write an essay on civil rights movement in contemporary india

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Human rights movements in India: State, civil society and beyond

Introduction

Though, since its origin, the human rights movement (HRM) in India

has made significant interventions in the shaping of democratic politics,

there has been, rather surprisingly, no serious reflection on the various

shifts that it has gone through and the emerging trends, phases and discourses

within it. In fact, a pertinent question, given the various new

shifts, is: is there a single HRM at all in India today? Or, instead, are

there multiple movements that either run parallel to each other or continue

to work on mutually exclusive assumptions? It is equally significant to

ask if there has been a gradual growth or decline of the HRM in terms of

its overall impact since various organisations have been pulling the movement

in different directions. This article attempts to trace the various

phases and assumptions underlying each in terms of the inter-relationships

between the state, civil society and democracy, along with locating the

possible directions that the HRM might take and its implications for politics

in general, and other radical social struggles in particular.

The first organised initiative, perhaps, to form a civil liberties organisation

was taken by Jawaharlal Nehru on 7 November 1936, with the

founding of the Indian Civil Liberties Union (ICLU) with Rabindranath

Tagore as its president. Rights were articulated not only as guarantees

against the arbitrary state action that was so much a part of British colonial

rule, but also as the means necessary to achieve a more just and egalitarian

socio-economic order. It was this two-pronged strategy that formed the

basis of the anti-colonial struggle and the various instruments it set up,

including the Motilal Nehru Committee of 1928 and the Karachi session

of the Congress in 1931 which adopted the resolution on fundamental

rights. The strategy was a derivative of the conceptual distinction between

the natural rights tradition and the positivist tradition of articulating rights.

In the former, rights are envisaged as inalienable, having their origins in

nature, while in the positivist tradition ‘rights not only originate in the

action of the state, but are also entirely dependent on it for their existence’

(Singh 2005: 32). The state is the source and arbiter of rights and can

therefore legitimately even take them away in certain rare and wellspecified

situations. The civil liberties phase of the HRM movement in

the 1970s was primarily engaged with the state and was followed by the

democratic rights phase around the natural rights tradition. The latter was

looking to carve an autonomous civil societal sphere to locate and enlarge

the scope of the language of rights.1

1 See Aswini Ray (2003) for a more detailed historical narrative, as well as the collection

of papers submitted to the Indian civil liberties conference held in Madras on 16–17 July

1949, titled ‘Civil Liberties In India’, Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi.

I am thankful to Ujjwal Kumar Singh for suggesting this important collection.

Human rights movements in India / 31

The history of the post-independence HRM in India can be traced back

to the early 1970s. The movement of the 1970s was located in a liminal

zone, between the shift from the Nehruvian era to Mrs Indira Gandhi

coming to power and the emergence of an authoritarian state on the one

hand, and the continued expectations from a welfarist state responsive

to the popular demands of the polity and its marginalised, on the other.

More than opposition to the state and the constitutional framework, it was

the everyday misuse of institutions and the violation of procedures that

formed the context for the beginning of the post-independence HRM in

State–civil society complementarity

In a meeting of Sarvodaya workers held in Bangalore in July 1972,

Jayaprakash Narayan advocated that a broad-based organisation should

be formed for the preservation and strengthening of democracy in India

and that the organisation should consist of all those who cherished democratic

values, but were not interested in power politics (Tarkunde 1991:

303). In an all-India conference convened in Delhi on 13–14 April 1974,

a non-party organisation called the Citizens For Democracy (CFD) was

formed with the objective of ensuring independence and autonomy, for

purposes of democratic and constitutional functioning, of various institutions

such as the judiciary, press, radio, bureaucracy, the office of the

President, the Election Commission and the Planning Commission,

among others. This experiment of building a pressure group for the more

effective and responsive functioning of state institutions was abruptly

cut short with the imposition of Emergency in the country on 25 June

1975 under Article 352 of the Constitution on the grounds that the ‘security

and integrity of India was in grave peril due to internal disturbance’.2

Jayaprakash Narayan and many of his followers were placed under preventive

detention. After his release, there appeared to be a need to expand

the scope of the CFD in order to protect the civil liberties or fundamental

rights of the citizens. In a well-attended conference held in New Delhi

2 Bipin Chandra (2003) completely ignores the role of JP in building the civil liberties

movement, and therefore reaches a one-sided conclusion that ‘Total Revolution’ had fascist

tendencies.

 AJAY GUDAVARTHY

in October 1976, J.B. Kriplani, in the absence of Jayaprakash Narayan,

inaugurated the Peoples Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) (Tarkunde

1991: 305).

The focus of the PUCL, given the immediate context of the Emergency

and the recent memory of the larger legacy of the Nehruvian era, was

limited to (a) the restoration of the rights curtailed or eliminated during

the Emergency (undoing the preventive detention law, curtailment of the

jurisdiction of the courts, censorship of the press, and so on); (b) punishment

for those responsible for excesses, through available legal recourse;

and (c) safeguards against taking arbitrary recourse to Emergency provisions

out of mere subjective considerations (Ram 1986: 91).

The PUCL was constituted by political figures and sections close to the

Janata Party, apart from the Radical Humanist Association and the professional

bodies of lawyers, academics and a few independent Gandhians.

More than activism and mass mobilisation, the thrust was upon drawing

in eminent personalities who could exert pressure, moral or otherwise,

on individuals and institutions. The issue of civil rights, which had political

connotations, was considered essentially legal and therefore legal

action was often considered the most effective method for making institutions

responsive and for protecting the rights of the common people,

the citizens of the country. State institutions like the judiciary were considered

effective representatives of both civil societal concerns and public

On 23 March 1977, the Janata Party came to power after the Emergency

was lifted. Subsequently, the HRM temporarily lost its direction as

most office bearers of PUCL who had played an important role were also

members of the Janata Party. Ostensibly there existed no clear and effective

distinction between the state and civil society. And since it was institutional

reforms and the restoration of fundamental rights alone that was

the focus, the need for an independent human rights organisation was

no longer felt. In fact, ‘at a national convention held in August 1977, top

Janata leaders, like Krishna Kant, declared that there was hardly any need

for a civil liberties movement as democrats had come to power’ (CPDR

1991: 284). After a gap of a few years and with the return of Mrs Gandhi

to power, the PUCL was revived in November 1980. A national convention

of civil rights workers converted the PUCL into a membership

organisation. V.M. Tarkunde took over as president, while Arun Shourie

became its general secretary and Professor Rajni Kothari was elected as

president of the Delhi unit. Their immediate concern, following the earlier

focus on institutions, was to draft a new Prison Act and Jail Manual.

This was in many ways the first phase of the HRM—the civil liberties

phase—working within the framework of state-civil society complementarity.

Organisations such as the PUCL perceived themselves as harbingers

of the emerging link between the state and civil society in a newly

formed nascent democracy. They were of the firm belief that:

the link works both ways: on the one hand, these groups [such as the

PUCL—my addition] breed ideas and give impulse to the system; on

the other hand, the political system sets and modifies the frame of

action for civil society. There is a constant flow and exchange between

the two spheres (Frevert 2005: 68).

Civil society was being mobilised, not to stand outside the state, but to

make the state more responsive and recognise its constitutional obligations

towards its citizens. It was understood that while a vibrant civil

society is necessary to make the state accountable, it was equally important

to recognise that the state and its policies legitimately determine how

far the self-organising powers of the citizens would reach. In other words,

the state’s constitutional framework guaranteed certain basic freedoms

and they needed to be effectively and progressively realised. It is due to

this implicit understanding that the PUCL never emphasised mass mobilisation

as much as it did recourse to available legal means.3

The state-civil society complementarity was to be pursued and further

achieved around two conjoined programmes of first, (re) establishing

the autonomy and independence of institutions of both the state and civil

society, and second, entrenching and strengthening the project of citizenship

by effectively realising citizens’ civil, political and social rights.

3 See Balagopal (1987). He argues that even during this period: ‘Extensive use was

made of the Preventive Detention Act, the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act and the

Defence of India Rules; over wide areas the army was employed and the promulgation of

“Disturbed Areas” was effected. But all these were mainly against the tribal nationalities

of the North East and the communist-led peasants and workers in the rest of the country.

This did not spoil the state’s reputation for constitutionality very much’ (1987: 41).

The various initiatives taken by the PUCL to restore the autonomy of

institutions such as the judiciary by protesting against the curtailment of

the jurisdiction of the courts, were considered the precondition for the

presence of a rule of law necessary to curtail the arbitrary use of power

and democratic transgressions. No meaningful equality before law could

be presumed without the necessary neutrality, accountability and openness

of the intermediary institutions. In turn, however, it needs to be recognised

that the PUCL believed that ‘institutional autonomy of the judiciary

draws sustenance from the axiomatic assumption that the state alone can

guarantee essential freedoms to the individual’ (Gupta 2004: 232). Similarly,

it emphasised the autonomy of civil societal institutions such as

the media and educational institutions, by protesting against the censorship

of the press to make way for informed political participation that

could put an accountable and responsive state in place. It was precisely

for this reason that the PUCL had, fairly early, stressed the importance

of electoral reforms as the right to vote was an extremely potent tool

with which to fight discrimination, specially for the most vulnerable and

marginalised social groups. However, in a highly segmented society like

India, mere institutional autonomy was thought to be insufficient for

either guaranteeing social equality or even augmenting public welfare.

Institutions could be greatly efficient and autonomous; however, precisely

for this reason, they might deny entry to disadvantaged groups. Thus,

the PUCL, along with emphasising the autonomy of institutions, also

struggled to recover a ‘rights based civil society’, where all citizens could

have access to fundamental rights.

The PUCL mobilised itself not only against draconian provisions such

as the preventive detention law, in favour of safeguards against arbitrary

recourse to emergency provisions or for a new Prison Act, but also for

positive social rights (such as the right to education) so that all individuals

and social groups, as citizens, could achieve equality of status. Recognising

all individuals, irrespective of their caste, class, gender and regional

identities as citizens would initially give them legal equality, eventually

pull them out of their specific disadvantages and duly accommodate them

as part of the developmental goals of the state. Thus, in the first phase of

the HRM, the PUCL believed that ‘civil society as an ethic of freedom

manifests itself in the modern democratic constitutional state by creating

citizens and by upholding institutional autonomy’ (ibid.).

Human rights movements in India 

State versus civil society

The nature of the state under Mrs Gandhi underwent a dramatic transformation

with the authoritarian impulses of Nehru’s statist model of nation

building becoming more pronounced. Notwithstanding the welfare

orientation under Nehru, the state was also developed as a highly centralised

instrument to negotiate the different conflicts in civil society. Commenting

on this process, Bhikhu Parekh (1995: 44) observes that:

The state was the only conduit through which various parts of the society

related to one another and was a party to all disputes and conflicts.

It therefore became the sole centre of all political ambitions and energies

and an arena of powerful ideological passions.

It was this inherent trend of centralisation that Mrs Gandhi intended to

strengthen when she initiated a process of ‘deinstitutionalisation’ by

undermining intra-party elections; offering dubious concepts such as

‘committed bureaucracy’ and ‘committed judiciary’; encouraging a topdown

approach in order to hand pick chief ministers in various states;

and misusing Articles 356 and 352. More importantly, Mrs Gandhi was

using the idea of welfarism, the foundation of the state-civil society complementarity,

to further authoritarian and centralising tendencies. Centralised

planning, the use of modern technology and the role of ‘experts’

and technocrats became integral to governance. These methods, in the

name of maintaining efficiency, achieving ‘developmental’ goals and

preserving the ‘unity and integrity’ of the nation, increasingly created a

wedge between politics or popular participation and the government.4

This process was evident in the way a welfarist ‘20 point programme’

was announced during the Emergency. Welfarism was the new mode of

enhancing state control and disengaging the masses from popular participation

in the decision making process. Further, this was the period

when there was a fall in industrial growth. There were incidences of severe

drought and a sharp rise in food prices. The social base of the state

shifted to a newly emerging neo-rich or lumpen class, born largely out

of the leakages of the first phase of development. This class included

contractors, real estate dealers, liquor traders, rentiers, gamblers, speculators,

cinema producers and actors (Haragopal and Balagopal 1998: 360;

Sethi 1975: 25). The rise of the new classes was accompanied by a coercive

state which became increasingly evident in the use of force and rampant

manipulation of legal procedures. For instance:

those set free from preventive detention were brought back to prison—

often arrested outside the court premises or at the doorstep of the

prisons, on specific charges. A favourite device of some of the state

governments was the implication of individuals in a number of interlocking

cases. There was horizontal as well as vertical interlocking

(Ram 1986: 93).

