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Globalisation and Crime

examples of global crimes include trafficking, cyber crimes, financial crimes, terrorism and green crimes.

criminal globalization essay

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Last Updated on September 26, 2023 by Karl Thompson

The AQA Sociology Crime and Deviance Specification specifies that students must examine (among other things!) ‘globalisation and crime in contemporary society’.

Questions sociologists might ask about Globalisation and crime….

How has globalisation affected crime in contemporary society.

  • What are global crimes?

What is the extent of global crime?

  • What are the consequences of global crimes for individuals and society? (relating to crime control)
  • Why has global crime increased? (It’s a reasonable assumption that it has as it’s relatively new on the specification, albeit 20 years out of date as is often the case with AQA A-level sociology).

You will need to be able to link your answers to these questions to other aspects of the Crime and Deviance Specification (when talking about consequences you might distinguish between effects on men and women, for example), and you need to be able to apply sociological perspectives.

Before we turn to looking at the relationship between globalisation and crime, it is worth reviewing the concept of globalisation, itself one of the most important concepts A-level sociology students need to know!

What is globalisation?

In short it’s the different regions across the world becoming increasingly interconnected resulting in increasing flows of the following:

  • economic globalisation means more global trade (the increasing movement of goods and services between countries) and more Transnational companies.
  • cultural globalisation means more communication between people and the intermixing of ideas, often resulting in ‘hybrid’ cultures.
  • There is also the increasing migration of people – for study, work, flight from wars (refugees) and (for the wealthy) holidays, which has elements of both cultural and economic globalisation.

Globalisation can be physical – the movement of people and objects across borders, as well as virtual – the increasing significance of the internet in our lives has really pushed globalisation forward.

There is thus also a ‘technological’ underpinning to globalisation – transport and communications technologies especially.

There is debate over whether globalisation is mainly a one way process from the West to the developing world, or more of a two way process; and a debate over whether it’s good (optimism) or bad (pessimism) and also those who believe it has been exaggerated, or in reverse, all of which you can apply to our coming discussion of the relationship between globalisation and crime!

For more information on Globalisation, check out my ‘ Global Development and Globalisation ‘ web page – there are several links which will allow you to explore the concept further!

What are Global Crimes?

There are different ways of classifying global crimes, but one way we can do this is as follows:

  • Trafficking – moving drugs, people and/ or weapons across international borders
  • Cyber Crimes – such as phising attacks, extortion and fraud
  • Financial crimes – such as tax evasion.
  • International terrorism
  • Most (if not all?) green crimes are also global in nature.

Some of the above global crimes are carried out by loan operators, some by organised criminal networks (some people consider ‘organised crime’ to be a category of crime in its own right), some by governments themselves (state crimes) and some my Corporations.

Trafficking

The Global Financial Integrity Report on Transnational Crime estimates that the total global value of all trafficking is between $1.6 to $2.2 trillion, with drug trafficking making up the largest share, around 30% of this, with a global value of around $500 billion.

criminal globalization essay

According to The United Nations 2021 Drug Report , globally in 2018 an estimated 269 million people had used a drug at least once in the previous year, equivalent to 5.4 per cent of the population. This is projected to rise by 11% to 299 people by 2030.

Most of the increase will be in developing countries, with high income countries projected to see falling numbers of drug users in the next decade.

criminal globalization essay

Cyber Crime

Cyber Security Ventures estimates that Cyber Crime will cost the world $5 trillion in 2021, and estimates that cost will grow to $10.5 trillion by 2025.

NB you might want to be cautious with these statistics because I think the company which did the research sells cyber security protection, so it’s in their interests to exaggerate the risks!

Nonetheless this is something governments and companies take very seriously.

A couple of important aspects mentioned in the article are that RansomWare is one of the fastest growing types of cyber crime – where your computer is hacked and data frozen, only to be released when you have paid a ransom (this may not be too much of a hassle for an individual, but if companies or government agencies are victims this is a much bigger dea.

Also, a lot of cyber crime takes place in the Deep and Dark Web, thought to be several times greater than what we can see online (visible, accessible public networks), and that This is also related increasingly to drug trafficking – increasingly people buy and sell drugs via the deep and dark web.

Tax Havens and Tax Evasion

The IMF estimates that there are $ several trillions of dollars of Corporate Funds stashed away in tax havens, costing the tax payer from between $500 to $600 in lost tax revenue (so a similar financial cost to the value of drug crime).

Estimates for how much individual wealth (rather than Corporate wealth) are stashed in tax havens are more varied, given the secrecy surrounding these funds, but two estimates cited by the IMF are from between $8 trillion to more than $30 trillion, costing the taxpayer around $200 billion a year in lost revenue.

There is a conceptual problem with labelling the use of tax havens as ‘criminal’ – companies and individuals often use loopholes in the law to get their funds out of countries where they are taxed and into tax havens where they are not taxed, or taxed at a very low rate, so we have to use a broader definition of crime as something which is harmful (through lost tax revenue) to ensure we include the use of tax havens in our examples of global crime.

Global Terrorism

Trends in global terrorism are actually going down (so some rare good news!).

According to the Global Terrorism Index , in 2019 ‘only’ just under 14000 people died in global terror incidents, the fifth year of decline since a peak of 34500 deaths in 2014.

Most terrorism deaths are located in a small handful of war torn countries, mainly Afghanistan, where 40% of deaths from Terror attacks occur.

criminal globalization essay

While terrorism is often very locally felt, many of the groups who claim responsibility for these attacks are responding to global dynamics and see themselves as part of a global network, so they are a response to globalisation.

This is one of the more complex questions we can ask in A-level sociology, and there are several possible ways we can break down our analysis, and a lot of interconnecting ideas where ever we start.

Below I’ve started with the concept of globalisation and considered how economic and cultural globalisation have opened up more opportunities for people and organisations to engage in certain types of crime and how the nature and extent of crime has changed as a result.

criminal globalization essay

Economic globalisation and global crime

Economic globalisation refers to increasing amounts of global trade and money, the increasing role of Transnational Corporations, the spread of an international division of labour, and (importantly from a broadly Marxist point of view) increasing amounts of inequality between rich and poor regions around the world.

Increasing amounts of trade of goods across international borders and the fact that some countries tax certain goods, such as alcohol and cigarettes, have lead to increasing amounts of smuggling of such highly taxed products -organised criminal networks have emerged (e.g. think of the Mafia) who smuggle cigarettes and alcohol from countries where they are produced very cheaply to countries where they are taxed very highly, such as the UK – this is simple demand and supply, albeit illegal, and very common: there are plenty of poor people in the UK (for example) who want cheaper booze and cigarettes, and plenty of poor people in developing countries who are willing to risk jail time to traffic non-taxed booze and cigarettes to countries such as the UK.

The above also applies to the illegal trade in counterfeit goods, from clothes to electronics – all of these goods (as well as fags and booze) may present themselves as genuine, but in reality they are fake – but when there are so many containers of goods moving around the world (global trade is massive) there is significant opportunity for organised criminal networks to smuggle their cheaper counterfeit/ untaxed goods into shipping containers and get them to willing and often unwitting consumers in their destination countries.

Marxists are keen to point out that it’s not just criminal networks involved in global economic crime – so are many Transnational Corporations -it’s a bit more difficult to analyse the role of these in global crime as they are more likely to engage in ‘law evasion’ rather than actual crime – for example Shell extracting oil in Nigeria and taking advantage of the laxer pollution laws in that country, committing effectively no ‘crime’ by Nigerian standards, but an environmental crime nonetheless.

TNCs also engage in tax evasion as do many wealthy individuals by stashing their wealth in tax havens, again, not technically illegal, but harmful due to lost tax revenue.

Another way in which economic globalisation might fuel global crime is through increasing inequality – one rather horrible aspect of this is sex trafficking – there are plenty of men in developed countries looking for cheap prostitutes prepared to travel to countries such those in Eastern Europe to get what they want – and the young women they find there may well have been trafficked into sex-work on the promise of something else by organised criminal gangs – one of the darker sides of the global economy.

The supply of drugs from poorer countries to richer countries is another aspect of inequality fuelling this global trade.

Cultural globalisation and global crime

The increasing communications between cultures may have lead to more cultural clashes the world over, more ‘ordinary people’ coming into conflict with their more traditional political orders.

An obvious example of this is ‘liberated’ women in Iran posting pictures of themselves on Instagram and the State ‘cracking down on them ‘, but there’s much more to it than this – radical interpretations of Islam have made their way to Britain and other European countries, shared and circulated online and contributed to various terror attacks over the last couple of decades.

However, it’s important not to exaggerate the extent to which exposure to new ideas results in ‘violent cultural clashes’, it’s quite possible that for the most part people online are just stuck in their bubbles (their social media bubbles, not meant here in the Pandemic sense of the word) and for the most part not inclined to criminal behaviour!

We could also point to the emergence of a set of ‘global human right’s outlined by the United Nations which proclaim that Nation States (governments) are not permitted to breach certain rights of individual citizens – making illegal at a global level things such as genocide, which opens up the possibilities of governments being held accountable as criminals, which couldn’t have happened before the UN HUMAN RIGHTS CONVENTION immediately after World War Two.

The Internet and Global Cyber Crime

The instantaneous connectivity through the internet deserves special mention in its own right in relation to global crime.

This probably more than ANYTHING else has changed the nature of crime across societies as it creates so many more opportunities for people anywhere in the world to commit crime and for people to be unwitting victims of crime.

It’s possible for one individual to send out literally millions of phishing emails or comments to millions of people in a single day in attempt to get them to click on a link which will (variably) try to elicit their personal information from them or get them to download some dodgy software which will collect their data from their computer.

The Deep Web and Dark Web also make it easier for people to trade in illegal goods and services online and to network and have conversations which may result in very serious criminal activities – think terrorist cells and child abuse rings – all made easier to maintain via the Dark Web.

What are the consequences of global crimes for individuals and society?

Here we really need to take a global development perspective and think of winners and losers at a global level.

Certainly global crime has created many losers from developing countries – anyone trafficked into the sex industry or any drug mules caught and sent to jail, and several migrants who have paid their life savings to then NOT be transported successfully to their destination countries.

But then again, you could see this as an opportunity – drugs are part of global trade – and there is more money to made in growing Cocaine than Coffee for some farmers in Colombia – possibly opening up better opportunities than ‘free trade as usual’ – NB not to say this will always be the case as being involved in the global drugs market probably isn’t that SAFE.

And it’s not necessarily the case that the consumers in the west are the winners – they may also be victims, of poor quality cigarettes and booze for example.

