on the Principle of Population: The 1803 Edition ", written by Thomas Robert Malthus, edited by Shannon C. Stimson, published by Yale University Press in March 2018 (paperback, 588 pages)