In this period, the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act was used in Assam;

the National Security Act was put on the statute books and then amended

twice to make it even more draconian and a Terrorist and Disruptive

Activities (Prevention) Act was enacted and employed widely all the

way from Punjab to Andhra Pradesh.5

This, broadly, was the social and political context for the shift in the

HRM from its earlier state-civil society complementarity framework to

its second phase—the democratic rights phase—during the 1980s, marked

by a new state versus civil society framework. The split in the PUCL and

the formation of the Peoples Union for Democratic Rights (PUDR) in

Delhi signalled the beginning of this phase:

A section of activists felt that the usage of the terms ‘civil liberties’

by the PUCL leaders restricted itself to (these) codified safeguards.

The more radical activists used the category ‘democratic rights’ as a

critique to the term ‘civil liberties’. It implied the freedom to claim

even non-codified rights, or, in other words, rights which citizens were

not endowed with under the existent legal system (Dutta 1998: 283).

5 See Balagopal (1987: 42). Balagopal notes that there were a host of lesser enactments

like the Postal Bill and the amendment to the Commissions of Enquiry Act which also

surfaced during this period. See Sumanta Banerjee (1987), also Kothari and Sethi (1991).

Human rights movements in India / 

This was the phase when the Association for Protection of Democratic

Rights (APDR) was revived in West Bengal which later split with the

formation of the Association for the Establishment of Democratic Rights

(AEDR) on the issue that there are no democratic rights to ‘protect’ in

India. This radical perspective also marked the revival of the Organisation

for Protection of Democratic Rights (OPDR) and the Association for

Democratic Rights (AFDR) in Punjab, the Committee for the Protection

of Democratic Rights (CPDR) in Mumbai and the formation of the Manab

Adhikar Sangharsh Samiti (MASS) in Assam. In Andhra Pradesh, the

Andhra Pradesh Civil and Democratic Rights Association (APCDR) was

the first organisation to come into existence. It later split into the Andhra

Pradesh Civil Liberties Committee (APCLC) and the OPDR, broadly

representing two different factions of the Communist Party of India

(Marxist-Leninist) [CPI (ML)], but both working within the new ‘democratic

rights’ framework. Most of these organisations began working in

close proximity with different radical-militant struggles in their states

such as the armed Naxalite movement and the militant nationality struggles.

In its struggle for democratic rights, the APCLC initially focused on

organising fact finding committees on ‘encounter deaths’ and lock-up

deaths, providing legal assistance to the arrested activists of various

Marxist-Leninist parties and protesting for the right to organise public

meetings, processions and dharnas on behalf of the various mass organisations

of the Naxalite groups. In its second state-level convention, held

in Warangal on 4 May 1980, it adopted its manifesto and declared that its

central concerns were the protection of people’s right to struggle and

protest, opposing the atrocities of feudal landlords, capitalists and the

state machinery, condemning police excesses and also fighting for the

abolition of capital punishment (APCLC n.d.: 23). This was the activist

phase of the HRM, which went beyond looking for mere legal remedies.

Its members included leading lawyers, academics, artists, poets, journalists

and students, apart from several full-time activists. Paradoxically, in spite

of the shift to an activist phase, human rights organisations, contrary to

building a vibrant, independent and separate movement, were more concerned

with projecting themselves as a ‘platform’ or a ‘forum’ to ‘shield’

the radical political movements and struggle on their behalf to protect

their ‘right to protest’ and extend legal and constitutional safeguards to the

activists and leaders of these movements. The HRM was more than willing

to play second fiddle to the militant democratic, or the Marxist-Leninist

movements and was convinced of the urgent need to use militant ‘transformative

violence’ or ‘counter-violence’ against the state in order to bring

about a grand structural transformation. The HRM felt that in building a

militant civil society it had a very limited, although significant, role to

play by maintaining proximity with the radical militant organisations

and their struggles. The proceedings of the APDR, after self-introspection,

reached the conclusion that the ‘civil liberties organization (was) mainly

characterised by acting as a shield of the democratic struggles carried on

by the common people. In a sense, this role though limited (was) very

important’ (APDR 1991: 6, emphasis mine). The role was also ‘secondary’

in terms of its capacity to mobilise people numerically, as ‘the movement

(was) limited to few individuals and limited sections of people’ (ibid.).

However, as the 1980s was also a phase which saw the emergence of

various other social movements—women’s, Dalit, regional, minority and

environmental movements—apart from the Naxalite and nationality struggles,

human rights organisations began to gradually extend their scope

to protect the rights of the activists of these movements as well as their

political concerns. Various types of discriminations came to articulate

themselves in the democratic rights language. The PUCL and the PUDR,

in 1984, investigated and published a booklet titled ‘Who Are The Guilty’

on the anti-Sikh riots in Delhi. It directly named some of the culprits who

belonged to the ruling Congress Party. Some felt that with its publication,

‘groups fighting for civil liberties and democratic rights acquired a national

legitimacy’ (Desai 1991). It was true that no other organisation

had dared to openly record and reveal the names of those involved in

massacres, despite it being public knowledge. In Andhra Pradesh, the turning

point came with the gruesome Karamchedu massacre of Dalits in

July 1985. The APCLC investigated, again revealed the names of some

upper-caste landlords who had been involved and, working in tandem

with Dalit organisations, kept the issue politically alive till some of the

culprits were physically eliminated by armed squads of the then Peoples

War Group.6 Thereafter, the APCLC began to enlarge its scope and investigate

atrocities against women such as dowry deaths and domestic violence,

6 In October 2004, after their merger with the Maoist Communist Centre of Bihar, the

People’s War Group (PWG) was renamed the Communist Party of India (Maoist), prior to

the peace talks with the government of Andhra Pradesh.

as well as famine and hunger deaths in various districts and issues related

to environmental pollution. However, what is pertinent in this expansion

of the HRM into various other social and political issues is the fact that it

approached these issues strictly through the state versus civil society prism,

an approach born out of the HRM’s proximity to Marxist-Leninist groups.

For instance, it was the role of the ruling Congress Party that was stressed

by the PUCL and the PUDR in its report ‘Who Are the Guilty’, completely

undermining any dialogue on the growing communalism within civil

society. It was the caste (in this case Kamma) nexus, which actively

operated in various state institutions (the assembly, judiciary and the

police), that was the focus of APCLC’s investigation. This is not to say

that these issues, or for that matter the perspectives, were unimportant;

however, the HRM was not in any immediate sense concerned with highlighting

the existence and replication of power relations and forms of

discrimination at the civil societal level such as growing communalism

and rigid caste hierarchies. It did not consider the possibility that all forms

of human rights violations need not necessarily have emerged directly

from the state, although the state might have actively encouraged them.

This issue of human rights violation at the civil societal level became

starkly, and rather poignantly, evident with the accidental deaths of innocents

or common people in the course of military operations carried out

by the Naxalites against the police.7 In response to such incidents, human

rights organisations took recourse to the argument that ‘a civil rights

organisation was concerned only with state violence’ and the concern

for ‘private violence does not fall under its purview’—a stand initially

taken in an open letter written by leaders of the APCLC to the chief

minister in July 1985 and thereafter repeated ad nauseam whenever

questioned about their concern and responsibility vis-à-vis the victims

of ‘private violence’. Some of the leading activist-intellectual representatives

of the democratic rights phase, defending the actively ‘biased’

position, argued that:

The reason is very simple. Whereas, in a law-based state like India,

there exists an elaborate code, an entire ensemble of laws, procedures,

7 Common people also lost their lives sometimes, or rather most of the time, when

they were deliberately used as ‘shields’ by the police. For instance, the police continue to

opt to travel in public transport that common people use rather than their official vehicles

when they visit remote areas as part of their combing operations.

institutions and enforcement agencies to deal with private violence

or lawlessness, there is nothing comparable, no genuine checks or

controls, to take care of peaceful or violent lawlessness of the state,

which is potentially, and often in actual practice, the most powerful

violator of democratic rights in society (Singh 1993: 82).

However, this position stood in contrast to the interventions that the

APCLC, on more than one occasion, made to mitigate ‘private violence’

that erupted in the inter-group rivalry and killings between the various

factions of the revolutionary movement. These interventions were more

a result of the APCLC’s proximity with the revolutionary parties rather

than any sustained self-reflection on the issue. Despite growing criticism

from various quarters of civil society, as well as the deliberate and

manipulative use made of this hiatus on the part of the HRM by the state,8

the democratic rights organisations refused to critically reflect on their

state versus civil society framework.

This initial reluctance could be understood in the immediate context

of a repressive state which, to counter the growth and expansion of the

HRM, was by then arresting, or physically attacking and kidnapping,

leading civil rights activists all over the country. To cite a few instances,

in Assam, Parag Das, who had political and organisational proximity with

the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), was with MASS and was

a popular editor of a leading Assamese daily, was shot dead by the SULFA

(‘Surrendered ULFA’) with the active connivance of the state police. In

Andhra Pradesh, Gopi Rajanna, Narra Prabhakar Reddy and, more recently,

Purshottam (all office bearers of the APCLC), were brutally killed by

the police; K. Balagopal was attacked, assaulted with knuckle-dusters

and kidnapped by an outfit calling itself Prajabandhu (August 1989),

and V.M. Tarkunde (the then president of the PUCL) and K.G. Kannabiran

(the long-term president of the APCLC) were assaulted at a public meeting

in Madurai. A subsequent president of APCLC, Laxman, was also kidnapped

in November 2003 by surrendered Naxalites operating as private

mercenaries, again with the active involvement of state police (APCLC

1985: 77). Such increasing physical attacks only reinforced the human

rights organisations’ understanding of the state as the primary, and perhaps

8 State officials, bureaucrats and the police often argued that this entailed ‘double

standards’, and also exposed the proximity HRM had with ‘outlawed’ organisations.

the sole, violator of human rights and thereby vindicated their state versus

civil society framework. These attacks, coupled with the sacrifice and

resolution of the activists, provided them with a ready ‘moral’ reasoning

of the correctness of their politics. Thus, the HRM was not prepared to

reflect on the ‘conceits of the civil society’ or let go of their singular focus

on the state, which only meant weakening civil society and the movements

it constituted, and strengthening the state. The implicit fear was that by

equating and conflating the various types of violations (whether carried

out by revolutionary movements or the state), the state would be let off

the hook. Interestingly, while in the first phase of the HRM, it did not

want to absolve the state by overlooking its constitutional responsibilities

to its citizens, in the second, it did not miss any opportunity to dismantle

and delegitimise the state.

Thus, the 1980s marked a rupture in the HRM with efforts to construct

civil society as a pure ‘realm of freedom’ that stood squarely outside the

state and consisted of various militant and radical social movements.

They consciously worked, as much as possible, outside formal institutions

such as courts, in an attempt to delegitimise and minimise the arena of

state control. Civil society now signified political action, rather than a

mere site for forming public opinion.9 Organisations such as the PUDR

and the APCLC strongly believed that what brought the various social

movements in civil society together was:

their shared perception that the state is the repository of coercive force

which is frequently directed against the citizens. The fact that the

state is a potential and actual transgressor of individual liberty and

that its might must be collectively challenged gives coherence to the

otherwise diverse units of civil society (Mahajan 2004: 181).

9 Within the liberal tradition, civil society was envisaged as a ‘space where citizens

could meet in order to socialize with their fellow-citizens, to exchange ideas and discuss

issues of common concern, to form political opinion. It was not a sphere where those

opinions translated into political action and decision-making’ (Frevert 2005: 63, emphasis

mine). Such a distinction between thought and action emanates from the classical liberal

formulation of J.S. Mill, granting ‘absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects,

practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or theological’ (Levi 1963: 138), coupled

with elaborate restrictions on the ‘freedom to act’. The earlier phase of HRM was close to

this kind of liberal articulation and therefore left the action to the state, which combines

legislative and administrative powers.

They, therefore, worked relentlessly to expose the state on the one hand,

and protect the coherence of civil society on the other. Everything else

came later.

The rigid state versus civil society framework, however, became increasingly

untenable with the beginning of the 1990s. The context this

time around was provided by the simultaneous unfolding of multiple

contradictions manifested in the growing conflicts within and between

various social movements. The HRM was, in a sense, caught unawares

and the radical articulations by the Dalit, women’s and regional movements,

not only against the state but also vis-à-vis each other, escaped its

rigid binaries and neat totalities. An important starting point for this can

be traced to the Koyyur kidnapping on 30 January 1993 in Andhra Pradesh,

when a tribal MLA was kidnapped from Vishakapatnam district by the

PWG. Various Dalit organisations, the most prominent among them being

the Dalit Maha Sabha, raised serious objections to Dalit leaders (who in

any case were few and far between) who were weak and vulnerable being

picked up as ‘soft’ targets and used as hostages in exchange for fulfilling

of demands with which they had nothing to do. They raised pertinent

ideological and political questions on what they referred to as ‘casteblind

politics’ of the far-left groups.10 The state, too, took its own time to

react, allowing the new growing conflicts to brew. What was brought out

was the fact that mere anti-state activity neither exhausted nor addressed

the concerns of the other social struggles; neither did it provide for unifying

them unproblematically in a ‘coherent civil society’.