Where cyber crime is concerned it’s more hidden – there are probably more victims alive today that DON’T know about it than ever before in human history.

Finally, global crime is a problem for governments – it takes a lot of resources and co-ordination to combat global crime, especially when so much of it is online and thus not visible.

And where some of more heinous crimes are concerned, this increases our sense of fear and vulnerability and uncertainty – such as with global terrorism.

Why has global crime increased?

It’s easy (lazy?) to see the increase of crime as an ‘inevitable’ response to Globalisation – with more flows of goods and people and ideas, SOME of that is going to be illegal.

There’s also an underlying technological change we need to consider – the internent does make crime easier.

But to answer this question with any analytical depth, you need to be able to apply the perspectives.

From a Marxist point of view this is due to the spread of Global Capitalism – creating more inequalities which results in inequities in supply and demand – plenty of poor people who can’t make decent money growing coffee would rather risk growing Cocaine, for example.

Another aspect of a Marxist analysis is the spread of TNCs engaged in law evasion and also tax evasion by elites.

Misha Glenny has researched the role of Organised criminal networks in facilitating the rise of Global Crime (the McMafia as he calls them) pointing out that the collapse of Communism in the late 1980s resulted in a massive increase in organised crime in countries such as Bulgaria – trafficking a lot of goods to Western Europe – here it’s not so much ‘legal capitalism’ which is the problem, rather criminal gangs operating outside the law in several countries.

You can also apply Feminism in order to help understand sex trafficking in particular.

Interactionism is also relevant because changes in international law, and national laws can criminalise acts and thus ‘increase’ global crime overnight – the United Nations Human Rights Conventions did this with State crimes, for example. And the same thing is happening with many green or enviromental crimes.

Not to say that these legal changes are bad, but they do increase the amount of crime simply by making acts illegal that previously were not, such as genocide and several forms of pollution.

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Office on drugs and crime, the globalization of crime, a transnational organized crime threat assessment.

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criminal globalization essay

Globalization and Transnational Crime

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Globalization, generally described as the removal of barriers to cross-national movement of goods and funds, has been beneficial for transnational organized crime networks . The global forces of supply and demand have created new markets for illicit goods and services provided by criminal organizations. There is high demand for things like drugs (particularly in Europe and North America), weapons (in Africa and the Middle East), exotic wildlife and animal parts (Asia), and exploitable humans (virtually everywhere). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has recently estimated that the international trade in counterfeit and stolen goods amounts to as much as half a trillion dollars . Criminal networks also have new opportunities to establish facilities in various countries from which they can produce and distribute their illicit goods, decreasing costs and maximizing profits. Similarly, just as we see with legal multinational corporations, transnational criminal networks can outsource an array of support services to areas around the world with internet connectivity and lower labor costs.

For example, massive amounts of cocaine are now smuggled by ship and air from Latin America (mainly Colombia, Peru, Brazil and Venezuela) to West Africa, and heroin is smuggled from Central and South Asia to East Africa (and sometimes West Africa as well). In both cases, the drugs then make their way from East and West Africa to the primary drug consumer markets in Europe and the U.S. According to the 2018 UNODC World Drug Report , ‘the quantity of cocaine seized in Africa doubled in 2016, with countries in North Africa seeing a six fold increase and accounting for 69 per cent of all the cocaine seized in the region in 2016.’ Interpol’s World Atlas of Illicit Flows identifies a handful of countries as being particularly important transit hubs for drug trafficking, including Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, the Canary Islands, Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Ethiopia. This report also notes that illicit trafficking and use of captagon (a brand name for the drug fenethylline, a combination of amphetamine and theophylline, which increases alertness) is rising throughout Africa. India is allegedly a primary source for both of these drugs, and increased use is particularly noticeable in Mali, Chad, and Nigeria. While Niger, Benin and Togo have been described as important transit hubs. Meanwhile, dozens of methamphetamine labs have been discovered throughout West Africa, including one in Nigeria capable of producing billions of dollars’ worth of the drug .

Of course, criminal enterprises also generate millions of dollars in profits each year from trafficking in small arms and light weapons , cigarettes, counterfeit DVDs, and many other items. Globalized shipping, including the intermodal maritime system, can be exploited by transnational organized crime networks to smuggle huge shipments of illicit items in cargo containers. They seek to take advantage of the fact that the overwhelming number of containers shipped each year make it physically impossible to inspect each one. As maritime security expert Peter Cook notes , ‘The greatest challenge … is the sheer volume of containers moving through the ports and the speed with which they have to be processed.’ In August 2018, U.S. government authorities announced the seizure of counterfeit luxury goods (including purses, handbags, and belts) worth at least $500 million, that had been manufactured in China. Over 30 men and women were arrested—all of Chinese heritage and living in the U.S. illegally. This was the culmination of a six-year investigation, which found that twenty of the cargo containers came into the U.S. through the Port of New York and New Jersey, and two through the Port of Los Angeles. In another of the largest counterfeit-goods cases ever prosecuted in the U.S., 29 people were arrested in New York, New Jersey, Texas, and Florida for trying to smuggle $325 million worth of fake goods from China into the U.S.

But worse than drugs or counterfeit goods is the recent increase of human traffickers using compromised intermodal shipping containers. Illegal immigrants apprehended at ports in Britain, Canada and the U.S. (among other countries) after arriving inside shipping containers revealed that many of them had paid a criminal network large sums of cash for the dangerous journey inside a steel crate. For others, this journey ended tragically, like the 39 Vietnamese whose bodies were discovered in a cargo container at a British port in March 2020 . The same month, the bodies of 64 Ethiopians were found in a shipping container in Mozambique . In both instances, authorities believed the victims had suffocated to death.

Globalization also facilitates new opportunities for intersections (especially logistical, financial and operational) between terrorist networks and transnational organized crime . The ability for terrorists to attract and move financial resources, weapons and operatives throughout the world is greatly enhanced when collaborating with existing routes developed and maintained by transnational criminal networks. Further, there are individuals who can navigate both the legal and illegal economic sectors (such as accountants, attorneys, notaries, bankers, and real estate brokers), providing services to legitimate customers, criminals, and terrorists alike. And while globalization has led to an increased volume of legitimate cross-border financial transactions and investment, it also has allowed criminals to launder the proceeds of crime more easily.

Finally, myriad opportunities for both transnational criminals and terrorists are now available via the Internet. These days, Internet connectivity worldwide brings new opportunities for credit card fraud, theft of corporate data (or holding it hostage for ransom), extortion, identity theft, and a range of other kinds of potentially lucrative criminal activities online. Money laundering schemes of various forms can flourish within a digital environment that is weakly governed yet connected with the rest of the world. Globalization allows greater access to the products and services available on the so-called Dark Web, from purchasing explosives or other weapons to hiring a competent cross-border smuggler, document forgery expert or bomb-maker. And of course, operational communication is now much easier between criminal or terrorist network operatives in disparate parts of the world. According to Yuri Fedotov, the executive director of the United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime , ‘Thanks to advances in technology, communication, finance and transport, loose networks of terrorists and organized criminal groups that operate internationally can easily link with each other. By pooling their resources and expertise, they can significantly increase their capacity to do harm.’

To sum up, transnational organized crime networks have benefited significantly from globalization, and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. As a result, there is a growing need for effective international cooperation in security, intelligence and law enforcement across all countries of origin, transit and destination. No country, even the most powerful, can effectively confront the challenges of transnational organized crime entirely on its own. This is no time for increased nationalism or the kinds of rhetoric and policies that lead to political isolation. Every country, including the US, must re-invigorate their engagement with international institutions and incentivize a collaborative effort to turn the tide against these transnational criminal networks. Failure to do so will only further embolden, enable and enrich them, at our expense.

Further Reading on E-International Relations

  • Globalization, Human Trafficking and Tourism in the Caribbean
  • Reframing Globalization: COVID-19 and 21st Century Institutional Retreat
  • Diffusion Across International Organizations
  • Low-Cost Institutions: The New Kids on the Global Governance Block
  • NGOs and Transnational Non-State Politics
  • The Crime of Hunger: Yemen’s Humanitarian Crisis

James J.F. Forest is a Professor in the School of Criminology and Justice Studies at the University of Massachusetts Lowell, and a Visiting Professor at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University. He has published over twenty books, including The Terrorism Lectures (2019), Essentials of Counterterrorism (2015), and Intersections of Crime and Terror (2013) Twitter: @JJFForest.

Jaylyn Galloway

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criminal globalization essay

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Globalization

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Global Crime and Globalization

Global Crime and Globalization

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Global crime is involved intricately with revolutionary progression in categories such as technological, financial, economic, cultural, and political changes that all characterize globalization. Wars and conflicts of all sorts make crime more prevelant. Global crime is also the production of global poverty, global migration, growth of global cities, expansion of trade, and computer technologies all combined. It is because of these things and other factors of globalization that global crime has also globalized.

Crime has grown with globalization and criminal networks have grown to establish connections with different countries or criminal organizations. Some of these criminal organizations run the trafficking of humans, drugs, weapons, and other bad things. I believe crime has increased because of globalization which is a terrible thing for this day and age.

The global drug problem is a good example of why globalization has a negative effect on global crime. The foundations of illegal drug problems began with European expansion, colonization, and trade. Crime is intertwined with illegal drug problems on many different levels, from the very use of the drugs to the murder and violence that stems from drugs.

There have been wars revolved around illegal drug rings, which has lead to drug violence being one of the leaders in concern with global crime. The increase in globalization has made the drugs better, more popular, easier to get, more competitive, and bigger. Drug and human trafficking are two in the same. Human trafficking has grown with the increase in technology and all other globalization factors.

Some would argue that globalization has had a positive effect on crime because it has made the world more aware of the problems and where they are. The truth behind that statement is millions of undiscovered crimes happen a year. No matter how many prevention programs or criminal awareness organization try to slow down the crime rate, the crime rate is not slowing down. With the increase of globalization there is a direct increase in crime.

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Introduction, works cited.