The APCLC intervened to resolve the ‘crisis’ and demanded the release

of the kidnapped. Refuting their earlier position on ‘private violence’,

perhaps for the first time, the then president of the APCLC wrote:

The practice of taking as hostages persons unconnected with the specific

issue between the government and the PWG is a practice we in

APCLC never approved of. We have been as human rights activists

against this type of political practice. Whether the police hold people

in illegal custody or the Naxalites kidnap and take as hostages persons

unconnected with the specific issues involved our stand has been the

same (Kannabiran 1993: 495).11

10 For a detailed debate between the Dalit and Marxist-Leninist groups in Andhra

Pradesh and their changing perception of each other, see Gudavarthy (2005).

11 See also Haragopal (1993).Human rights movements in India / 

The break from the rigid state versus civil society framework was

further strengthened with new questions:

For human rights activists, Koyyuru (and earlier Gurthedu) (raised)

issues regarding the concepts of human rights itself, the advisability

of expanding the concept and thereby enlarging the field of operation

of human rights work. What should be its relations with radical and

democratic movements? Has it any transforming role while operating

the institutions available within a democratic set up? Should it merely

confine itself to maintaining a crime audit of the state? All such and

related questions need to be debated (Kannabiran 1993: 498).

This trend of problematising power dynamics and human rights violations

at the civil societal level was expressed and took centre-stage through

the series of questions that the young activists of the APCLC raised in

their state and district-level meetings. During the Kurnool convention in

1993, they began by raising a sensitive issue—pointing out that a large

number of those killed by the Naxalites as ‘informers’ were from the SC,

ST and OBC communities and who, due to the absence of any form of

social networking, failed to return to the so-called ‘mainstream’ life, and

often succumbed to police pressure and passed on (sometimes very

crucial) information after surrendering. Similarly, accusations of ‘silent’

discrimination and violence against women were levelled against male

members active in the various social movements which could not be ignored

as either a ‘personal’ or a ‘private’ matter. Discussion papers carrying the

old perspective—that is, reinforcing the state versus civil society framework

while arguing that there cannot be an independent ‘human rights

perspective’ that was different and autonomous from and, more importantly,

critical of the ‘revolutionary perspective’—and the new perspective

which brought into relief a more critical approach to civil societal

violations, were printed and circulated among the members, and the

debate continued at all district-level meetings for over a couple of years.

A national convention on ‘Democratic Movements and Human Rights

Perspectives’ was organised in Hyderabad in June 1996, with the aim of

making the debate public, as well as gathering the views of other nationallevel

democratic rights organisations. Later, during the Guntur convention

of the APCLC towards the end of 1997, they voted on the two contending

perspectives, as a result of which APCLC split and a new organisation

called the Human Rights Forum (HRF) was formed.

Civil society versus political society

The formation of the HRF marked the beginning of the third phase of the

HRM—the human rights phase—which now worked within a new civil

society versus political society framework.12 The immediate focus of the

new framework in identifying and constructing the new political society

was to stress the importance of locating and condemning human rights

violations at the civil societal level including those committed by radical

social movements, thereby politicising a larger array of social issues.

The new approach also highlighted the inadequacy of maintaining or

striving for the unity of various social struggles around an anti-state activity

without recognising the independent sites and methods of discrimination,

the possible areas of mutual conflicts between them and thereby

the need for autonomous movements along different axes of discrimination.

The HRF, in its inaugural pamphlet, explained its differences

with the ‘democratic rights perspective’ as against the new ‘human rights

perspective’, which had foregrounded the adverse impact of human rights

violations at the civil societal level. The pamphlet stated, ‘We believe

that unjust and unfair use of violence even by a popular movement must

be openly condemned, not because it is violence but because it is unjust’

(Human Rights Forum 2000: 4). It further made a plea for treating all

discrimination independently and at par, and argued that:

The political structure of the state and the social-economic structures

of caste, class and gender have received some recognition as oppressive

structures, but are yet to assume equal importance, in the eyes of the

12 The concept of political society used here does not refer strictly to the way it has

been recently conceptualised by Partha Chatterjee and instead refers to a broader process

of politicising a larger array of social issues and practices. However, it cannot be denied

that there are overlaps in terms of a critique of hegemonic practices in civil society, a

mapping of civil society as a site of power relations and a recognition of the need to politically

negotiate with the choices, radical or otherwise, of subalterns. For Partha Chatterjee’s

idea of political society, see Chatterjee (2004).

Human rights movements in India

rights movement. The state–class framework continues to dominate

for no cogent reason. But both caste and gender are major sources of

not only violent suppression but also routine and insidious denial of

rights. There is no scale on which their effect can be adjudged less severe

than that of state and/or class (HRF 2000: 1)

Finally, stressing the inadequacy (and perhaps the impossibility) of a

solidarity based around just anti-state activity, it further argued:

The state–class framework that unconsciously guides our thinking of

rights has come from militant-leftist movements and the problems of

suppression they have faced from the state and the exploiting classes.

But if we are ready to learn equally from the dalit movement and the

women’s movement and the politics of various minorities, religious,

ethnic or linguistic groups then these movements have mostly sought

to empower themselves by making use of and enlarging the democratic

political space and the political and civil rights available in the present

state and the political system (ibid.: 2).

At almost the same time, an independent organisation known as the Committee

of Concerned Citizens (CCC) came into existence. Its vision constituted

a ‘search for a democratic space’, initially between the state and

the radical political movements, but also between the various conflicting

interests within civil society. Interestingly, it drew its members largely

from the various civil rights organisations in Andhra Pradesh which had

professed to be handicapped at the stalemate that had ensued between a

repressive state and the civil rights organisations working within a rigid

state versus civil society framework. In the foreword to the first report

the committee published, it made it a point to proclaim that:

The group which came to be known as the Committee of Concerned

Citizens (Puara Spandana Vedika) was not formed at the instance of

any authority or organisation. It emerged on its own, open to reflect

the voice of large democratic sections of the society which is tired at

being reduced to a mute spectator in the game with peoples lives played

by the state and the revolutionary parties (Committee of Concerned

Citizens 1998: 1).

Unlike the previous phase, in this one the HRM began by looking for a

space between the state and revolution. It is from this independent vantage

point that it wished to raise a series of questions at the behest of a political

society. Perhaps the single most important concern for the CCC was how

to privilege and preserve the choice of political participation for the subaltern

masses and prevent spiralling violence between the government and

naxalite groups, leading to an escalating suffering of the most vulnerable.

This concern led the CCC to raise pertinent points regarding the

possible ways of understanding the relation between the ‘people’ and the

(Marxist-Leninist) ‘party’. Can the Naxalite groups claim that all their

actions were actions by the people? Can all actions (read excesses) of the

party be condoned because they were carried out in the ‘larger’ interests

of the people? In what ways is the party responsible, and what ought to

be their response to the growing suffering of the people under conditions

of ‘circular violence’? Similarly, they also stressed the need to engage

with the available ‘democratic’ institutions of the state and civil society,

for instance by recognising the opportunities the 73rd Amendment provided

for Dalits and women in local governance institutions and therefore

the need for periodic elections without violence. It is also in this context

that the CCC re-emphasised the need to protect principles such as the

‘rule of law’, instead of delegitimising them as either bourgeois principles

or a mere ‘juridical illusion’ (Meszaros 1985: 196–211). Finally, the CCC

unequivocally condemned the brutality of the Naxalite groups when

dealing with the people ‘as no less abominable than the third degree methods

used in police camps’ (CCC 1998). Such violence not only further brutalises

society, but also reduces the space for the fearless expression of

opinion and political action for the masses at large, thereby robbing people

of the experience necessary to take control of their lives, crucial for both

existing and post-revolutionary societies.13 The revolutionary parties, on

the other hand, also lay claim to representing the concerns of a political

society by engaging with the conflicts in civil society as well as the issue

of free political participation by the people themselves. They argued

13 The growing significance of the shift in HRM could also be felt in the response of

PWG to these observations of CCC. In their reply, PWG observed, ‘though there are

some shortcomings in the report of the concerned citizens, we feel that the Committee of

Concerned Citizens has exhibited an essentially democratic approach’ (Committee of

Concerned Citizens 1998: 18).

that the revolutionary parties did recognise the conflicts in civil society

and, therefore:

It is exactly here that the masses should be guided by the revolutionary

leadership to understand the contradictions among the people and the

united front that they have to forge in order to make the revolution

successful. When they understand these two things then the excesses

in people’s courts, the occupation of land of even some middle class

peasantry on some occasions and other wrong ways of dealing with

contradictions among the people will get automatically solved (Ravi

1993: 1471).

Similarly, the revolutionary process is engaged with encouraging mass

participation. However, the human rights groups need to realise that in

the course of such a process, there are bound to be mistakes and excesses,

and it is undialectical to imagine the process to be otherwise. It is therefore

important to understand that:

When the leadership itself deals with the village-level contradictions

it is likely to reduce the excesses, but when the initiative is left to the

masses then such anarchy is bound to be there in an anti-feudal struggle,

but their experience will leave in them a higher level of consciousness.

The first option is absolutely impractical and even if it is practical,

which is preferable ... which is the correct mass line? Which is centralizing

the power? Which will guarantee the future egalitarian society?

The initiative of the masses or the superimposed directions from the

leadership? (ibid.).

It is against these claims and counter-claims to political society that the

CCC initiated the process for peace talks between the state and the revolutionary

parties. The talks between 15–18 October 2004 centred around

the basic premise that both the state and the revolutionary movements

should strive to reduce the perpetual fear and uncertainty that the common

people were labouring under and that it is their choice and voice that

needs to be prioritised over everything else.14

14 For a detailed account of the recent peace talks between the government of Andhra

Pradesh and the Communist Party of India (Maoist) see Committee of Concerned Citizens

The third phase of the HRM was an attempt to expand its scope by

locating the power relations and the consequent human rights violations

in civil society and gradually moving towards a political society that engaged

with the complex micro-processes of social transformation.15

Therefore, political society had a democratising effect in terms of politically

negotiating the different social issues that had been hitherto neglected

by the rights movement, as also the differences and conflicts between

the various movements. The HRM, however, was struck with a difficult

question: ‘what prevents political society from splitting into warring

factions or degenerating into a congeries of inward-looking particularistic

“interests”’? In other words, ‘is there a viable distinction between the

multiple “special interests” of the political society and the common “public

interest”’? If yes, how, and by whom, will this public interest be safeguarded

around certain “common principles”’?16 The HRM quickly grasped

the difficulty of foregrounding the new broadened ‘human rights perspective’

solely around the issue of preserving one’s interests and identity.17

It had to relocate itself in making an effort, in whichever way possible,

to ‘bring the dialectic of self-transformation and self-reflection to the

very heart of identity formation itself’ (Giri 2005: 220). It is this issue of

negotiating with the conflicting implications of the ‘human rights

perspective’ of pursuing interest-based politics and radical politicisation

that located the HRM in a liminal space, which it wished to overcome to

avoid stagnation.

The contemporary moment: Beyond the political?

The contradictory implications of a political society marked by empowerment

through the protection and politicisation of interests on the one

hand, and a process of fragmentation of political struggles with their

15 For an elaborate argument on how, after the collapse of the East European socialist

regimes, western political theory has constructed the arena of civil society as an alternative

political space which is devoid of any conflictual power relations, see Chandhoke (2001,

16 For a series of similar questions being discussed, see Foley and Edwards (1996).

17 It is this issue of the inadequacy in explorations of the limitations of interest-based

politics that we focused on in our critique of Partha Chatterjee’s notion of ‘political society’;

see Gudavarthy and Vijay (2007). It is also for this reason that I place emphasis on differentiating

my use of political society in this article.

Human rights movements in India /

self-arrogating discourses on the other is sought to be overcome in the

contemporary moment of the HRM by, ironically, moving beyond the

domain of the political that constituted the core character of political

society. The HRM seems to be reformulating its civil society versus political

society framework through the underpinning of a new ethical

dimension.18 As a significant departure, it seems to be hinting at recasting

the ‘human rights perspective’ by arguing that ‘primarily rights are ethical

norms and any attempt to treat them as primarily or explicitly political

can only lead to sectarian divisions and stagnation in the human rights

movement’.19 In such a framework, the HRM itself is not a political movement.