  • Agnew, R. (2008). The Causes of Terrorism. Annual Review of Sociology, 33, 59-81.
  • Barak, G. (Ed.). (2011). Crimes by the Capitalist State: An Introduction to State Criminality. State Crime Journal, 1(1), 3-13.
  • Denning, D. E. (2010). Cyberterrorism: A Framework for Addressing the Legal and Policy Challenges. Journal of Information Warfare , 9(2), 17-30.
  • Hagan, J. (2010). Who Are the Terrorists? Criminology, 48(2), 379-406.
  • Keohane, R. O., & Nye, J. S. (2001). Globalization: What's New? What's Not? (And So What?). Foreign Policy, 118, 104-119.
  • LaFree, G., & Dugan, L. (2007). Introducing the Global Terrorism Database. Terrorism and Political Violence, 19(2), 181-204.
  • Muncie, J., Talbot, D., & Walters, R. (Eds.). (2008). Crime: Local and Global. Routledge.
  • Reuter, P., & Truman, R. (Eds.). (2004). Chasing Dirty Money: The Fight Against Money Laundering. Institute for International Economics.
  • Schmid, A. P., & Jongman, A. J. (Eds.). (2005). The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research. Routledge.
  • Walker, N. (2011). Terrorism and Globalization: The Vulnerability of Industrialized Societies and the New Security Dilemma. Routledge.

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Explain the Impact of Globalisation on Organised Crime.

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Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice , Interpersonal Relationship

Criminal Behavior , Globalisation

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Globalization essay.

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In the past half century or so, societies have become increasingly interconnected. Through the process of globalization, activities that used to be contained within national or regional borders have spread to other countries and continents, integrating the world’s people in complex ways. The rise of new communication and transportation technologies has made it possible to exchange goods, ideas, and populations across great distances. The pace at which these exchanges now occur and the shifting ability of regulators to keep up with them have positive and negative implications for criminal justice ethics. Globalization has created massive opportunities for crime as well as more advanced systems to control it. One of the more important ethical questions in the globalization era will be how to balance privacy rights with control over increasingly sophisticated criminal activities.

It can be argued that globalization has always existed, and that the current era is nothing more than an increase in the pace of regional integration and exchange (a quantitative change). Certainly, societies were involved in trade and exploration long before the modern age of nation-states. The Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries brought new technologies that helped rapidly expand these activities. Railroads and the steam engine allowed traders to grow their markets far beyond local borders; the telegraph allowed governments to coordinate their economic policies to support these spreading markets. These changes sped up the pace of integration to such a degree that many observers see a change in the world order itself: a change of “type” rather than “degree.” From this perspective, the globalization that has occurred in the modern and postmodern eras has fundamentally remade the world’s economic, political, and social systems. Accordingly, managing crime is a different endeavor today than it was preglobalization, requiring new ways of thinking and new systems of control rather than just a faster pace of response by law enforcement.

There are two qualitative changes associated with globalization that are important for criminologists to consider. One is the decoupling of activities from their geographic origins and the resulting global movement of goods and ideas. Borders have become permeable, and in some areas essentially meaningless, making it difficult to track the movement of money, people, or contraband goods. A global digital infrastructure has been established, removing limits to communication and ultimately enabling new types of crime and surveillance. The other major change is the decreased authority of established power sources such as nation-states and the rise of alternative power sources; this shift has challenged old ways of controlling crime.

Some of the new power sources are intergovernmental and require intricate cooperation between countries as well as reduced national sovereignty. Others are extragovernmental (such as insurgent groups or transnational terrorist organizations), operating outside of state agreements and laws. Both of these qualitative changes contribute to the sense of a “driverless car”; in other words, it seems unclear which groups or forces are in control of globalization and whether its processes can be modified or reversed. This perception can muddle previously settled ethical questions regarding criminal justice, which have typically been addressed at the national level.

Global Movement of Goods and Ideas

The separation of activities from their geographic origins means that local phenomena can have a much broader influence than would have been possible prior to the age of globalization. Financial transactions, environmental pollution, or new ideologies emerging in one part of the world now affect people in even the most distant or remote areas. This change is significant for criminal justice because it becomes more difficult to use familiar means and justifications for regulating what people do. Perhaps the most influential area of activity has been economic; financial decisions made by a small set of actors can have significant consequences for the rest of the world. Because the flow of money has become essentially borderless, there are few constraints on economic activity, especially that of the powerful. For example, prior to the globalization era economic activity was generally confined to national or regional borders. Production and consumption, investment, borrowing and lending, and taxation involved one well-defined set of people, with relatively less impact outside of these borders. In the United States, for example, major infrastructure projects were financed and managed by domestic sources such as the Public Works Administration during the New Deal era. Employees of an American company like Ford Motor Company, and consumers of its products, were generally American citizens with an awareness of the firm’s business practices. Although international trade and investment did exist in the pre-globalization era, the groups involved in these exchanges had fixed geographic homes and were accountable to creditors, consumers, or lawmakers there. In terms of criminal justice, one set of national laws and regulations applied to almost all of a country’s economic actors, who could be prosecuted for any wrongdoing (for example, fraud, tax evasion, or safety violations) by domestic courts.

In the 21st century, much has changed. Capital flows easily from one country to the next; a large proportion of investment is directed outward to enterprises in other countries and can be quickly withdrawn if economic conditions change. Financial innovations that are introduced in one country quickly affect markets in many others, as the credit-default swap debacle originating in the United States made clear. Perhaps the most visible effect of the newly permeable borders has been the separation of the production process into numerous parts located all over the globe.

No longer does a car or clothing or appliance company make and sell its goods domestically; instead product design may take place in one country, raw materials sourced in another, component parts manufactured in yet another, and assembly completed elsewhere still. Online retail allows the product to be bought and shipped anywhere; even waste disposal has entered this globalized process with certain countries taking on the role of “landfill to the world.” These changes have serious implications for criminal justice ethics. It is increasingly difficult to prosecute global economic entities who may have a headquarters in one country but commit crime in another. Moreover, actions that are deemed criminal by one country’s standards may not be so in another country, which complicates prosecution. For example, it is unclear whether multinational corporations are culpable for disasters of negligence related to the production or distribution of goods (such as the 2013 Bangladesh garment factory collapse, which left over a thousand dead), and if so, whether punishment could actually be applied across national borders. It may be unethical to allow these activities to go unpunished, but it may also be unethical to impose one society’s justice system on another. These questions did not arise in the preglobalization era when economic activities were fixed to particular geographic locations.

The movement of people increasingly disregards borders as well. Global migration allows people to follow opportunities that they might not have at home. Movements from poor to prosperous parts of the world can have even broader benefits for global development when migrants send remittances or obtain skills to bring back home. At the same time, the pull of international migration has presented new criminal opportunities, with human trafficking a growing problem for law enforcement. Associated activities like the trafficking of drugs, arms, and other contraband have also been enabled by porous borders. Partly because markets are so intertwined, it is profitable for drug cartels in Latin America or ivory poachers in Africa to send their goods to countries where demand is high, despite the risk of prosecution. International transportation is cheap in the globalized age, and law enforcement agencies cannot completely seal up borders without discouraging desired flows of money, people, and goods.

While globalization has been associated with rapid development and increased well-being in a number of countries, prosperity has tended to accumulate in certain regions and among certain groups, with others facing continued or even increased poverty and instability since the advent of the globalized era. In short, the benefits of globalization have not been equally shared everywhere. These effects are relevant to criminal justice ethics because there is a clear relationship between underdevelopment, crime, and conflict. The United Nations Security Council has concluded that poorly distributed wealth and a lack of job opportunities are major factors contributing to instability and crime. Not coincidentally, the al Qaeda terrorist organization has become most influential among young men in countries with especially high levels of unemployment and underdevelopment such as Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Yemen. Leaders of governments and other crime control organizations are beginning to consider the global economic causes of organized terrorist activity as they weigh the decision to commit resources against it.

The increasing number of terrorist incidents in recent decades can also be attributed to the increased flow of ideas across borders—another hallmark of globalization. Like money, communication has become untethered from geography. In the preglobalization era, cultural norms, values, and ideologies were generally tied to national communities; most people had little experience with other cultures until very recently. With the establishment of a global digital infrastructure for communication made up of global positioning satellites, television, and the Internet, ideas can spread rapidly between people of different backgrounds. The greater frequency of cultural exchanges is generally seen as positive, resulting in more tolerance and respect for difference as well as the spread of so-called universal values such as women’s rights. For example, sexual violence against women in some central Asian nations like India is increasingly met with domestic outrage, which many attribute to the introduction of modern egalitarian values and the decline of traditional patriarchal culture. Access to high-tech medical care is increasingly seen as a “universal” value or right as well, with the global community committing significant resources to health care modernization in poor regions of the world.

However, not all groups see this cultural integration as a positive; global terrorism and fundamentalism have been associated with a backlash against global culture. Global culture mixes so-called universal values as mentioned above with bits and pieces of many local customs and norms. Japanese graphic art, Mexican cuisine, Swedish literature, and Indian films are all part of global culture. However, Western customs and norms tend to be overrepresented in this cultural mix, which angers groups who view the greater permissiveness, individualism, and materialism associated with Western culture as unwelcome. Fundamentalist crime has been committed with the goal of protecting local values from this spreading global permissiveness; one recent example was the violent attempt by Islamist militants to impose Sharia law in Mali. Paradoxically, the ability to organize both peaceful and violent protest is enabled by the same globalized communications infrastructure that spreads global culture. Antistate and terror organizations benefit enormously from the cheap, accessible, and relatively unregulated digital network.

This communications infrastructure represents a completely new area of criminal opportunity. With so much of the world’s economic, political, and cultural activity now taking place online, many experts believe that groups with malicious intent have only begun to exploit the possibilities of cybercrime. Hacking and identity theft have mostly targeted individuals so far, but governments and markets are major potential targets. At the same time, the global digital infrastructure also enables more effective policing and monitoring of criminal activity. Shared national databases help law enforcement agencies address the increasing amount of cross-border crime. Satellites allow international peacekeeping forces to keep an eye on developing conflicts around the world. Social media turns citizens into criminal justice resources, as seen with the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing and the “crowdsourcing” of information from international sources. The potential reach of these globalized surveillance systems presents ethical issues, however. In the globalized era, citizens have become more tolerant of privacy intrusions as a trade-off for safety and protection, but law enforcement bodies are being forced to consider whether the use of new surveillance technologies, such as military drones or Google Street View, is always ethically justified.

Rise of Alternative Power Sources

The other major change to the world order brought by globalization also has serious consequences for criminal justice and related ethics. The decline of long-standing sources of authority and the larger role for alternative power sources is changing the face of criminal justice. For much of the modern era nation-states were the building blocks of the international political system. Globalization has increased the political power of nonstate entities such as multinational corporations and international bodies; this has required major adaptations for traditional criminal justice efforts aligned with national borders. The bigger policy-making role of international regulatory organizations is especially relevant. Because so many countries now have intricately shared interests, a variety of intergovernmental groups now exists to coordinate them all. The role of these groups is to set international law, provide shared peacekeeping forces in conflict areas, organize the surveillance of threatening activity, and so on.

The most significant groups are the World Trade Organization and United Nations, but there are smaller groups in charge of everything from policing maritime piracy to monitoring human migration to maintaining arms control. Interpol is the body specifically tasked with law enforcement; it has databases with information shared by member countries and a communications network that links jurisdictions across different languages and bureaucracies. Individual countries have become increasingly dependent on it because so much criminal activity now crosses borders, but the advantages to this reliance are paired with some ethical controversy. Some observers worry that the global network has been used against human rights defenders, journalists, and political opponents. Such problems are endemic to the international and borderless organizations emblematic of globalization. Without direct ties to voting citizens, such groups lack accountability among the same people they are tasked to help.

More troubling is the rise of extragovernmental power sources such as al Qaeda, Hezbollah, and a variety of separatist or rebel groups worldwide. The term extragovernmental refers to groups beyond or counter to the control or regulation of the government. Weak or underfunded national governments provide ample opportunities for such groups to gain influence. For example, Hezbollah is a militant organization based in Lebanon that receives political and financial support from Iran and Syria. It has flourished despite international classification as a terrorist organization—in part because it provides social services that the Lebanese government cannot provide. As noted above, tapping into transnational resources, arms, and fighters is easier than ever before for underground or quasilegal groups, so they can bypass the tax support that governments need. Controlling cross-border crime and violence by such groups is extremely challenging because they often do not abide by international agreements between nations. Global integration made such agreements necessary, but by eating into some of the sovereignty of nationstates, these same agreements have created space for new power sources to claim citizens’ allegiance. National governments weakened by debt to global creditors, unfavorable currency exchange rates, and so on have been met with decreasing support from angry citizens.

Bibliography:

  • Barak, Gregg. “Crime and Crime Control in an Age of Globalization: A Theoretical Dissection.”Critical Criminology, v.10 (2001).
  • Lanier, Mark M. and Stuart Henry. “What Is Criminology? The Study of Crime, Criminals, and Victims in a Global Context.” In The Essential Criminology. 3rd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2010.
  • Passas, Nikos. “Global Anomie, Dysnomie, and Economic Crime: Hidden Consequences of Neoliberalism and Globalization in Russia and Around the World.” Social Justice, v.27/2 (2000).
  • United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. “The Globalization of Crime: A Transnational Organized Crime Threat Assessment.” 2010. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-andanalysis/tocta-2010.html (Accessed May 2013).

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Essay on Globalisation

List of essays on globalisation, essay on globalisation – definition, existence and impact (essay 1 – 250 words), essay on globalisation (essay 2 – 250 words), essay on globalisation – in india (essay 3 – 400 words), essay on globalisation – objectives, advantages, disadvantages and conclusion (essay 4 – 500 words), essay on globalisation – for school students (class 6,7,8,9 and 10) (essay 5 – 600 words), essay on globalisation (essay 6 – 750 words), essay on globalisation – for college and university students (essay 7 – 1000 words), essay on globalisation – for ias, civil services, ips, upsc and other competitive exams (essay 8 – 1500 words).

The worldwide integration of people, services and interests is what globalisation is all about. Since the last decade, there has been a tremendous focus on globalisation with everyone trying to have a reach at even the remotest locations of the world. This has probably been possible due to the advancement in technology and communication.

Audience: The below given essays are especially written for school, college and university students. Furthermore, those students preparing for IAS, IPS, UPSC, Civil Services and other competitive exams can also increase their knowledge by studying these essays.

The word ‘Globalization’ is often heard in the business world, in corporate meetings, in trade markets, at international conferences, in schools, colleges and many other places. So what does globalization symbolize? Is it a new concept or did it exist earlier? Let’s see.

Definition:

Globalization refers to the integration of the world nations by means of its people, goods, and services. The statement – ‘ globalization has made the world a small village ’ is very true.

Countries inviting foreign investment, free trade and relaxation in the visa rules to allow seamless movement of people from one country to another are all part of globalization.

In a nutshell, globalization has reduced the distance between nations and its people.

Many among us refer to the current period that we live in as ‘The Era of Globalization’ and think that the process of globalization has started only recently. But the real fact is that globalization is not a new phenomenon . The world was moving towards globalization from a very long time. The term globalization was in existence since mid-1980s. But it was only from the early 21 st century that globalization picked up momentum due to the advancements in technology and communication.

Impact of Globalization:

Globalization has more positive outcomes than the negative ones. The impact of globalization on the developing countries such as India, China and some African countries are overwhelming. Foreign investments have created a lot of employment opportunities in the developing countries and have boosted their economy. Globalization has also enabled people to interchange their knowledge and culture.

Conclusion:

Although the world is not completely globalized, we can very well say that globalization is the best way to achieve equality among nations.

In simple words, globalization means the spreading of a business, culture, or any technology on an international level. When the boundaries of countries and continents matter no more, and the whole world becomes one global village in itself. Globalization is an effort to reduce the geographical and political barriers for the smooth functioning of any business.

There are four main factors that form the four pillars of globalization. These are the free flow of goods, capitals, technology, and labors, all across the world. Although, many of the experts that support globalization clearly refuse to acknowledge the free flow of labor as their work culture.

The international phenomenon of global culture presents many implications and requires a specific environment to flourish. For instance, it needs the other countries to come to a mutual agreement in terms of political, cultural, and economic policies. There is greater sharing of ideas and knowledge and liberalization has gained a huge importance.

Undoubtedly, globalization helps in improving the economic growth rate of the developing countries . The advanced global policies also inspire businesses to work in a cost-effective way. As a result, the production quality is enhanced and employment opportunities are also rising in the domestic countries.

However, there are still some negative consequences of globalization that are yet to be dealt with. It leads to greater economic and socio-cultural disparities between the developed and the developing countries. Due to the MNC culture, the small-scale industries are losing their place in the market.

Exchanges and integration of social aspect of people along with their cultural and economic prospects is what we term as Globalization. It is considered as a relatively new term, which has been in discussion since the nineties.

Initial Steps towards Globalization:

India has been an exporter of various goods to other countries since the earlier times. Hence Globalization, for India, is not something new. However, it was only around in the early nineties that India opened up its economy for the world as it faced a major crisis of severe crunch of foreign exchange. Since then, there has been a major shift in the government’s strategies while dealing with the PSUs along with a reduction in the monopoly of the government organisations perfectly blended with the introduction of the private companies so as to achieve a sustainable growth and recognition across the world.

The Measurement of Success:

The success of such measures can be measured in the form of the GDP of India which hovered around 5.6% during the year 1990-91 and has been now around 8.9% during the first quarter of 2018-19. In fact, in the year 1996-97, it was said to have peaked up to as high as 77.8%. India’s global position is improved tremendously due to the steady growth in the GDP thus furthering the impact of globalization on India. As on date, India is ranked as the sixth biggest economy in the world. This globalization leading to the integration and trade has been instrumental in reducing the poverty rate as well.

However, given the fact that India is the second most populated country of the world, after China, this growth cannot be considered as sufficient enough as other countries such as China have increased their growth rates at much faster pace than India. For instance, the average flow of FDI in India, over the past few years has been around 0.5% of the GDP while for countries such as China it has been around 5% and Brazil has had a flow of around 5.5%. In fact, India is considered among the least globalized economy among the major countries.

Summarily, there has been a tremendous increase in the competition and interdependence that India faces due to Globalization, but a lot is yet to be done. It is not possible for a country to ignore the developments and globalization occurring in the rest of the world and one need to keep the pace of growth at a steady rate or else you may be left far behind.

The twentieth century witnessed a revolutionary global policy aiming to turn the entire globe into a single market. The motive of globalization can broadly define to bring substantial improvement in the living condition of people all around the world, education, and shelter to everybody, elimination of poverty, equal justice without any race or gender consideration, etc. Globalization also aims to lessen government involvement in various development activities, allowing more direct investors/peoples’ participation cutting across border restrictions thus expected to reap reasonable prosperity to human beings.

Main Objectives of Globalization:

The four main aspects of globalization are; Capital and Investment movements, Trade and Transactions, Education and Spread of knowledge, along with Migration and Unrestricted Movement of People.

In simpler terms, globalization visualizes that one can purchase and sell goods from any part of the world, communicate and interact with anyone, anywhere in the world and also enables cultural exchange among the global population. It is operational at three levels namely, economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization. Right from its inception, the impact of globalization has both advantages and disadvantages worldwide.

Advantages of Globalization:

As the word itself suggests, this policy involves all the nations across the globe. The lifting of trade barriers can have a huge impact especially in developing countries. It augments the flow of technology, education, medicines, etc., to these countries which are a real blessing.

Globalization expects to create ample job opportunities as more and more companies can extend their presence to different parts of the world. Multinational companies can establish their presence in developing countries. Globalization gives educational aspirants from developing and underdeveloped countries more quality learning opportunities. It leads not only to the pursuit of best higher education but also to cultural and language exchanges.

Globalization also enhances a faster flow of information and quick transportation of goods and services. Moreover one can order any item from anywhere merely sitting at home. Another plus point of globalization is the diminishing cultural barriers between nations as it offers free access and cultural interactions . Also, it has been observed that there is a considerable reduction of poverty worldwide due to globalization . In addition to this, it also enables the effective use of resources.

Disadvantages of Globalization:

Globalization turned out to be a significant threat to the cottage and small-scale industries as they have to compete with the products of multi-national companies. Another dangerous effect of globalization is the condition of weak sections of the society, as they are getting poorer and the rich are getting richer. The situation leads to the domination of economically rich countries over emerging countries and the increase of disparity.

The actions of multi-national companies are deplorable and always facing criticism from various social, government and world bodies as they are incompetent in offering decent working conditions for the workers. Irrational tapping of natural resources which are instrumental in causing ecological imbalance is another major accusation against multi-national companies.

Globalization is also blamed to have paved the way for human trafficking, labor exploitation and spread of infectious diseases too. In addition to all these, if any economic disaster hit a country and if they subsequently suffer from economic depression, its ripples are felt deeply in other countries as well.

Despite all its disadvantages, globalization has transformed the entire globe into a single market irrespective of its region, religion, language, culture, and diversity differences. It also leads to an increase in demand for goods, which in turn calls for more production and industrialization. Our focus should be to minimize the risks and maximize the positive outcome of global policy, which in turn can help for a sustainable long-standing development for people all around the world.