Instead, the ‘political movement and human rights movement as

such exist in two planes: the planes of interests and values’ (Balagopal

forthcoming). This relocation of the HRM in an ethical domain is being

sought in order to rethink the way social transformation has occurred in

history during struggles of the oppressed, where ‘what they have fought

is not oppression as such but the oppression of the Other that has hurt

their interests’.20 The struggle against oppression as such happens, or is

possible, only in the realm of ethics or morals, and:

18 The following position is being articulated primarily by Dr K. Balagopal (a leading

human rights activist and theoretician and office bearer of the HRF), with a few members

and activists of the HRM and other social movements gravitating towards a position that

reflects the possibility of a new political society versus an ethical society framework.

However, it is yet to take a definitive institutional form, though again there are hints that

the HRM is being implicitly driven by this new shift. I, therefore, prefer to refer to this

new framework as a moment, rather than a definitive phase, of the HRM.

19 Balagopal (forthcoming). For a brief summary of the contents of this forthcoming

book, see Gudavarthy and Vijay (2004). Upendra Baxi also seems to agree with the essential

moral underpinnings of HRM, and argues that: ‘The social theory of human rights, of

necessity, has to find bases for ethical judgment concerning “good” and “bad” social

movements .... It does seek to provide a “predetermined directionality” in human social

development by articulating an ethic of power, whether in state, civil society, or the market’

(Baxi 2002: 120–21). It is, however, not clear as to how he places this ‘ethical judgment’

vis-à-vis the political moment in social movements in general, and the HRM in particular.

He seems to agree with the idea that there is some essential distinction between the way

the HRM relates to the idea of (political) ‘power’ and the way other social movements do,

and it is therefore ‘then understandable that most contemporary social theory and history

of new social movements does not focus on human rights movements as social movements’

(ibid.: 121).

20 Balagopal (1995: 59). Similar ideas of emancipation going beyond the achievement

of immediate interests can be located in a large array of writers. 

this rebuilding has wrongly been seen as a direct continuation of the

struggle against injustice. This notion that the force that is necessary

to destroy unjust social structures will by itself lead to the reconstruction

of society on a just basis ... has been sufficiently proved an illusion

by the happenings of this century (Balagopal 1995: 60).

The struggles in the ‘material’ or political realm do not have a direct impact

or a necessary continuity with ‘moral evolution’.21 Thus, while the

HRM is the embodiment of the human struggle to restore (universal) ethics/

values, political movements protect the (particularistic) interests of various

social groups. The HRM, therefore, has the difficult task of standing

at a distance while working in tandem with political movements. It needs

to retain its autonomy in order to generate a discourse of ethical praxis,

and maintain proximity in order to effectively cut across all political

This attempt to de-link the political and the moral and locate the HRM

exclusively within an abstract ethical domain comes as a response to

the subterranean divide between the moral and political dimension, in

the discourses of various political movements including the Dalit and

frameworks. For instance, Paulo Friere, the famous Latin American philosopher and educationist,

argues that in order for radical social struggles ‘to have meaning, the oppressed

must not in seeking to regain their humanity become in turn oppressors of the oppressors,

but rather restorers of the humanity of both ... this then is the great historical and humanist

task of the oppressed: to liberate themselves and their oppressors as well’ (1972: 31).

Gandhi argued that the oppressed need to hate oppression, such as the practice of

untouchability, and not the oppressor, and therefore there is no place for violence, and

there is a need to incorporate into our struggles the necessary efforts for the ‘change of

heart’ of the oppressor. See Iyer (1978).

21 This idea of a separation between the ‘material’ and the ‘moral’, which has emerged

in the context of the present-day HRM locating itself vis-à-vis the various radical struggles,

seems strangely to have parallels with the way the anti-colonial national movement

perceived itself vis-à-vis the colonial rulers. Partha Chatterjee observes: ‘Anticolonial

nationalism creates its own domain of sovereignty within colonial society well before it

begins its political battle with the imperial power. It does this by dividing the world of

social institutions and practices into two domains—the material and the spiritual’ (1993:

6; emphasis mine). It was this separation that was later superimposed on the ‘political’

struggle against colonialism. For a critique of such a separation and its dualistic implications

(which is perhaps relevant in the context of the present-day HRM too, and the new direction,

marked by its ethical dimension, that it seems to be taking) in a graded society like India,

see Aloysius (1998).

the Naxalite movements.22 Ironically, in responding to the already existing

moral essentialism of the political movements, the HRM seems to slip

into an obverse moralism of its own by condemning political movements

to a delimited struggle for interests and arrogating to itself the larger

task of entrenching abstract ethics.23 The contemporary response of the

HRM could be traced to some of the variants of moral essentialism that

it had to face in its interaction with the various political movements. The

more existentialist reason for such a shift can be traced to the fact that

socially (caste, class and gender-wise), most activists who seem to be

gravitating towards such arguments for a bifurcation between the political

and the ethical belong to the more ‘privileged’ upper echelons. They often

face a serious sense of isolation, as political movements around them are

demanding exclusive organic linkages with those who wish to lead them,

or even be part of their struggles.24 This self-valorisation (or moralisation)

of identities is perceived by the HRM as a shift on the part of political

movements into an insular mode which is fraught with pragmatic responses

to and within the emerging political dynamic, and, most importantly,

bereft of a moral dimension. The HRM, therefore, now wishes to

superimpose and externally inject its own variant of an abstract ethical

22 In fact, constructing the political society, as opposed to civil society, was an attempt

at critiquing moralisation, which is, for instance, evident in the self-valorisation of each

movement or, for that matter, the valorisation of the arena of civil society as against the

state. HRM used the concept of political society to critique abstract moralising as against

contextualising the choices available to subalterns. However, here, having initiated the process,

there seems to be an apparent retreat, only to reintroduce the moral-political divide.

23 This divide, therefore, lets political movements off the hook by reconciling their

struggles with the realm of interests. Some scholars have suggested in response to this

formulation that what is called for, instead of the divide between the moral and political

dimensions, is ‘transforming the moral self into the political self and moral questions

into political ones. This certainly does not call for super-imposing an arrogant moral discourse

on the politically disunited people’s movements’ (Patnaik 1995: 1202). Also see

Gudavarthy (1996).

24 For instance, the Dalit Maha Sabha makes it a point to emphasise that ‘only dalits’

shall occupy the dais in all their meetings, and that no upper-caste activist, however sympathetic

and radical she/he might be, will be allowed to do so. This process of ‘othering’

makes all others permanent ‘outsiders’ to the movement. This indeed is a variant of moral

essentialism in the Dalit movement. However, the question as to why political movements

take this route to find a space for themselves in the existing political domain needs to be

historicised, and is predominantly a political question. For a more detailed account, see

Gudavarthy (2005).

dimension which will open the way for a democratic dialogue and space

for all those not organically linked to these movements.

The nature of the social base of the HRM was always suspect. The

militant left movement always characterised it as ‘petty bourgeoisie’ in

a derogatory sense, and often referred to it mockingly as the ‘middle

class wing of revolution’. Many activists in the HRM themselves shared

this perception. This anecdote sharply highlights the ambiguity:

At a discussion in Delhi (under the auspices of the PUCL) the problem

of ‘legitimacy’ of human rights activism, astonishingly surfaced and

there was even some talk of the need for human rights communities

to ‘woo the middle classes’ back to the value /mission ... (n)ot long ago

many leading human rights communities critiqued, rightly (prescinding

the question of moral opportunism in practice of politics) the middle

class support to the anti-Mandal agitation (Baxi 1998: 349).

In another context, a long-term vice-president of the APCLC and now

member of the CCC argues, ‘In fact, the middle class becomes spineless

and loses the nerve against a repressive state. Some liberal activists shift

their stand very fast. They not only compromise but also gradually degenerate

into a self-seeking and self-aggrandizing class of individuals’

(Haragopal and Balagopal 1998: 367). This perceived inherent moral

weakness never allowed the HRM to articulate itself as an independent

and credible political movement, apart from the other related reasons stated

earlier.25 The HRM, therefore, now feels the need to pose issues in explicit

moral/ethical terms, both as a response and as a means to overcome this

perceived handicap. This compulsive tension within the HRM will persist

as long as it is not prepared to carry out an independent (as it continues

to share this perception with militant left groups) and a more positive

25 Further, whenever individuals within HRM raised questions that were uncomfortable

for radical left struggles, they juxtaposed the sacrifice of the militant underground activists

against the comfortable ‘middle class lives’ of human rights activists. The level of sacrifice

thereby settled the authenticity and correctness of their political positions. Often, in private,

human rights activists expressed discontent over what they referred to as a silent ‘moral

blackmail’, while those activists in HRM close to the radical left valorised such arguments.

There is a different kind of moralisation operating here, as compared to the previous

point. There is a (de)moralisation of the middle class which stands accused of a permanent

lack of morality.

Raymond Williams critiquing the conventional position of radical

left groups on the role of the middle class argues:

The significance of predominantly middle-class leadership or membership

of the new movements and campaigns is not to be found in some

reductive analysis of the determined agencies of change. It is, first, in

the fact of some available social distance, an area for affordable dissent.

It is, second, in the fact that many of the most important elements of

the new movements and campaigns are radically dependent on access

to independent information, typically though not exclusively through

higher education and that some of the most decisive facts cannot be

generated from immediate experience but only from conscious analysis

(1983: 254–55).

The HRM is definitely a movement that is dependent on ‘available social

distance’ and involved in constructing a refracted ‘political culture’, which

at times (though not always) is difficult to ‘generate from immediate

experience’.

Finally, a moral/ethical resolution to avoid ‘stagnation’ in the HRM

is sought due to the moral ad hocism within both Marxist theory and

radical left movements, as well as the latter’s refusal to develop consistent

political principles around the means-ends issue. Steven Lukes, in his

interesting study on ‘Marxism and Morality’, argues that:

On the one hand Marxism has treated morality as ideological, historically

relative, shaped by social and class determinants and so on,

26 ‘Thus, at its core CRM (the Civil Rights Movement) is a movement for a specific

kind of “political culture”—a culture that socializes a society with democratic temperament.

A belief in the possibility of institutionalization and protection of norms and practices

that govern the state-society relationship is central to the efforts of the CRM .... This is

both the strength and weakness of the movement .... It is (also) a weakness in the sense

that it imposes severe constraints on the mobilization potential of the CRM. Vast masses,

who have to struggle for their basic daily-bread, cannot be mobilized into the fold of the

CRM. Even if the CRM could mobilize the masses against a background of severe repression,

it would be more an ad hoc type of mobilization .... Thus owing to its objective—

generating democratic culture—the CRM, at least the core of it, is, bound to be, oriented

towards the middle classes’ (Kakarala 1993: 415–16).

purporting itself to reject any moral or moralizing discourse ... on the

other hand Marx’s and Marxist writings abound in moral judgments,

implicit and explicit (1985: 4).

This unexplored continuum between ethics and politics re-emerges as

moral ad hocism mostly on the basis of ‘consequentialist reasoning’.

For instance, Herbert Marcuse argues for limitations on revolutionary

violence by establishing ‘general norms’, and E.P. Thompson recommends

humanist attitudes ‘whenever and to the degree that contingencies

allow’, so that they do not negate the very end for which the revolution

is a means.27 Beyond such contingent moral advocacy, Marxist theoreticians

were hesitant to suggest the means of converting moral principles

into political norms, and vice-versa. For instance, radical left movements

never conceptualised exactly what constituted ‘revolutionary violence’.

Some attempts on the part of the HRM to engage with issues of permissible

or impermissible ‘strategies’ and ‘tactics’ were unsuccessful. It is

this loss of such historical moments in concretising values that re-emerges

as the eternal wait for the moment of pure morality (very like the ‘last

instance’ in Althusser). Strangely, the radical left movement (which the

HRM accuses of an absence of the explicit recognition of morality) was

27 See Geras (1990: 29, 34). Here, while ‘general norms’ can become abstract moralism,

contingent attitudes can slip into pragmatism. The challenge really is generating political

principles that emerge into moral norms, which are in turn open to political practice. How

do we combine the self-belief and certainty required for political praxis with the openendedness

necessary to avoid abstract moralism? In the powerful memoir of a communist

revolutionary from South Africa, the author writes, ‘In 1975 I was a young, very idealistic

revolutionary, and I was prepared to die for my beliefs. I felt a strong connection with all

those who had gone before me, and with all those who had faced similar tortures; and

I felt a responsibility to the traditions of our liberation movement. That is what gave me

strength. That is what made my resistance possible. And that is why I did not simply

succumb to torture or lapse into despair. Writing this now, 24 years after my arrest, I don’t

seem as single-minded as I was back then. I now tend to see myself as having been rather

naïve. All the same, it remains true that single-mindedness was the weapon that got me

through (Suttner 2001: 3).