Introduction:

Globalization is the procedure of global political, economic, as well as cultural incorporation of countries . It lets the producers and manufacturers of the goods or products to trade their goods internationally without any constraint.

The businessman fetches huge profit as they easily get low price workforce in developing nations with the concept of globalization. It offers a big prospect to the firms who wish to deal with the global market. Globalization assists any nation to contribute, set up or amalgamate businesses, capitalize on shares or equity, vending of services or products in any country.

How does the Globalization Work?

Globalization benefits the international market to the entire deliberate world like a solitary marketplace. Merchants are spreading their extents of trade by aiming world as a worldwide community. In the 1990s, there was a limit of importing some goods that were already mass-produced in India such as engineering goods, agricultural products, toiletries, food items, etc.

But, in the 1990s the rich countries pressurize the WTO (World Trade Organization), World Bank (affianced in improvement financing activities), and IMF (International Monetary Fund) to let other nations spread their trades by introducing market and trade in the deprived and emerging countries. The process of liberalization and globalization in India began in the year 1991 below the Union Finance Minister Mr. Manmohan Singh.

After numerous years, globalization has fetched major uprising inside the Indian marketplace when international brands arrived in India such as KFC, PepsiCo, Mc. Donald, Nokia, IBM, Aiwa, Ericsson, etc., and began the delivery of an extensive variety of quality goods at low-cost rates.

The entire leading brands presented actual uprising of globalization at this time as a marvellous improvement to the economy of an industrial sector. Rates of the quality goods were also getting low owing to the cut-throat war happening in the marketplace.

Liberalization and globalization of the businesses in the Indian marketplace is submerging the quality of imported goods but influencing the local Indian businesses badly in large part causing the job loss of illiterate and poor labors. Globalization has remained a goldmine for the customers, but it is also a burial ground for the small-scale manufacturers in India.

Positive Influences of Globalisation:

Globalization has influenced the education sectors and students of India predominantly by making accessible the education material and enormous info on the internet. Association of Indian universities with the overseas universities has fetched a massive modification in the education business.

The health industries are too influenced enormously by the globalization of health observing electronic apparatuses, conventional drugs, etc. The trade globalization in the agricultural sector has provided a range of high-quality seeds possessing disease-fighting property. But, it is not beneficial for the underprivileged Indian agriculturalists owing to the reason of expensive seeds as well as agricultural equipment.

Globalization has given an enormous rebellion to the occupation sector by increasing the growth of trades related to the handloom , cottage, artisans and carving, carpet, jewellery, ceramics, and glassware, etc.

Globalization is definitely required by the people and nation to progress and turn into an established society and country. It benefits in expanding our visualization and thoughts. It also aids in endorsing the philosophy that we fit in a huge crowd of persons, i.e., the humankind. Once the two nations congregate, they flourish by sharing their beliefs, thoughts, opinions, customs, and behaviors. People come to know new things and also acquire a chance to discover and get acquainted with other values.

Globalization has provided many reasonably priced valued goods and complete economic welfares to the emerging nations in addition to the employment. But, it has also given growth to the crime, competition, terrorism, anti-national activities, etc. Thus, along with the pleasure it has supplied some grief too.

Globalization is a term that we hear about every now and then. Question is; do we really know what it is all about? Globalization is defined as the process of integration and interaction among people, cultures and nations who come together in order to get things done easily through contact. Globalization began with the migration of people from Africa to different parts of the world. Global developments have been achieved in various sectors through the different types of globalization. The effects of globalization have been felt in every part of the world and more people continue to embrace it. Globalization has some of its core elements that help in the process.

Types of Globalization:

Globalization does not just transform a sector unless the strategies are related to that specific sector. The first type of globalization is financial and economic globalization whereby interaction takes place in the financial and economic sectors especially through stock market exchange and international trade. The other type is technological globalization which involves the integration and connection of different nations through technological methods like the internet. Political globalization transforms the politics of a nation through interactions with adoption of policies and government that cut across other nations. Cultural globalization is basically the interaction of people from different cultures and sharing. Ecological globalization is the viewing of the earth as one ecosystem and sociological globalization is on equality for all people.

Elements of Globalization:

Globalization works with characteristic elements. Trade agreements is one of the components that significantly benefits the economic and financial globalization. These trade agreements have been designed to promote and sustain globalization by preventing barriers that inhibit trade among nations or regions. Another element is capital flow that is concerned with the measures of either a decline or a rise in domestic or foreign assets. Migration patterns is a socio-economical and cultural element that monitors the impacts of immigration and emigration actively. The element of information transfer involves communications and maintains the functioning of the markets and economies. Spread of technology is an element of globalization that facilitates service exchanges. Without these elements, globalization would have faced many challenges, which would even stagnate the process of globalization.

Impacts of Globalization:

The impact of globalization is felt differently among individuals but the end result will be either positive or negative. Globalization has impacts on the lives of individuals, on the aspects of culture, religions and education. The positive impacts of globalization include the simplification of business management through efficiency. In business, the quality of goods and services has increased due to global competition. Foreign investment has been facilitated by globalization and the global market has been able to expand. Cultural growth has been experienced through intermingling and accommodation. Interdependence among nations has developed and more people have been exposed to the exchange program between nations. Improvement of human rights and legal matters has improved through media and technology sharing. Poverty has been alleviated in developing countries due to globalization and also employment opportunities are provided. Through technology, developments have been positively influenced in most parts of the world.

Although globalization has positive impacts, the negative impacts will remain constant unless solutions are sought. One of the negative effects of globalization is job insecurity for some people. Through globalization, more innovations are achieved, for e.g., technology causes automation and therefore people get replaced and they lack jobs. Another negative impact is the frequent fluctuation of prices of commodities that arises from global competitions. On the cultural side, the fast food sector has become wide spread globally, which is an unhealthy lifestyle that was adopted due to globalization. Also, Culture has been negatively affected for people in Africa because they tend to focus more on adopting the western culture and ignore their cultural practices.

Possible Solutions to the Negative Impacts of Globalization:

Globalization has impacted the society negatively and some of the solutions might help to mitigate the impacts. When adopting cultures from other people, it is important to be keen on the effects of the culture on the people and the existing culture being practiced. For example, Africans should not focus more of the western culture such that they ignore their own culture.

In conclusion, it is evident that globalization results in both negative and positive consequences. The society should embrace the positive and mitigate the negative impacts. Globalisation is a dynamic process which involves change, so flexibility among people is a must.

The buzzword befitted to describe the growth of Modern Indian economy is ‘Globalization’. But what exactly is Globalization? Globalization can be defined as integrating the economy of a country with the rest of the countries of the world. From the Indian perspective, this implies encouraging free trade policies, opening up our economy to foreign direct investment, removing constraints and obstacles to the entry of multinational corporations in India, also allowing Indian companies to set up joint ventures abroad, eliminating import restrictions, in-short encouraging Free Trade policies.

India opened its markets to Global Trade majorly during the early Nineties after a major economic crisis hit the country. New economic reforms were introduced in 1991 by then Prime Minister Shri. P V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister at the time, Dr. Manmohan Singh. In many ways, the new economic policies positively contributed to the implementation of the concept of Globalization in India.

It’s Impact:

1. Economic Impact :

Globalization in India targets to attract Multinational Companies and Institutions to approach Indian markets. India has a demography with a large workforce of young citizens who  are in need of jobs. Globalization has indeed left a major impact in the jobs sector. Indian companies are also expanding their business all over the world. They are driving funds from the bigwigs of the Global economy.

The Best example in today’s time is OYO Rooms, a budding Indian company in the hospitality sector. OYO Rooms recently made headlines when it declared to raise a fund close to $1 Billion from Japan’s Soft Bank Vision Fund. Globalization has also led the Indian Consumer market on the boom. The Giant of FMCG (fast-moving consumer goods) sector WALMART is also enthusiastic and actively investing in the India market.

2. Socio-Cultural impact on the Indian Society:

The world has become a smaller place, thanks to the social networking platforms blooming of the internet. India is a beautiful country which takes immense pride in “Unity in Diversity” as it is home to many different cultures and traditions. Globalization in India has left a lasting impression on the socio-cultural aspect of Indian society.

Food chains like McDonald’s are finding its way to the dining tables. With every passing day, Indians are indulging more and more in the Western culture and lifestyle. But Globalization in India has also provided a vibrant World platform for Indian Art, Music, Clothing, and Cuisine.

The psychological impact on a common Indian Man: The educated youth in India is developing a pictorial identity where they are integrating themselves with the fast-paced, technology-driven world and at the same time they are nurturing the deep roots of Indian Culture. Indians are fostering their Global identity through social media platforms and are actively interacting with the World community. They are more aware of burning issues like Climate Change, Net neutrality, and LGBT rights.

Advantages:

India has taken the Centre Stage amongst the Developing Nations because of its growing economy on the World Map. Globalization in India has brought tremendous change in the way India builds its National and International policies. It has created tremendous employment opportunities with increased compensations.

A large number of people are hired for Special Economic Zones (SEZs), Export Processing Zones (EPZs), etc., are set up across the country in which hundreds of people are hired. Developed western countries like USA and UK outsource their work to Indian companies as the cost of labour is cheap in India. This, in turn, creates more employment. This has resulted in a better standard of living across the demographic of young educated Indians. The Indian youth is definitely empowered in a big way.

Young lads below the age of 20 are now aspiring to become part of global organizations. Indian culture and morals are always strengthening their roots in modern world History as the world is now celebrating ‘International Yoga Day’ on 21st June every year. Globalization in India has led to a tremendous cash flow from Developed Nations in the Indian market. As a positive effect, India is witnessing the speedy completion of Metro projects across the country. Another spectacular example of newly constructed High-end Infrastructure in the country is the remarkable and thrilling ‘Chenani-Nashri Tunnel’, Longest Tunnel in India constructed in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. Globalization has greatly contributed in numerous ways to the development of Modern India.

Disadvantages:

As there are so many pros we cannot turn a blind eye to the cons of Globalization which are quite evident with the Indian perspective. The worst impact is seen in the environment across Indian cities due to heavy industrialization. Delhi, the capital of India has made headlines for the worst ever air pollution, which is increasing at an alarming rate.

India takes pride in calling itself an Agriculture oriented nation, but now Agriculture contributes to fragile 17% of the GDP. Globalization in India has been a major reason for the vulnerable condition of Indian Farmers and shrinking Agriculture sector. The intrusion of world players and import of food grains by the Indian Government has left minimal space for Indian farmers to trade their produce.

The impact of westernization has deeply kindled individualism and ‘Me factor’ and as a result, the look of an average Indian family has changed drastically where a Nuclear family is preferred over a traditional Joint family. The pervasive media and social networking platforms have deeply impacted the value system of our country where bigotry and homophobia are becoming an obvious threat.

One cannot clearly state that the impact of Globalization in India has been good or bad as both are quite evident. From the economic standpoint, Globalization has indeed brought a breath of fresh air to the aspirations of the Indian market. However, it is indeed a matter of deep concern when the Indian traditions and value system are at stake. India is one of the oldest civilizations and World trade has been the keystone of its History. Globalization must be practiced as a way towards development without compromising the Indian value system.

Globalisation can simply be defined as the process of integration and interaction between different people, corporations and also governments worldwide. Technology advancement which has in turn advanced means of communication and transportation has helped in the growth of globalisation. Globalisation has brought along with it an increase in international trade, culture and exchange of ideas. Globalisation is basically an economic process that involves integration and interaction that deals also with cultural and social aspects. Important features of globalisation, both modern and historically are diplomacy and conflicts.

In term of economy, globalisation involves services and goods, and the resources of technology, capital and data. The steamship, steam locomotive, container ship and jet engine are a few of the many technological advances in transportation while the inception of the telegraph and its babies, mobile phones and the internet portray technological advances in communications. These advancements have been contributing factors in the world of globalisation and they have led to interdependence of cultural and economic activities all over the world.

There are many theories regarding the origin of globalisation, some posit that the origin is in modern times while others say that it goes way back through history before adventures to the new world and the European discovery age. Some have even taken it further back to the third millennium. Globalisation on a large-scale began around the 1820s. Globalisation in its current meaning only started taking shape in the 1970s. There are four primary parts of globalisation, they are: transactions and trade, investments and capital movement, movement and migration of people and the circulation of knowledge and information. Globalization is subdivided into three: economic globalisation, political globalisation and cultural globalisation.

There are two primary forms of globalisation: Archaic and Modern Globalisations. Archaic globalisation is a period in the globalisation history from the period of the first civilisations until around the 1600s. Archaic globalisation is the interaction between states and communities and also how they were incepted by the spread by geography of social norms and ideas at different levels.

Archaic globalisation had three major requirements. First is the Eastern Origin idea, the second is distance, the third is all about regularity, stability and inter-dependency. The Silk Road and trade on it was a very important factor in archaic globalisation through the development of various civilisations from Persia, China, Arabia, Indian subcontinent and Europe birthing long distance economic and political relationships between them. Silk was the major item from China along the Silk Road; other goods such as sugar and salt were also traded.

Philosophies, different religious beliefs and varying technologies and also diseases also moved along the Silk Road route. Apart from economic trade, the Silk Road also was a means of cultural exchange among the various civilisations along its route. The cultural exchange was as a result of people’s movement including missionaries, refugees, craftsmen, robbers, artists and envoys, resulting in religions, languages, art and new technologies being exchanged.

Modern globalisation can be sub-divided into early modern and Modern. Early modern globalisation spans about 200 years of globalisation between 1600 and 1800. It is the period of cultural exchange and trade links increasing just before the modern globalisation of the late 19 th century. Early modern globalisation was characterised by Europeans empires’ maritime of the 16 th and 17 th centuries. The Spanish and Portuguese Empires were the first and then we had the British and Dutch Empires. The establishment of chartered companies (British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company) further developed world trade.

Modern Globalisation of the 19 th century was as a result of the famed Industrial Revolution. Railroads and steamships made both local and international transportation easier and a lot less expensive which helped improve economic exchange and movement of people all over the world, the transportation revolution happened between 1820 and 1850. A lot more nations have embraced global trade. Globalisation has been shaped decisively by the imperialism in Africa and in Asia around the 19 th century. Also, the ingenious invention in 1956 of the shipping container has really helped to quicken the advancement of globalisation.

The Bretton Woods conference agreement after the Second World War helped lay the groundwork for finance, international monetary policy and commerce and also the conception of many institutions that are supposed to help economic growth through lowering barriers to trade. From the 1970s, there has been a drop in the affordability of aviation to middle class people in countries that are developed. Also, around the 1990s, the cost of communication networks also drastically dropped thus lowering the cost of communicating between various countries. Communication has been a blessing such that much work can be done on a computer in different countries and the internet and other advanced means of communications has helped remove the boundary of distance and cost of having to travel and move from place to place just to get business done.

One other thing that became popular after the Second World War is student exchange programmes which help the involved students learn about, understand and tolerate another culture totally different from theirs, it also helps improve their language skills and also improve their social skills. Surveys have shown that the number of exchange students have increased by about nine times between 1963 and 2006.

Economic globalisation is differentiated from modern globalisation by the information exchange level, the method of handling global trade and expansionism.

Economic Globalisation:

Economic globalisation is just the ever increasing interdependence of economies of nations worldwide caused by the hike in movement across borders of goods, services, capital and technology. Economic globalisation is basically the means of increasing economic relationships between countries, giving rise to the birth of a single or global market. Based on the worldview, Economic globalisation can be seen as either a negative or positive thing.

Economic globalisation includes: Globalisation of production; which is getting services and goods from a source from very different locations all over the world to gain from the difference in quality and cost. There is globalisation of markets; which is the coming together of separate and different markets into one global market. Economic globalisation includes technology, industries, competition and corporations.

Globalisation today is all about less developed countries and economies receiving FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) from the more developed countries and economies, reduction in barriers to trade and to particular extent immigration.

Political Globalisation:

Political globalisation is going to on-the-long-run drop the need for separate nation or states. Institutions like the International Criminal court and WTO are beginning to replace individual nations in their functions and this could eventually lead to a union of all the nations of the world in a European Union style.

Non-governmental organisations have also helped in political globalisation by influencing laws and policies across borders and in different countries, including developmental efforts and humanitarian aid.

Political globalisation isn’t all good as some countries have chosen to embrace policies of isolation as a reactionary measure to globalisation. A typical example is the government of North Korea which makes it extremely difficult and hard for foreigners to even enter their country and monitor all of the activities of foreigners strictly if they allow them in. Citizens are not allowed to leave the country freely and aid workers are put under serious scrutiny and are not allowed in regions and places where the government does not want them to enter.

Intergovernmentalism is the treatment of national governments and states as the major basic factors for integration. Multi-level governance is the concept that there are many structures of authority interacting in the gradual emergence of political globalisation.

Cultural Globalisation:

Cultural globalisation is the transmission of values, ideas and meanings all over the world in a way that intensify and extend social relations. Cultural globalisation is known by the consumption of different cultures that have been propagated on the internet, international travel and culture media. The propagation of cultures helps individuals to engage in social relations which break regional boundaries. Cultural globalisation also includes the start of shared knowledge and norm which people can identify their cultures collectively; it helps foster relationships between different cultures and populations.

It can be argued that cultural globalisation distorts and harms cultural diversity. As one country’s culture is inputted into another country by the means of globalisation, the new culture becomes a threat to the cultural diversity of the receiving country.

Globalisation has made the world into one very small community where we all interact and relate, learn about other cultures and civilisations different from ours. Globalisation has helped improve the ease of doing business all around the world and has made the production of goods and services quite easy and affordable. Globalisation isn’t all good and rosy as it can be argued that Globalisation is just westernisation as most cultures and beliefs are being influenced by the western culture and belief and this harms cultural diversity. Nevertheless, the good of globalisation outweighs the bad so globalisation is actually a very good thing and has helped shape the world as we know it.

Economics , Globalisation

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The Future of Global Crime: Globalization and Integration Essay

In the future, criminal activity and crime will be influenced by such factors as globalization and integration. Still, some crime trends remain the same including drug and human trafficking, prostitution, and theft. All of these crimes can be regarded as international; problems affected millions of people around the world. Though social researchers disagree over why people are drawn into crimes, there is no argument among people so engaged. The main argument is money, and the pursuit of it—particularly among major criminals pushing cocaine and heroin—evokes every illegal act that falls within the analytical categories discussed above (economic and corruptive), with the prevalence of the direct impact occurring in the systemic and corruptive areas.

In the future, drug and human traffickers’ criminality will be linked to the systemic violence and corruptive categories, as is their related criminal support system, which focuses on acquiring, securing, laundering, and safely guarding money and getting and preserving positions of power.

Drug and human traffickers, not consumers, commit most drug-related homicides. Drug traffickers use the billions at their command to attempt—largely productively—to corrupt, subvert, or eliminate the state agencies and people who stand in their way. In general, criminality does not end with these more sensational and individual acts of depriving, hurting, maiming, and destroying. Even the “benign” repatriation of drug traffickers’ assets through illegal cash laundering—whether this entails investment in lawful enterprise or disbursement to cover business debts in the underground economy—adds to criminality (Booth and Dunne, 2002).

Corruption will also be one of the main problems for the criminal justice system. Beyond that political leaders in many countries corrupt the state or leaders who run it to improve goods movement and access to intelligence, protect persons and property, allow for easier repatriation of financial resources, and build respectability through political influence. Corruptive state officials are accordingly a second major hallmark ranking traffickers and perhaps of several lesser ones as well.

Experience bred in conflict has honed control and discipline among criminal organizations worldwide. The new criminal methods, supported by the state, will be much more sophisticated than the old ones of the Sicilian mafia. One international critic admits that international criminals have become the “global mafia,” a new monolithic threat able of invoking fears such as those stirred up by East-West rhetoric about communism and capitalism (Booth and Dunne, 2002).

The new trends of crime will involve the area of computer crimes: hacker attacks, identity theft, etc. The strict control of officials and the police should be the core policy of the state. However, it appears the isolated entrepreneurial vendor will be increasingly being replaced by a network. Insofar as this is true, the state should control almost all criminal activity to hasten processes of social disorganization. The assaults on state authorities even allowing that some governments may be worthy of attack and their laws appropriately subverted—create considerable social and economic overhead and institutional squander and debris, an effect particularly pronounced in states enjoying a modicum of legitimate government and rule of law.

Cybercrime will be a serious problem for the business world, and it has become more and more aggravating with the development of technologies and with the growing availability of internet access (Booth and Dunne, 2002). The possibilities of committing this type of crime have become wider as value has appeared to be of great value when compared to things. What was a virtual product that could be sold as well at the market as what was a real product and even better? Intellectual capital became a better and more important asset than for instance coal, gas, or steel. Ideas and their practical applications were taken advantage of to a great extent due to the widespread use of computers and the Internet.

Booth, K., Dunne, T. (2002). Worlds in Collision: Terror and the Future of Global Order. Palgrave Macmillan.