In other words, how do we generate activists who fight for socialism with certainty

and yet are open-ended about its success? For an initial discussion (by no means exhaustive

or sufficient) on this issue, see Geras (1994). Further discussion on this point, though necessary,

is beyond the scope of this article.

accused of pure moralism by feminist writers during the Telangana armed

struggle. They argued that the Communist Party could not evolve a policy

on problems of childbirth, unmarried women and sexuality etc. Women

comrades were forced to give away children after they were born and

single women were considered a problem. While most cases were settled

as and when they arose, the underlying issue they posed was ‘diluted

into a moral problem, a guilt at having violated family happiness. Once

again there is no analysis on it as a political issue that had to be addressed

if the movement was serious about women’ (Stree Shakti Sanghatana

1989: 27, emphasis mine). As absence of morality is a problem now, the

presence of morality was a problem then.

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Social Movements: Civil liberties and human rights movements

Social movements mainly take the form of non-institutionalised collective political action which struggle for political and /or social transformation. In India, these movements occurred since past time. The phrase 'movement' is often used differently by different social activists, political leaders and scholars. Some academics use the term 'movement' interchangeably with 'organisation' or 'union'. Other social researchers use it to mean a historical trend or tendency. Some claim to launch movements by issuing press statements on public issues.

'Social movement' grown in European languages in the beginning of nineteenth century. This was the period of social disturbance. The political leaders and writers were concerned with the liberation of exploited classes and the creation of a new society by changing value systems as well as institutions and/or property relationships. Their philosophical orientation is reproduced in their description. Nevertheless, since the early 1950s, various scholars have provided detail account of the notion of social movements. According to social theorists, A social movement is a deliberate collective endeavour to promote direction and by any means, not excluding violence, illegality, revolution or withdrawal into 'utopian' community. Social movements are thus clearly different from historical movements, tendencies or trends. It is important to note, however, that such tendencies and trends, and the influence of the unconscious or irrational factors in human behaviour, may be of crucial importance in illuminating the problems of interpreting and explaining social movement.

Many sociological scholars and theorists elaborated the phrase social movement. Herbert Blumer stated that Social movements can be viewed as collective enterprises to establish a new order of life. They have their inception in the condition of unrest, and derive their motive power on one hand from dissatisfaction with the current form of life, and on the other hand, from wishes and hopes for a new scheme or system of living. According to William Kornhauser, mass movements mobilize people who are alienated from the going system, who do not believe in the legitimacy of the established order, and who therefore are ready to engage in efforts to destroy it. The greatest number of people available to mass movement will be found in those sections of society that have the fewest ties to the social order. Doug McAdam described that social movements are those organized efforts, on the part of excluded groups, to promote or resist changes in the structure of society that involve recourse to non-institutional forms of political participation. Sidney Tarrow inferred that rather than seeing social movements as expressions of extremism, violence, and deprivation, they are better defined as collective challenges, based on common purposes and special solidarities, in sustained interaction with elites, opponents, and authorities.

Social movements often ascend with the objective to bring about changes on a public issue, such as safeguarding the right of the tribal population to use the forests or the right of displaced people to settlement and compensation. While social movements social change, counter movements sometimes arise in defence of status quo.

Features of social movements are as under:

• An important feature of social movement is the sense of belonging and group consciousness. Such consciousness can be brought about through active participation of the group members.
• Social movements lead to the formation of an entirely new social, economic, and political order.
• Most of the social movements tend to develop a new set of ideas, which become obligatory for the members of the group to adopt and follow.
• It is understandable that the social movements involve collective action instead of individual action.
• Social movements may be organized or unorganized.
• Social movements may be nonviolent in nature or they may also turn violent.
• The objective of a social movement is to bring about or resist social change in the society.
• The life of the social movement is not certain. This is because it may continue for a long period or it may die out soon.

There are many instances of social movement. When Raja Ram Mohan Roy campaigned against sati and formed the Brahmo Samaj, protectors of sati formed Dharma Sabha and appealed the British not to enact against Sati. When campaigners demanded education for girls, many protested that this would be catastrophic for society. When crusaders campaigned for widow remarriage, they were socially embargoed. When the so called 'lower caste' children registered in schools, some 'upper caste' children were withdrawn from the schools by their families. Farmer movements have often been viciously suppressed. The social movements of former excluded groups like Dalits have often invoked retaliatory action. In simple term, these movements emerged and highlighted some of the major issues such as gender and environment.

Main analyst and participant in social movements in India, Sanjay Sangvi, recognized the major agendas of them as "Movements of landless, unorganised labour in rural and urban areas, adivasis, dalits, displaced people, peasants, urban poor, small entrepreneurs and unemployed youth took up the issues of livelihood, opportunities, dignity and development."

Popular movements in India are Chipko movement, Save Silent Valley, Narmada Bachao Andolan, Koel Karo, Chhattisgarh Mukti Morcha, Jhola Aandolan chutmarika (fighting polythene), Appiko movement, Save Kudremukh, Lok Satta Movement, Swadhyay Movement, Swatantra Sharad Joshi, Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha.

These movements mainly dissociated themselves from political parties, or attempted to cut across the philosophies of the political parties. Yet many of them entrenched themselves or drew from ideologies of the Mahatma Gandhi.

Civil liberties:

Civil liberties is associated with basic rights and freedoms that are guaranteed either explicitly identified in the Bill of Rights and the Constitution, or deduced through the years by courts and legislators. Civil liberties are personal assurances and freedoms that the government cannot curtail, either by law or by judicial interpretation without due process.

The evolution of civil liberties movement in India be traced back in pre independence era when the national liberation struggle was stirring up against the British tyranny. Main focus of these movements was on indefinite detention without trial which posed a serious threat to the civil liberties. Hence civil liberty movement got speed as a part of national movement. As a consequence, Indian civil liberty union was established by Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru in 1931 (Asish Kumar Das,, 2007).

Though the range of the term differs amongst various nations, basic Civil liberties include:

- Freedom of speech

- The right to privacy

- The right to be free from unreasonable searches of your home

- The right to a fair court trial

- The right to marry

- The right to vote

Other civil liberties include the right to own property, the right to defend oneself, and the right to bodily integrity. Within the distinctions between civil liberties and other types of liberty, distinctions exist between positive liberty/positive rights and negative liberty/negative rights.

Human rights movements:

Human Rights are described as all those rights which are indispensable for the defence and maintenance of self-esteem of individuals and create conditions in which every human being can develop his personality to the fullest extent. Human rights become operative with the birth of an individual. Human rights are intrinsic in all the individuals regardless of their caste, religion, sex and nationality. Because of their vast significance to human beings; human rights are also called fundamental rights, basic rights, inherent rights, natural rights and birth rights. Human rights are the unchallengeable rights of a person by virtue of being a human. All or some of these may or may not be written in the Constitution and laws of a country. These rights are considered to be widespread and have been concretised in various categories. These may be political, economic, social, or cultural. Theoretically, human rights belong to each individual, they are indivisible, and valid for all times.

Several social and political activist groups use the term 'human rights' in the context of the rights of an individual which are 'natural', inherent in our nature 'and without which we cannot live as human beings'. These rights should not be violated by the state. In other words, they require to be protected against the authority of the state. Simultaneously, ironically, it is anticipated that they need to be protected and enhanced by the state. These rights are generally included in 'civil' and 'democratic' rights. As the time passed from ancient period, these rights came with different philosophical roots. Their meanings have undergone change from time to time and in different contexts. For traditionalists, human rights include the rights personified in religion which validate ownership of private property including the system of slavery and bonded labour. Liberals and leftists believed that equality and dignity of all individuals to sustain life are the main human rights. There is intense debate among political philosophers and jurists to explain human rights (Baxi 2002).

In India, the Protection of Human Rights Art, 1993 stated that "human rights" means the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants and enforceable by courts in India. Fundamental rights include freedom of expression, association, religious freedom, equality before law, and directive principles are related to socio-economic rights, such as, rights to education, equal wages, and dignity of an individual indiscrimination before laws. The former are justiciable while the latter remain guidelines for legislation. They both include broad range of different civil and democratic rights. Justice P.N. Bhagwati elaborated the scope of Article 21 of the constitution to incorporate the right to food, clothing and shelter in term 'life' in the Article.

The dialog on rights of an individual and movements around these philosophies were heated from ancient time and rooted in western society. The movements that developed in the west during the French and American revolutions during the eighteenth century influenced a small section of Indian intellectuals. Social transformation and political movements of different groups and the Congress provided base for debate and declaration of the rights. The advocates of the rights were social reformers, liberal political leaders championing for equality of Indians as 'citizens' with the British before law and there were also the defenders primarily concerned with shielding the economic interests of the landed class.

Social reformers attempted to involve for reforming social customs and traditions so as to protect women and the lower layers of society. The liberals were concerned with individual freedom of expression and association and the recognition of equality before law for all citizens. One of the many factors which led to the organisation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 was the disappointment of Indians to get the Ilbert Bill passed in its original form proposing to give Indian magistrates the power to try British subjects in criminal cases. In the end of century, this consciousness crystallised in a new generation. Congress leader stated that 'with new thoughts and new ideas, impatient of its dependent position and claiming its rights as free citizens of the British Empire' (quoted by Dutta 1998: 277). Sitharamam Kakarala discerned that the rights consciousness was concomitant to the advent of organized landed gentry and middle class. They tended to observe 'civil liberties' as something that only advanced sections of the natives can enjoy and appreciate. It can be said that 'rights' became 'advantages' conferred by the colonial rule on the advanced part of India. This attitude was further consolidated by the leaders of the Indian National Congress (INC) during the first three decades of its practice.

It is documented in studies that ancient history of human rights movement can be drawn from 13th century. Magna Carta 1215, the petition of rights 1628, Bill of Rights 1689, Virginia Declaration of Rights 1776, The American Declaration of Independence 1776, the French Declaration of Rights man and citizens 1789, and the Bill of Righs 1791, were the documents which gave human rights their initial constitutional status. Most of these documents were the result of long scuffles of the people. After the first world war, world populace began to show its concern for global mechanisms to shield Human Rights. After the creation of the League of Nations, first international effect was made for human rights on 25th June in 1930 and a conference was held on forced labour. On 10th December 1948, UN embraced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and afterward adopted two more covenants on 16th December 1966 and they came into force on 3rd January, 1976 and 23rd march 1976 respectively.

In the year of 1918, the Congress made a declaration of rights submitted to the British parliament. It encompassed the freedoms of speech, expression and assembly, the right to be tried according to law, and above all, freedom from racial discrimination (Dutta 1998). Later, the Motilal Nehru committee of 1928 claimed all fundamental rights to Indians 'which had been denied to them'. Though the demands were overruled by the British government, the Congress passed a resolution on fundamental rights in the Karachi session in 1931.

The first human rights group in the country, the Civil Liberties Union was formed by Jawaharlal Nehru and some of his associates in the early 1930s with the aim of providing legal support to nationalists accused of sedition against the colonial authorities. In 1936, Jawaharlal Nehru came forward to form the first civil liberties organisation. The Indian Civil Liberties Union (ICLU) was established in Bombay in 1936 with Rabindranath Tagore as its president. Nehru said in his address to the founding conference of the ICLU, that the notion of civil liberties is to have the right to oppose the government. In 1945, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru brought forth a constitutional proposal emphasising the importance of fundamental rights. They were integrated in the Indian constitution. Thus, liberties and rights protected in the Indian constitution were product of the freedom struggle of the people of India (Haragopal and Bala-gopal 1998). The historical interpretation of the civil rights movements during the colonial period is vague and very brief.

India was actively participating in all these developments, Finally, Government of India introduced the Human Rights Commission Bill in the Lok Sabha on 14th May 1992. On 28th September 1993, President of India publicised an ordinance namely Protection of Human Rights Ordinance. This ordinance was replaced by the Protection of Human Rights Act 1993 which was passed by both the Houses of Parliament. The bill became an Act, having received the assent of the president and it was published in the Gazette of India, Extra ordinary part II, section-I.

The human rights movement in the post-independence period is normally divided into two phases: pre- and post-Emergency. The Civil Liberties Committee was formed in West Bengal in 1948 to dissent against the state repression on the communists (Dutta, 1998). There is no account of this phase of the movement. The major civil liberties movement began in the late 1960s with the cruel attack by the state on the naxalites (Kakarala 1994). The movement elevated the issue of democratic rights of the oppressed sections of society for justice and equality. While detailing the struggle, Kakarala contended that democratic rights are needed by those who have to struggle for justice while the fundamental rights are adequate for the privileged. The struggle for democratic rights is the struggle to assert the rights already guaranteed formally but not ensured in practice. Denial of democratic rights takes the form of a spasm on the right to assert rights already guaranteed (1994).

In the regime of Smt. Indira Gandhi, the Emergency imposed on 25 June 1975 brought new prevalent impetus to the civil rights movement. She suspended the fundamental rights suing that they were used by the privileged section to prevent her from carrying out programmes in the interest of the 'majority' (Rubin 1987). The liberal intellectuals was surprised by the realisation of the 'built-in authoritarian tendencies within the political system, and the drawbacks endemic in any assumption of the durability of the democratic process, as heretofore. This formed the intellectual and political setting that led to the origin of the civil and democratic rights movement (Ray 1986). Numerous recent civil liberties organisations emerged during this period to fight for civil and democratic rights.

It has been observed recently that there are several groups in different states working on human rights. The most important and famous are the People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) and the People's Union for Democratic Rights (PUDR). They have their formal or informal branches and/or network organisations in many states with the same names, though autonomous.

Moreover, the important and active state-level organisations are as under:

- The Andhra Pradesh Civil Liberties Committee (APCLC)

- The Committee for the Protection of Democratic Rights (CPDR) in Maharashtra

- The Association for Democratic Rights (AFDR) in Punjab

- The Naga People's Movement for Human Rights in Nagaland

- Lok Adhikar Sangh in Gujarat

- Citizens for Democracy in Delhi, Mumbai and other places.

These organisations are not membership-based. They have office bearers such as the convenor, president, secretary, etc. In some places, the executive committee functions jointly. They do not have definite objectives or constitutions to lay down their functions. When there is requirement, they form committees and subcommittees to carry out certain functions. Committees of Concerned Citizens have been formed in several states from issue to issue and time to time. Sometimes, they try to intercede between the state and political groups engaged in direct actions and become the victims of so-called 'encounter' actions of the police or military. They have a temporary character in terms of organisation and functioning. Such loose organisational structures may provide flexibility for undertaking activities. But they may lack stability of members and activities. Several observers represented that these groups are often limited to a small group of individuals largely from the academia, media, writers, artists, lawyers and other professionals. Except in Andhra Pradesh, where APCLC and APDR have enticed relatively huge numbers of participants, human rights groups are mainly from the middle class (Ray 1986; Kakarala 1993).

Many reports have shown that human right movements face a constant predicament on the issue of violence practiced by the strugglers and activists as well as the violence of the state. In 1948 the Civil Liberties Committee of West Bengal which protested against the repression of the state on the communist activists faced the question of its stand on the violence practised by the mass movement. Dutta observes that:

Most of the communist activists, whose rights were under attack, were accused of practicing violence, and the liberals, who joined the CLC, had to answer the government's charge that they were condoning violence. On this issue, the CLC leaders took a stand that was, in fact, an extension of the ideal that the primary task of the movement was to oppose the authoritarian tendencies of the state. In defending the communists, they presumed that the state violence was more harmful to civil society than the violence against the state practiced by the revolutionaries (1998: 280-81).

To summarize, a social movement is s huge movement and a joint attempt of people to bring social change, or to struggle for any change. The notion central to any social movement is that people interfere in the process of social change, rather than remaining mere spectators or passive participants in the web and flow of life. There are many types of social movement. Human Rights are the basic human needs and demands. They are essential for the all-round development of a human being. Henceforth, it is expected that civilized state will incorporate these rights in its constriction and try to guarantee that its citizens can live comfortably.

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Human Rights Movement in India

• Updated on  
• Jul 24, 2021

Every country, culture, and ethnicity has one thing in common, irrespective of where they come from, everyone in the world holds certain rights as a human being. These are the rights that we have as human beings; they are not granted by any state. Human rights are inherent to everyone but every now and then, communities get together to fight for a right that is rightfully theirs. Even in India, there have been many stories that sing the saga of human rights and their implementation. While some happened in the vicinity of a house, some created an impact so large that Indians now get to reap its benefit today. Let us know about some of these human rights movements in India that changed the course of life: 

This Blog Includes:

Human rights in ancient india, after the emergency, women in human rights movements in india, dalit movements.

The trace of the concept of human rights can be paved back to the Vedas period of the 15 Century B.C. In Vedas, human rights are signified with the concept of equality. The Charter of equality of all is defined in the Vedas with the following words- ‘No one is superior or inferior, all should strive for the interest of all and should progress collectively’.

Kautilya summed up the concept of the welfare state by saying that the happiness of the state lies in the happiness of its subjects. During the period, civil and legal rights were first formulated by Manu that included a number of economic rights. The importance of human rights was well supported by Jainism, Buddhism and other minority religious groups. King Ashoka worked day and night for the protection of human rights. 

Also Read: Kalinga War: Cause, Effect, Year, Result 

The emergency was put by the government of India in 1975. Hundreds of thousands of people joined massive rallies to protest against the anti-democratic acts of the government and to mobilize public opinion to safeguard Indian democracy.

Organizations such as Citizens for Democracy, People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL), People’s Union for Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights (PUCLDR), and Chhatra Yuva Sangharsh Vahini were at the forefront of human rights struggles at the national level. 

Dozens of state-level and city-based groups were also formed during this period. For example, the Committee for Protection for Democratic Rights (Mumbai), Association for Protection of Democratic Rights (APDR), and Andhra Pradesh Civil Liberties Committee (APCLC) in Hyderabad.

During the 1980s, those who were concerned only about formal democracy confined themselves to the ‘civil liberties movement’. Organizations working against the repression of workers, poor, peasants, Dalits, women, and tribal people joined the ‘democratic rights movement’. This set the tone for human rights movements in India during the 1990s that established their networks from local and regional to a global level. 

Now, we have reached a stage where social movements of all ideological hues accept the ‘emancipatory potential’ of human rights. Even the mainstream institutions—universities, print and electronic media, religious organizations, and political parties—with mutually exclusive interests talk about ‘violation of human rights in their campaigns. 

Also Read: Human Rights Courses [Exciting Career Paths]

Nationwide anti-rape campaign in 1980 resulted in the emergence and proliferation of autonomous women’s organizations in several cities and towns of India. They did agitation and propaganda work against series of rape cases in a custodial situation, domestic violence, and dowry harassment. The groups soon realized that to work on a sustained basis for rehabilitative aspects of violence against women, it was important to evolve institutional structures for support to the women victims of violence based on feminist principles of solidarity (mutual counseling) and sisterhood.

Initially, they concentrated on women-specific issues such as wife battering and dowry murders, domestic violence, rape and eve-teasing, honor killing, pornographic films, plays, and literature on harassment of women at the workplace. Militant actions, social boycott, gherao of tormentors, raiding of the matrimonial homes for retrieval of dowry had to be resorted to because of antipathy/lethargy of the state apparatus. From these experiences of direct action, the activists of the women’s groups learned the power relations operating within modern families (working class, middle class, and upper class), different religious communities, and various caste organizations.

Human rights violations of vulnerable groups in contemporary India are a result of complex nexus between the politics of identity, exclusion, inclusion, and segregation, rooted in history, cultural ethos, politics, and economics

Beginning in the 1920s, various social, religious, and political movements rose in India against the caste system and in support of the human rights of the Dalit community. In 1950, the Constitution of India was adopted, and largely due to the influence of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (chairman of the Constitutional Drafting Committee), departed from the norms and traditions of the caste system in favor of justice, equality, liberty, and fraternity, guaranteeing all citizens basic human rights regardless of caste, creed, gender or ethnicity. The implementation and enforcement of these principles have, unfortunately, been an abysmal failure. Despite the fact that ‘untouchability’ was abolished under India’s constitution in 1950, the practice of ‘untouchability’—the imposition of social disabilities on persons by reason of their birth in certain castes—remains very much a part of India. 

These movements inspire us to speak about the injustice that happens. For more content like this, make sure you follow   Leverage Edu on Facebook , Instagram , and LinkedIn . Do let us in the comments down below what you think about the different movements that have taken place.

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Social Movements, State Formation and Democracy in India: An Introduction

• First Online: 27 November 2016

Cite this chapter

• Alf Gunvald Nilsen 5 &
• Kenneth Bo Nielsen 6  

Part of the book series: Rethinking International Development series ((RID))

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India, as Thomas Blom Hansen (1999: 5) notes, presents us with “the longest, most sustained, and most successful trajectory of democracy anywhere in the postcolonial world …”. The coming of national independence in 1947 witnessed the introduction of universal franchise and a system of electoral democracy that—with the exception of the Emergency period from 1975 to 1977 1 —have remained stable for close to seven decades. As media pundits are quick to point out every time India gears up for general elections, this makes for a favourable comparison with other countries and regions in the global South where democratic rule has tended to rest on feeble foundations and often has given way to outright authoritarianism. “For the 64 years since independence, democracy has perhaps been India’s greatest asset,” wrote one commentator in 2012, “the magic that has kept the country’s dizzying array of linguistic, ethnic and religious groups together as a nation” (Denyer 2012). Moreover, Indian democracy is unique in the sense that the poor exercise their right to vote more eagerly and in greater proportion than India’s middle classes and elites: “In India alone, the poor form not just the overwhelming majority of the electorate, but vote in larger numbers than the better-off. Everywhere else, without exception, the ratio of electoral participation is the reverse” (Anderson 2012; see also Thachil 2014 and Banerjee 2014).

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Agnihotri, I., & Mazumdar, V. (1995). Changing terms of political discourse: Women’s movement in India, 1970s–1990s. Economic and Political Weekly, 30 (29), 1869–1878.

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Nilsen, A.G., Nielsen, K.B. (2016). Social Movements, State Formation and Democracy in India: An Introduction. In: Nielsen, K., Nilsen, A. (eds) Social Movements and the State in India. Rethinking International Development series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59133-3_1

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Home — Essay Samples — History — History of the United States — Civil Rights Movement

Essays on Civil Rights Movement

Hook examples for civil rights movement essays, anecdotal hook.

Imagine standing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in 1963, listening to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. deliver his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech. This moment in history epitomized the Civil Rights Movement's power and importance.

Question Hook

What does it mean to fight for civil rights? Explore the complex history, key figures, and lasting impact of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.

Quotation Hook

"Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about things that matter." — Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. How did civil rights activists like King refuse to stay silent and ignite change?

Statistical or Factual Hook

Did you know that in 1964, the Civil Rights Act was signed into law, prohibiting discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin? Dive into the facts and milestones of the Civil Rights Movement.

Definition Hook

What defines a civil rights movement? Explore the principles, goals, and strategies that distinguish civil rights movements from other social justice movements.

Rhetorical Question Hook

Was the Civil Rights Movement solely about racial equality, or did it pave the way for broader social change and justice? Examine the movement's multifaceted impact.

Historical Hook

Travel back in time to the mid-20th century and uncover the roots of the Civil Rights Movement, from the Jim Crow era to the landmark Supreme Court decisions.

Contrast Hook

Contrast the injustices and systemic racism faced by African Americans prior to the Civil Rights Movement with the progress made through protests, legislation, and activism.

Narrative Hook

Meet Rosa Parks, a seamstress who refused to give up her bus seat, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Follow her courageous journey and the ripple effect it had on the Civil Rights Movement.

Controversial Statement Hook

Prepare to explore the controversies within the Civil Rights Movement, such as differing strategies among activists and debates over nonviolence versus militancy.

The Outsiders: Challenging Stereotypes

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Civil Rights Movement and The Struggles of African Americans During Those Times

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How The Civil Rights Movement Helped African Americans Achieve Their Rights

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United States

Racism, segregation, disenfranchisement, Jim Crow laws, socioeconomic inequality

W.E.B. Du Bois, Jesse Jackson, Martin Luther King, Jr., Henry MacNeal Turner, John Oliver Killens

Civil rights movement was a struggle of African Americans and their like-minded allies for social justice in United States that came to national prominence during the mid-1950s. The purpose was to end legalized racial discrimination, disenfranchisement and racial segregation in the United States.

“Jim Crow” laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century with a purpose to separate Black people from white people. Black people couldn’t use the same public facilities as white people or go to the same schools. Although, Jim Crow laws weren’t adopted in northern states, Black people still experienced discrimination.