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The European Graduate School

Boris Groys

Professor of philosophy at the european graduate school / egs..

Boris Groys (b.1947) is a philosopher, essayist, art critic, media theorist and an internationally renowned expert on Soviet-era art and literature, specifically, the Russian avant-garde. He is a Global Distinguished Professor of Russian and Slavic Studies at New York University, a Senior Research Fellow at the Staatliche Hochschule für Gestaltung Karlsruhe, and a professor of philosophy at The European Graduate School / EGS. His work engages radically different traditions from French poststructuralism to modern Russian philosophy, yet is firmly situated at the juncture of aesthetics and politics. Theoretically, Boris Groys’s work is influenced by a number of modern and post-modern philosophers and theoreticians, including Jacques Derrida, Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze and Walter Benjamin.

Born in the former German Democratic Republic, Groys grew up in the USSR. He studied philosophy, mathematics, and logic at Leningrad State University (now Saint Petersburg State University). While a student, he immersed himself in the unofficial cultural scenes taking place in Leningrad and Moscow, and coined the term “Moscow conceptualism.” The term first appeared in the essay “Moscow Romantic Conceptualism,” published in 1979, in the art magazine  A-YA . During this time in the Soviet Union, Groys published widely in a number of samizdat magazines, including  37  and  Chasy . Between 1976 and 1981, Boris Groys held the position of Research Fellow in the Department of Structural and Applied Linguistics at Moscow State University. At the end of this fellowship, he left the Soviet Union and moved to the Federal Republic of Germany.

In 1992, Groys earned his doctorate in philosophy from the Universität Münster, where he also served as an assistant professor in philosophy from 1998-1994. During this time, Groys was also a visiting professor in the Department of Slavic Languages and Literature at the University of Pennsylvania, followed by another appointment at the University of Southern California, also in the Department of Slavic Languages and Literature. From 1994 to 2009, Groys was Professor of Art History, Philosophy, and Media Theory at the Staatliche Hochschule für Gestaltung Karlsruhe, where he remains a senior research fellow. In 2001, he was the Director of the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, and from 2003 to 2004, he spearheaded the research program  Post-Communist Condition , at the Federal Cultural Foundation of Germany. He assumed the position of Global Distinguished Professor in the Faculty of Arts and Science at New York University in 2005 and in 2009 he became a full Professor of Russian and Slavic Studies at NYU. Groys is also a senior Fellow at the International Center for Cultural Studies and Media Theory at the Bauhaus Universität (Weimar); a member of the Association Internationale des Critiques d’Art (AICA); and has been a senior scholar at the Courtauld Institute of Art (London); and a fellow at the International Research Center for Cultural Studies (IFK, Vienna), Harvard University Art Museum, and the University of Pittsburg.

In the Anglo-American world, Boris Groys is best known as the author of  The Total Art of Stalinism  (1992), and for introducing the western world to Russian postmodernist writers and artists. His contributions stretch across the field of philosophy, politics, history, and art theory and criticism. Within aesthetics, his major works include  Vanishing Point Moscow  (1994) and  The Art of Installation (1996). His philosophical works include  A Philosopher’s Diary  (1989) , The Invention of Russia  (1995), and  Introduction to Antiphilosophy  (2012). More recently, he has also published  Under Suspicion: A Phenomenology of the Media  (2000) , Ilya Kabakov: The Man Who Flew into Space from his Apartment  (2006) ,  and  The Communist Postscript  (2010). In addition to these works, other significant works in art, history, and philosophy include:  History Becomes Form: Moscow Conceptualism  (2010),  Going Public  (2010),  Art Power  (2008),  The Total Enlightenment: Conceptual Art in Moscow 1960-1990  (2008),  Dream Factory Communism: The Visual Culture of the Stalin Period  (2004),  Apotropikon  (1991), and  Thinking in Loop: Three Videos on Iconoclasm, Ritual and Immortality  (DVD, 2008), which is a trilogy of video-text syntheses, wherein Groys reads the composed text superimposed onto a collage of footage fragments taken from movies and film documentations.

As a prominent contemporary art theorist and critic, Boris Groys has also curated a number of notable exhibitions, including:  Fluchtpunkt Moskau  at Ludwig Forum (1994, Aachen, Germany),  Dream Factory Communism  at the Schirn Gallery (2003-2004, Frankfurt, Germany),  Privatizations  at the KW Institute of Contemporary Art (2004, Berlin, Germany),  Total Enlightenment: Conceptual Art in Moscow 1960–1990 at the Kunsthalle Schirn (2008-2009 Frankfurt, Germany; Fundación Juan March, Madrid, Spain),  Medium Religion  with Peter Weibel at the Center for Art and Media Karlsruhe (2009, Karlsruhe, Germany),  Andrei Monastyrski  for the Russian Pavilion at the 54th Venice Biennale (2011, Venice, Italy),  After History: Alexandre Kojève as a Photographer , at BAK Utrecht (2012, Netherlands).

While Boris Groys teaches, lectures, and writes on philosophy, politics, and history, it has been his work in aesthetics, and his co-mingling of ideas through aesthetics, that has brought him the most recognition and where he has made his most significant contributions. Groys proposes and underscores the involvement of the Russian avant-garde in the Bolshevik movement as well as in the early stages of the Bolshevik State. Following this premise, Groys’s work explores the implications of this relationship. One of his fundamental theses is that these artists––like their political counterparts––tried to outpace the developments of modernity, and so, they, like the Bolsheviks themselves, attempted to skip the steps supposed to be necessary and constitutive of historical progress.

While it is widely acknowledged in modern Russian art history that an opposition developed among artists during the revolutionary period between those constituting an avant-garde and those complicit with the state sanctioned art of the Soviet Union, Boris Groys contends that this was the result of a split and not a continuation of a pre-Revolutionary division. More specifically, Groys posits a more refined understanding of the period such that these artists cannot be simply and uniformly grouped as having been in partnership with the state Party and then, slowly, over the period split off into an opposing position. Indeed, he contends that much of the avant-garde remained on the ideological side of the state Party well past its early stages. Moreover, these artistic developments entered the political field and thereby became its extension. Under the leadership of the state, Soviet realism helped fulfil the avant-garde’s dream of demiurgic power. It is in this respect that Groys then posits the relationship between romanticism and twentieth century Russian avant-garde art. The partnership between Soviet realism and the state Party’s ideology resulted in (authorized) artworks as understood as the realization of socialism, thereby abolishing the supposed boundaries between life, art, and politics. According to Groys, the  Lenin Mausoleum  stands as the embodiment of this achievement of synchrony. Complicating and pushing this position further, Groys finds this phenomenon not at all exclusive to the Soviet Union, but in fact points to its uncanny parallel in the readymades of Marcel Duchamp.

Much of Groys’s work has centered on exploring the consequences of this suture resulting in a particular framework in which to think post-Stalinist art. With the fall of Stalinism, and its “iron laws of history,” Russian artists, both of the post-Stalin period of the Soviet Union and the post-Cold War period, have had to confront the difficult task of overcoming a notion of utopia without falling out of history, or rather, how to dissolve the notion of teleology without falling into the abyss of the end of history. Within this framework, Groys investigates not only the historical, political, and aesthetic relations in the Soviet Union and Russia, but as well specific artistic and literary works such as those by Ilya Kabakov, Komar and Melamid, and Prigov.

Without pronouncement, Boris Groys’s work, in all its varied forms, appears to follow a sustained thesis: art is a symptom of society. While the majority of his work is within aesthetics, his thesis is not exclusive to aesthetics. Rather, Groys tends to think politics, and philosophy, with and through the medium of art. This idea is underscored in a conversation between John-Paul Stonard and Boris Groys while he was Visiting Professorial Fellow at the Courtauld Institute of Art Research Forum, which was transcribed and published in the Institute’s journal,  immediations  (Vol.1, No. 4, 2007). In response to Stonard’s question as to whether “philosophers have a naturally closer relationship with artists than do art historians?” Groys responded, “We can look at artists in two ways. First, as if we were biologists, trying to construct a neo-Darwinian story of ‘art species’; how artists developed, how they succeeded, failed, survived. In these terms art history is formulated a little like botany or biology. The second way of considering art history is as part of the history of ideas. We have the history of philosophy, the history of science, the history of cultural history, just as we can have the history of art. So the question is whether we define art history more like botany, or more like the history of philosophy – and I tend more to the latter, because, as I have suggested, the driving force of art is philosophical.”

––Srdjan Cvjeticanin

Kommunisticheskiy Postskriptum , Groys, Boris. Kommunisticheskiy Postskriptum. Ad Marginem, 2014.  ISBN: 5911031817

Google: Words beyond Grammar/Google: Worte jenseits der Grammatik , Groys, Boris. Google: Words beyond Grammar/Google: Worte jenseits der Grammatik. Hatje Cantz, 2011.  ISBN: 3775728953

Unter Verdacht: Eine Phänomenologie der Medien , Groys, Boris. Unter Verdacht: Eine Phänomenologie der Medien. Carl Hanser Verlag, 2010.  ISBN: 3446236023

Under Suspicion: A Phenomenology of Media , Groys, Boris. Under Suspicion: A Phenomenology of Media. Translated by Carsten Strathausen. Columbia University Press, 2012.  ISBN: 0231146183

Going Public , Groys, Boris. Going Public. Sternberg Press, 2010.  ISBN: 1934105309

History Becomes Form: Moscow Conceptualism , Groys, Boris. History Becomes Form: Moscow Conceptualism. MIT Press, 2010.  ISBN: 0262014238

Einführung in die Anti-philosophie , Groys, Boris. Einführung in die Anti-philosophie. Carl Hanser, 2009.  ISBN: 3446234047

An Introduction to Antiphilosophy , Groys, Boris. An Introduction to Antiphilosophy. Translated by David Fernbach. Verso, 2012.  ISBN: 0231146183

Art Power , Groys, Boris. Art Power. MIT Press, 2008.  ISBN: 0262518686

Drei Videos über das Ikonoklastische: Rituelle und Unsterbliche/Thinking in Loop: Three Videos on Iconoclasm, Ritual and Immortality. , Groys, Boris. Drei Videos über das Ikonoklastische: Rituelle und Unsterbliche/Thinking in Loop: Three Videos on Iconoclasm, Ritual and Immortality. ZKM/Hatje Cantz, 2008.  ISBN: 3775723374

Die Kunst des Denkens , Groys, Boris. Die Kunst des Denkens. Philo Fine Arts, 2008.  ISBN: 3865726399