Forms of protest and civil disobedience included boycotts, such as the most successful Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956) that lasted for 381 days in Alabama; mass marches, such as the Children's Crusade in Birmingham in 1963 and Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) in Alabama; "sit-ins" such as the Greensboro sit-ins (1960) in North Carolina and Nashville sit-ins (1960) in Tennessee.

The Great March on Washington was held in Washington, D.C., on August 28, 1963. The purpose was to advocate for the civil and economic rights of African Americans. It was organized and attended by civil rights leaders such as A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Martin Luther King, Jr., who delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech.

On July 2, 1964, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, and later sexual orientation and gender identity. The act "remains one of the most significant legislative achievements in American history".

The civil rights movement had tragic consequences for two of its leaders. On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was assassinated at a rally and Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated on his hotel room’s balcony on April 4, 1968.

The Civil Rights Act of 1968 was signed into law by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson during the King assassination riots. It prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and national origin.

The 20th-century civil rights movement produced an enduring transformation of the legal status of African Americans and other victims of discrimination.

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Essay on Social Movements in India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Social Movements in India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Social Movements in India

Introduction to social movements.

Social movements in India have played a major role in shaping the nation’s political, social, and economic landscape. These movements are mass efforts demanding change and justice.

Pre-Independence Movements

Before independence, movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement and Civil Disobedience Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi were instrumental in India’s struggle for freedom.

Post-Independence Movements

Post-independence, movements like the Chipko Movement and the Narmada Bachao Andolan highlighted environmental concerns. Meanwhile, the Anti-Corruption Movement of 2011 demanded political transparency.

In conclusion, social movements in India have been catalysts for significant change, reflecting the power of collective action in a democracy.

250 Words Essay on Social Movements in India

Introduction: the landscape of social movements in india.

India, a country with a rich history of social movements, has witnessed a multitude of grassroots campaigns aimed at societal transformation. These movements, often led by ordinary citizens, have sought to address a range of issues, from caste and gender discrimination to environmental protection and human rights.

Historical Perspective

Historically, social movements in India have been powerful tools for social change. From the Dalit movement led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, which sought to eradicate caste discrimination, to the Chipko movement, an environmental campaign that highlighted the importance of forest conservation, these movements have played a pivotal role in shaping India’s socio-political landscape.

Contemporary Social Movements

In the contemporary context, social movements continue to be a force for change. The Right to Information Act, for example, was a result of a grassroots movement that demanded transparency and accountability from the government. Similarly, the recent protests against the Citizenship Amendment Act demonstrated the power of citizen-led movements in challenging unjust laws.

Impact and Challenges

Despite their significant impact, social movements in India face numerous challenges. They often encounter resistance from political establishments and are sometimes marred by violence. Moreover, while these movements have brought about substantial change, they have not completely eradicated the social issues they aim to address.

In conclusion, social movements in India, though faced with numerous challenges, have been instrumental in driving social change. They represent the collective power of citizens to challenge injustices and shape a more equitable society. As India continues to evolve, the role of social movements in shaping its future cannot be underestimated.

500 Words Essay on Social Movements in India

Introduction.

India, with its diverse and vibrant society, has been a fertile ground for numerous social movements. These movements have played a pivotal role in shaping India’s socio-political landscape, often acting as catalysts for change and progress. They have addressed a wide range of issues, from caste and gender inequality to environmental conservation, and from human rights to political corruption.

The Pre-Independence Era

The genesis of social movements in India can be traced back to the pre-independence era. The 19th century witnessed the emergence of several reform movements aimed at eradicating social evils and practices. The Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and the Ramakrishna Mission were instrumental in challenging societal norms such as casteism, untouchability, and child marriage. These movements, though religious in nature, had profound social implications and laid the groundwork for a more egalitarian society.

The Post-Independence Era

The post-independence era saw a shift in the focus of social movements. The emphasis was now on issues like land rights, poverty alleviation, and political representation. The Bhoodan Movement led by Vinoba Bhave, for instance, aimed at redistributing land to the landless, while the Dalit Panthers movement sought to assert the rights and dignity of the marginalized Dalit community.

The Contemporary Scenario

In recent years, social movements in India have become more diverse and complex. They encompass a broad spectrum of issues, including environmentalism, gender equality, and LGBTQ+ rights. The Chipko Movement and the Narmada Bachao Andolan stand as notable examples of environmental activism. The Pink Chaddi campaign, the #MeToo movement, and the recent protests against discriminatory citizenship laws illustrate the power of social media in mobilizing public opinion and action.

Social movements in India have undeniably brought significant changes. They have led to the enactment of progressive laws, helped in democratizing the political space, and fostered social awareness and empowerment. However, these movements also face numerous challenges. Limited resources, state repression, and societal backlash often impede their progress. Moreover, the lack of unity and ideological differences within these movements can also undermine their effectiveness.

Despite the challenges, social movements in India continue to be a potent force for social change. They represent the collective voice of the marginalized and the disenfranchised, striving for a more equitable and inclusive society. As we move forward, it is essential to recognize the transformative potential of these movements and ensure their active participation in the democratic process. In the end, the success of social movements in India will be determined by their ability to bring about lasting and meaningful change.

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Civil Disobedience Movement: Essay & Important Notes

Beginning of the movement.

The Salt Satyagraha was one of the factors that led to the initiation of the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Dandi March was conducted by Mahatma Gandhi and his several followers to break the salt law. The Salt Satyagraha led to the extraction of salt from seawater and it was on the culmination of the Dandi March that Gandhiji announced the Civil Disobedience Movement. The announcement of this movement filled the people of India with new energy to fight for their independence.

Activities During the Movement

The sole aim of Mahatma Gandhi was to organize non-violent protests across the nation to attain the aim of Purna Swaraj. For this, several non-violent protests and activities were undertaken across the nation. The objective of the movement was to defy the British government and its laws that were imposed on Indians. Boycott of foreign goods, clothes, and liquor marked the movement and its protests.

In Bihar and other states, anti-Chowkidari tax campaigns were launched wherein villagers refused to pay any money for protection to the local guards. In Gujarat, a no-tax campaign was carried out. As per this campaign, no revenue was paid to the British government. Forest laws were also defied in many regions where the tribal population was pre-dominant. In Uttar Pradesh as well, no tax and no-rent campaigns were organized.

Martial Law

Mahatma Gandhi was arrested after the Dandi March and the people of India were outraged. There were widespread arrests across the country and the people participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement with more fervor. The British government used highly repressive measures like mass arrests, lathi charges, and police firing. However, people continued to defy the British laws by continuing strikes and therefore a martial law was imposed in the country in 1930.

The Political and Economic Policy of Mahatma Gandhi and the Reaction of the British Government

After the release, Mahatma Gandhi launched another phase of the Civil Disobedience Movement by specifying a political and economic policy. This policy stated the abolition of salt tax and reduction in land revenue by 50%. The policy also indicated the demands on the middle-class in terms of reserving coastal land for Indians and keeping a check on the rupee-sterling exchange rate. The political demands of the policy were to bring changes in the Arms Act, changes in the working of the Central Intelligence Department, prohibition of intoxicants in the country, and reduction on military expenditure.

To address the policy reforms, the British government formed the Simon Commission and convened the First Round Table Conference in the year 1930. This was boycotted by the Indian National Congress, but attended by the Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, and others.

However, without the participation of the Congress, the conference did not have any meaning, so the Congress was persuaded to join the Second Round Table Conference. It was made clear that the government was not interested in India’s independence and the conference met with a failure.

In 1939, the Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn as the government repression intensified. A resolution was passed by the leaders in India to form a constituent assembly elected by the people of India. The movement laid down the foundation for an independent India and ignited the right to freedom in every Indian.

Important Notes

• Under the leadership of Gandhiji, the Civil Disobedience Movement was launched in 1930. It began with the Dandi March.
• Gandhiji and his followers protested against the Salt Law.
• In Tamil Nadu, C Rajagopalchari led a similar march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam. In Gujarat, Sarojini Naidu protested in front of the salt depots. Lakhs of people including a large number of women participated actively in these protests.

Practically the whole country became involved in the movement. There were large-scale boycotts of schools, colleges, and offices. Foreign goods were burnt in bonfires. People stopped paying taxes.

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Civil Rights Movement

By: History.com Editors

Updated: January 22, 2024 | Original: October 27, 2009

The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for Black Americans to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War officially abolished slavery , but it didn’t end discrimination against Black people—they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans, along with many other Americans, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades.

Jim Crow Laws

During Reconstruction , Black people took on leadership roles like never before. They held public office and sought legislative changes for equality and the right to vote.

In 1868, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution gave Black people equal protection under the law. In 1870, the 15th Amendment granted Black American men the right to vote. Still, many white Americans, especially those in the South, were unhappy that people they’d once enslaved were now on a more-or-less equal playing field.

To marginalize Black people, keep them separate from white people and erase the progress they’d made during Reconstruction, “ Jim Crow ” laws were established in the South beginning in the late 19th century. Black people couldn’t use the same public facilities as white people, live in many of the same towns or go to the same schools. Interracial marriage was illegal, and most Black people couldn’t vote because they were unable to pass voter literacy tests.

Jim Crow laws weren’t adopted in northern states; however, Black people still experienced discrimination at their jobs or when they tried to buy a house or get an education. To make matters worse, laws were passed in some states to limit voting rights for Black Americans.

Moreover, southern segregation gained ground in 1896 when the U.S. Supreme Court declared in Plessy v. Ferguson that facilities for Black and white people could be “separate but equal."

World War II and Civil Rights

Prior to World War II , most Black people worked as low-wage farmers, factory workers, domestics or servants. By the early 1940s, war-related work was booming, but most Black Americans weren’t given better-paying jobs. They were also discouraged from joining the military.

After thousands of Black people threatened to march on Washington to demand equal employment rights, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 on June 25, 1941. It opened national defense jobs and other government jobs to all Americans regardless of race, creed, color or national origin.

Black men and women served heroically in World War II, despite suffering segregation and discrimination during their deployment. The Tuskegee Airmen broke the racial barrier to become the first Black military aviators in the U.S. Army Air Corps and earned more than 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Yet many Black veterans were met with prejudice and scorn upon returning home. This was a stark contrast to why America had entered the war to begin with—to defend freedom and democracy in the world.

As the Cold War began, President Harry Truman initiated a civil rights agenda, and in 1948 issued Executive Order 9981 to end discrimination in the military. These events helped set the stage for grass-roots initiatives to enact racial equality legislation and incite the civil rights movement.

On December 1, 1955, a 42-year-old woman named Rosa Parks found a seat on a Montgomery, Alabama bus after work. Segregation laws at the time stated Black passengers must sit in designated seats at the back of the bus, and Parks complied.

When a white man got on the bus and couldn’t find a seat in the white section at the front of the bus, the bus driver instructed Parks and three other Black passengers to give up their seats. Parks refused and was arrested.

As word of her arrest ignited outrage and support, Parks unwittingly became the “mother of the modern-day civil rights movement.” Black community leaders formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led by Baptist minister Martin Luther King Jr ., a role which would place him front and center in the fight for civil rights.

Parks’ courage incited the MIA to stage a boycott of the Montgomery bus system . The Montgomery Bus Boycott lasted 381 days. On November 14, 1956, the Supreme Court ruled segregated seating was unconstitutional. 

Little Rock Nine

In 1954, the civil rights movement gained momentum when the United States Supreme Court made segregation illegal in public schools in the case of Brown v. Board of Education . In 1957, Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas asked for volunteers from all-Black high schools to attend the formerly segregated school.

On September 4, 1957, nine Black students, known as the Little Rock Nine , arrived at Central High School to begin classes but were instead met by the Arkansas National Guard (on order of Governor Orval Faubus) and a screaming, threatening mob. The Little Rock Nine tried again a couple of weeks later and made it inside, but had to be removed for their safety when violence ensued.

Finally, President Dwight D. Eisenhower intervened and ordered federal troops to escort the Little Rock Nine to and from classes at Central High. Still, the students faced continual harassment and prejudice.

Their efforts, however, brought much-needed attention to the issue of desegregation and fueled protests on both sides of the issue.

Civil Rights Act of 1957

Even though all Americans had gained the right to vote, many southern states made it difficult for Black citizens. They often required prospective voters of color to take literacy tests that were confusing, misleading and nearly impossible to pass.

Wanting to show a commitment to the civil rights movement and minimize racial tensions in the South, the Eisenhower administration pressured Congress to consider new civil rights legislation.

On September 9, 1957, President Eisenhower signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 into law, the first major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. It allowed federal prosecution of anyone who tried to prevent someone from voting. It also created a commission to investigate voter fraud.

Sit-In at Woolworth's Lunch Counter

Despite making some gains, Black Americans still experienced blatant prejudice in their daily lives. On February 1, 1960, four college students took a stand against segregation in Greensboro, North Carolina when they refused to leave a Woolworth’s lunch counter without being served.

Over the next several days, hundreds of people joined their cause in what became known as the Greensboro sit-ins. After some were arrested and charged with trespassing, protesters launched a boycott of all segregated lunch counters until the owners caved and the original four students were finally served at the Woolworth’s lunch counter where they’d first stood their ground.

Their efforts spearheaded peaceful sit-ins and demonstrations in dozens of cities and helped launch the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to encourage all students to get involved in the civil rights movement. It also caught the eye of young college graduate Stokely Carmichael , who joined the SNCC during the Freedom Summer of 1964 to register Black voters in Mississippi. In 1966, Carmichael became the chair of the SNCC, giving his famous speech in which he originated the phrase "Black power.”

Freedom Riders

On May 4, 1961, 13 “ Freedom Riders ”—seven Black and six white activists–mounted a Greyhound bus in Washington, D.C. , embarking on a bus tour of the American south to protest segregated bus terminals. They were testing the 1960 decision by the Supreme Court in Boynton v. Virginia that declared the segregation of interstate transportation facilities unconstitutional.

Facing violence from both police officers and white protesters, the Freedom Rides drew international attention. On Mother’s Day 1961, the bus reached Anniston, Alabama, where a mob mounted the bus and threw a bomb into it. The Freedom Riders escaped the burning bus but were badly beaten. Photos of the bus engulfed in flames were widely circulated, and the group could not find a bus driver to take them further. U.S. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (brother to President John F. Kennedy ) negotiated with Alabama Governor John Patterson to find a suitable driver, and the Freedom Riders resumed their journey under police escort on May 20. But the officers left the group once they reached Montgomery, where a white mob brutally attacked the bus. Attorney General Kennedy responded to the riders—and a call from Martin Luther King Jr.—by sending federal marshals to Montgomery.

On May 24, 1961, a group of Freedom Riders reached Jackson, Mississippi. Though met with hundreds of supporters, the group was arrested for trespassing in a “whites-only” facility and sentenced to 30 days in jail. Attorneys for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) brought the matter to the U.S. Supreme Court, which reversed the convictions. Hundreds of new Freedom Riders were drawn to the cause, and the rides continued.

In the fall of 1961, under pressure from the Kennedy administration, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in interstate transit terminals

March on Washington

Arguably one of the most famous events of the civil rights movement took place on August 28, 1963: the March on Washington . It was organized and attended by civil rights leaders such as A. Philip Randolph , Bayard Rustin and Martin Luther King Jr.

More than 200,000 people of all races congregated in Washington, D. C. for the peaceful march with the main purpose of forcing civil rights legislation and establishing job equality for everyone. The highlight of the march was King’s speech in which he continually stated, “I have a dream…”

King’s “ I Have a Dream” speech galvanized the national civil rights movement and became a slogan for equality and freedom.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 —legislation initiated by President John F. Kennedy before his assassination —into law on July 2 of that year.

King and other civil rights activists witnessed the signing. The law guaranteed equal employment for all, limited the use of voter literacy tests and allowed federal authorities to ensure public facilities were integrated.

Bloody Sunday

On March 7, 1965, the civil rights movement in Alabama took an especially violent turn as 600 peaceful demonstrators participated in the Selma to Montgomery march to protest the killing of Black civil rights activist Jimmie Lee Jackson by a white police officer and to encourage legislation to enforce the 15th amendment.

As the protesters neared the Edmund Pettus Bridge, they were blocked by Alabama state and local police sent by Alabama Governor George C. Wallace, a vocal opponent of desegregation. Refusing to stand down, protesters moved forward and were viciously beaten and teargassed by police and dozens of protesters were hospitalized.

The entire incident was televised and became known as “ Bloody Sunday .” Some activists wanted to retaliate with violence, but King pushed for nonviolent protests and eventually gained federal protection for another march.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

When President Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law on August 6, 1965, he took the Civil Rights Act of 1964 several steps further. The new law banned all voter literacy tests and provided federal examiners in certain voting jurisdictions. 

It also allowed the attorney general to contest state and local poll taxes. As a result, poll taxes were later declared unconstitutional in Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections in 1966.

Part of the Act was walked back decades later, in 2013, when a Supreme Court decision ruled that Section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act was unconstitutional, holding that the constraints placed on certain states and federal review of states' voting procedures were outdated.

Civil Rights Leaders Assassinated

The civil rights movement had tragic consequences for two of its leaders in the late 1960s. On February 21, 1965, former Nation of Islam leader and Organization of Afro-American Unity founder Malcolm X was assassinated at a rally.

On April 4, 1968, civil rights leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on his hotel room's balcony. Emotionally-charged looting and riots followed, putting even more pressure on the Johnson administration to push through additional civil rights laws.

Fair Housing Act of 1968

The Fair Housing Act became law on April 11, 1968, just days after King’s assassination. It prevented housing discrimination based on race, sex, national origin and religion. It was also the last legislation enacted during the civil rights era.

The civil rights movement was an empowering yet precarious time for Black Americans. The efforts of civil rights activists and countless protesters of all races brought about legislation to end segregation, Black voter suppression and discriminatory employment and housing practices.

A Brief History of Jim Crow. Constitutional Rights Foundation. Civil Rights Act of 1957. Civil Rights Digital Library. Document for June 25th: Executive Order 8802: Prohibition of Discrimination in the Defense Industry. National Archives. Greensboro Lunch Counter Sit-In. African American Odyssey. Little Rock School Desegregation (1957).  The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford . Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute Stanford . Rosa Marie Parks Biography. Rosa and Raymond Parks. Selma, Alabama, (Bloody Sunday, March 7, 1965). BlackPast.org. The Civil Rights Movement (1919-1960s). National Humanities Center. The Little Rock Nine. National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior: Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site. Turning Point: World War II. Virginia Historical Society.

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Neo Farmer Movement in Contemporary India Sociology Optional UPSC | Sociology Optional for UPSC Civil Services Examination | Triumph IAS

Table of Contents

Neo Farmer Movement in Contemporary India

(Relevant for Sociology Optional for Civil Services Examination)

Introduction:

India has a long history of of farmer movement dating back to colonial times. Those movements were generally considered as peasant movements. However it is being replaced with farmer movement for a simple reason that post-independence the development paradigm has made a new category of market oriented farmers. Recent reforms like green revolution, new technology and government subsidies have created a new category of rich farmers. The struggle of these farmers resorted to in recent years has been conceptualised as NEO FARMER MOVEMENT.

Reasons for Beginning of Neo Farmer Movement

• Terms of trade going against the agriculture
• Declining purchasing power
• Unremunerative prices
• Agricultural becoming losing proposition
• Increase in input prices
• Declining per capita income from agriculture

FEATURES OF NEO FARMER MOVEMENT.

• These movements do not believe in romanticising their life style or social life. They are more inclined to economic issues like protests for MSP, Debt waiver etc.
• They advocate transcending local boundaries , emphasizing internationalism over narrow nationalism.
• Unified and undifferentiated struggle is a key tenet , rejecting the division of social categories based on economic status. This stance prevents them from labelling their movement as solely representing affluent peasants, as they view all social segments aexperiencing poverty due to biased government policies.
• Their contention is that successive governments’ biased policies have led to growing rural poverty, leading them to assert that the “debt of the farmer” is a manufactured concept by the government. This declaration manifests in their call for “Kharja Mukti.”
• The core objective of the farmers’ movement is analysing backwardness through the lens of achieving fair prices for agricultural products. They believe that remunerative prices can trigger a trickle-down effect, ultimately eradicating rural poverty and underdevelopment .
• Gail Omvedt , a prominent researcher on peasant movements, argues that these movements present a novel perspective on exploitation. In contrast to traditional movements, they contend that exploitation is rooted in a larger market system that extends beyond localities, potentially encompassing national or even global markets.
• Use of new techniques: like social media ,music and gaining international tractions has been new methods to used by farmers in their movement.

Ideology of the Neo Farmer Movement

• Farmers’ movement lacks a singular ideology due to fundamental differences in addressing farmers’ issues.
• The Karnataka movement identifies as Gandhian, with some alignment to Dependency theory . It attributes Third World underdevelopment to post-colonial exploitation, including cheap goods, technology dumping, and urban-biased policies.
• Maharashtra’s Shetkari Sangathana stands out with its “Bharat versus India” ideology, emphasizing native and traditional values versus exploitation inherited from British colonial rule . Sharad Joshi argues that “India corresponds to that notional entity that has inherited from the British the mantle of economic, social, cultural educational exploitation; on the contrary “Bharat” is that notional entity which is subject to exploitation a second time even after the termination of the external colonial regime
• The movement critiques state intervention and supports economic freedom for farmers’ prosperity.

Social base and related criticism of neo farmer movement

• These Neo farmer movement are often criticised for their class bias . The Neo Farmer movement are often criticised for their class bias. It is often argued that the Neo Farmer movement is highly biased towards market-oriented farmers than those who are living in the subsistence economy. All through their struggles, these movements have raised such issues which have helped either the rich farmers or the middle farmers. For example, their argument in favour of writing off loans, remunerative prices, declaring agriculture as an industry, abolition of tractor loans etc. ultimately helped the big or the rich/middle peasantry or the farmers.
• Even the movements have not addressed the issues beyond irrigated are The issues of non-irrigated areas have received scant focus in their discourse.
• It is also said that these movements have never become all caste movement . For example Punjab and Uttar Pradesh movement  has become JAT movement. In Tamil Nadu there is very low representation of Dalits and Muslims.
• Nonetheless they have not been effective in bringing radical transformation in the country side . This is because of the fact that the neo farmer movement, from the very beginning, were unable to overcome the internal conflicts as well as contradictions . Secondly, they did not carry any radical agenda from within- for example they never bothered to demand radical land reforms, nor were they concerned about the atrocities perpetrated on marginal classes including the Dalits in the country side .

Conclusion:

The neo farmer movement did bring about a paradigm shift in the discourse, analysis and perception about farmers in India. It made the policy makers to address the deep rooted crisis of agriculture as well as agrarian classes in India. It has also helped the farmers to be a part of international movement against such issues as globalisation, imperialism and capitalism.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF SOCIOLOGY

• Modernity and social changes in Europe and emergence of sociology.
• Scope of the subject and comparison with other social sciences.
• Sociology and common sense.
• Science, scientific method and critique.
• Major theoretical strands of research methodology.
• Positivism and its critique.
• Fact value and objectivity.
• Non- positivist methodologies.
• Qualitative and quantitative methods.
• Techniques of data collection.
• Variables, sampling, hypothesis, reliability and validity.
• Karl Marx- Historical materialism, mode of production, alienation, class struggle.
• Emile Durkheim- Division of labour, social fact, suicide, religion and society.
• Max Weber- Social action, ideal types, authority, bureaucracy, protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism.
• Talcott Parsons- Social system, pattern variables.
• Robert K. Merton- Latent and manifest functions, conformity and deviance, reference groups.
• Mead – Self and identity.
• Concepts- equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty and deprivation.
• Theories of social stratification- Structural functionalist theory, Marxist theory, Weberian theory.
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INDIAN SOCIETY: STRUCTURE AND CHANGE

Introducing indian society.

• Indology (GS. Ghurye).
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• Modernization of Indian tradition.
• Protests and movements during the colonial period.
• Social reforms.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

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• Features of caste system.
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• Definitional problems.
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• Lineage and descent in India.
• Types of kinship systems.
• Family and marriage in India.
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• Working class: structure, growth, class mobilization.
• Informal sector, child labour
• Slums and deprivation in urban areas.

4. Politics and Society:

• Nation, democracy and citizenship.
• Political parties, pressure groups , social and political elite
• Regionalism and decentralization of power.
• Secularization

5. Social Movements in Modern India:

• Peasants and farmers movements.
• Women’s movement.
• Backward classes & Dalit movement.
• Environmental movements.
• Ethnicity and Identity movements.

6. Population Dynamics:

• Population size, growth, composition and distribution
• Components of population growth: birth, death, migration.
• Population policy and family planning.
• Emerging issues: ageing, sex ratios, child and infant mortality, reproductive health.

7. Challenges of Social Transformation:

• Crisis of development: displacement, environmental problems and sustainability
• Poverty, deprivation and inequalities.
• Violence against women.
• Caste conflicts.
• Ethnic conflicts, communalism, religious revivalism.
• Illiteracy and disparities in education.

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