Ilya Kabakov. The Man Who Flew into Space from His Apartment , Groys, Boris. Ilya Kabakov. The Man Who Flew into Space from His Apartment. Afterall/MIT Press, 2006.  ISBN: 1846380049

Das Kommunistische Postskriptum , Groys, Boris. Das Kommunistische Postskriptum. Suhrkamp, 2006.  ISBN: 351812403X

The Communist Postscript , Groys, Boris. The Communist Postscript. Verso, 2010.  ISBN: 1844674304

Le Post-scriptum Communiste , Groys, Boris. Le Post-scriptum Communiste. Translated by Olivier Mannoni. Libella/Maren Sell, 2008.  ISBN: 2355800057

Postscriptum Comunista , Groys, Boris. Postscriptum Comunista. Translated by Gianluca Bonaiuti. Metemi Melusine, 2008.  ISBN: 8883536738

Die Muse im Pelz , Groys, Boris. Die Muse im Pelz. Literaturverlag Droschl, 2004.  ISBN: 3854206720

Topologie der Kunst , Groys, Boris. Topologie der Kunst. Carl Hanser, 2003.  ISBN: 3446203680

Kommentarii k Iskusstvu , Groys, Boris. Kommentarii k iskusstvu. KhZh, 2003.  ISBN: 5901116089

Politik der Unsterblichkeit: Vier Gespräche mit Thomas Knöfel , Groys, Boris. Politik der Unsterblichkeit: Vier Gespräche mit Thomas Knöfel. Carl Hanser, 2002.  ISBN: 3446201394

Politique de l’Immortalité , Groys, Boris. Politique de l’Immortalité. Quatre entretiens avec Thomas Knoefel. Translator Olivieri Mannon. Maren Sell Editeurs, 2005.  ISBN: 2350040232

Dialogi , Groys, Boris, and Ilya Kabakov. Dialogi. Ad marginem, 1999.  ISBN: 593321003X

Logik der Sammlung , Groys, Boris. Logik der Sammlung. Carl Hanser, 1997.  ISBN: 3446189327

Kunst-Kommentare , Groys, Boris. Kunst-Kommentare. Passagen, 1997.  ISBN: 3851652916

Die Kunst der Installation , Groys, Boris, and Ilja Kabakov. Die Kunst der Installation. Carl Hanser, 1996.  ISBN: 3446185275

Die Erfindung Russlands , Groys, Boris. Die Erfindung Russlands. Carl Hanser, 1995.  ISBN: 3446180516

Über das Neue , Groys, Boris. Über das Neue. Versuch einer Kulturökonomie. Carl Hanser, 1992.  ISBN: 3446165428

On the New , Groys, Boris. On the New. Translated by G. M. Goshgarian. Verso, 2014.  ISBN: 1781682925

Sobre lo Nuevo , Groys, Boris. Sobre lo Nuevo. Pre-textos, 2005.  ISBN: 848191648X

Du Nouveau , Groys, Boris. Du Nouveau: Essai d’économie culturelle. Jacqueline Chambon, 1995.  ISBN: 2877111156

Zeitgenössische Kunst aus Moskau: Von der Neo-Avantgarde zum Post-Stalinismus ,Groys, Boris. Zeitgenössische Kunst aus Moskau: Von der Neo-Avantgarde zum Post-Stalinismus. Klinkhardt u. B., 1991.  ISBN: 3781403033

Die Kunst des Fliehens , Groys, Boris, and Ilya Kabakov. Die Kunst des Fliehens. Carl Hanser, 1991.  ISBN: 3446160779

Dnevnik filosofa , Groys, Boris. Dnevnik Filosofa. Beseda/Sintaksis, 1989.

全体芸術様式スターリン/ Zentai Geijutsu Yōshiki Sutārin , Groys, Boris. 全体芸術様式スターリン/ Zentai Geijutsu Yōshiki Sutārin. Translated by Ikuo Kameyama and Yoshiaki Koga. 現代思潮新社, 2000.  ISBN: 4329004119

Gesamtkunstwerk Stalin , Groys, Boris. Gesamtkunstwerk Stalin. Translated by Desiderio Navarro. Pre-textos, 2008.  ISBN: 848191925X

Lo Stalinismo Ovvero l’Opera d’Arte Totale , Groys, Boris. Lo Stalinismo Ovvero l’Opera d’Arte Totale. Translated by Emanuela Guercetti. Garzanti, 1992.  ISBN: 8811598346

The Total Art of Stalinism: Russian Avant-Garde, Aesthetic Dictatorship, and Beyond. , Groys, Boris. The Total Art of Stalinism: Russian Avant-Garde, Aesthetic Dictatorship, and Beyond. Translated by Charles Rougle. Verso, (1992) 2011.  ISBN: 1844677079

Staline: Oeuvre d’Art totale , Groys, Boris. Staline: Oeuvre d’Aart totale. Jacqueline Chambon, 1990.  ISBN: 2877110370

Gesamtkunstwerk Stalin , Groys, Boris. Gesamtkunstwerk Stalin. Die Gespaltene Kultur in der Sowjetunion. Translated by Gabriele Leupold. Carl Hanser, (1988) 2008.  ISBN: 3446187863

Edited Works

Moscow Symposium: Conceptualism Revisited

Groys, Boris, ed.  Moscow Symposium: Conceptualism Revisited . Sternberg Press, 2012.  ISBN: 3943365115

Empty Zones: Andrei Monastyrski and Collective Action

Groys, Boris, Claire Bishop, and Andrei Monastyrski, eds.  Empty Zones: Andrei Monastyrski and Collective Action . Black Dog, 2011.  ISBN: 1907317341

Die totale Aufklärung: Moskauer Konzeptkunst 1960-1990/The Total Enlightenment: Conceptual Art in Moscow 1960-1990

Groys, Boris, Max Hollein, and Manuel Fontan del Junco, eds.  Die totale Aufklärung: Moskauer Konzeptkunst 1960-1990/The Total Enlightenment: Conceptual Art in Moscow 1960-1990 . Exhibition catalogue. Hatje Cantz, 2008.  ISBN: 377572124 X

Die Neue Menschheit

Groys, Boris, and Michael Hagemeister, eds.  Die Neue Menschheit . Suhrkamp, 2005.  ISBN: 351829363 X

Am Nullpunkt

Groys, Boris, and Aage Hansen-Löve, eds.  Am Nullpunkt . Suhrkamp, 2005.  ISBN: 3518293648

Zurück aus der Zukunft. Osteuropäische Kulturen im Zeitalter des Postkommunismus

Groys, Boris, and Anne von der Heiden, eds.  Zurück aus der Zukunft. Osteuropäische Kulturen im Zeitalter des Postkommunismus . Suhrkamp, 2005.  ISBN: 3518124528

Privatisierungen/Privatisations

Groys, Boris, ed.  Privatisierungen/Privatisations . Revolver, 2004.  ISBN: 3865882285

Dream Factory Communism: The Visual Culture of the Stalin Era

Groys, Boris, and Max Hollein, eds.  Dream Factory Communism: The Visual Culture of the Stalin Era . Hatje Cantz, 2003.  ISBN: 377571328 X

Kierkegaard

Groys, Boris, ed.  Kierkegaard . Schriften. Diederichs, 1996.  ISBN: 3424012874

Fluchtpunkt Moskau

Groys, Boris, ed. Fluchtpunkt Moskau. Cantz, 1994.  ISBN: 3893226125

Utopia i Obmen

Groys, Boris, ed.  Utopia i Obmen . Izd-vo Znak, 1993.  ISBN: 5877070010

Today’s Legacy of Classical Modernism

Thinking Media and the Man-Machine Relation

Alexandre Kojève

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Trump’s Harsh Punishment Was Made Possible by This New York Law

The little-known measure meant hundreds of millions in penalties in the civil fraud case brought by Attorney General Letitia James.

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Letitia James sits in court behind Donald Trump, who is blurred and out of focus.

By Ben Protess and Jonah E. Bromwich

The $355 million penalty that a New York judge ordered Donald J. Trump to pay in his civil fraud trial might seem steep in a case with no victim calling for redress and no star witness pointing the finger at Mr. Trump. But a little-known 70-year-old state law made the punishment possible.

The law, often referred to by its shorthand, 63(12), which stems from its place in New York’s rule book, is a regulatory bazooka for the state’s attorney general, Letitia James. Her office has used it to aim at a wide range of corporate giants: the oil company Exxon Mobil, the tobacco brand Juul and the pharma executive Martin Shkreli.

On Friday, the law enabled Ms. James to win an enormous victory against Mr. Trump. Along with the financial penalty , the judge barred Mr. Trump from running a business in New York for three years. His adult sons were barred for two years.

The judge also ordered a monitor, Barbara Jones, to assume more power over Mr. Trump’s company, and asked her to appoint an independent executive to report to her from within the company.

A lawyer for Mr. Trump, Christopher M. Kise, reacted with fury, saying “the sobering future consequences of this tyrannical abuse of power do not just impact President Trump.”

“When a court willingly allows a reckless government official to meddle in the lawful, private and profitable affairs of any citizen based on political bias, America’s economic prosperity and way of life are at extreme risk of extinction,” he said.

In the Trump case, Ms. James accused the former president of inflating his net worth to obtain favorable loans and other financial benefits. Mr. Trump, she argued, defrauded his lenders and in doing so, undermined the integrity of New York’s business world.

Mr. Trump’s conduct “distorts the market,” Kevin Wallace, a lawyer for Ms. James’s office, said during closing arguments in the civil fraud trial.

“It prices out honest borrowers and can lead to more catastrophic results,” Mr. Wallace said, adding, “That’s why it’s important for the court to take the steps to protect the marketplace to prevent this from happening again.”

Yet the victims — the bankers who lent to Mr. Trump — testified that they were thrilled to have him as a client. And while a parade of witnesses echoed Ms. James’s claim that the former president’s annual financial statements were works of fiction, none offered evidence showing that Mr. Trump explicitly intended to fool the banks.

That might seem unusual, but under 63(12), such evidence was not necessary to find fraud.

The law did not require the attorney general to show that Mr. Trump had intended to defraud anyone or that his actions resulted in financial loss.

“This law packs a wallop,” said Steven M. Cohen, a former federal prosecutor and top official in the attorney general’s office, noting that it did not require the attorney general to show that anyone had been harmed.

With that low bar, Justice Arthur F. Engoron, the judge presiding over the case, sided with Ms. James on her core claim before the trial began, finding that Mr. Trump had engaged in a pattern of fraud by exaggerating the value of his assets in statements filed to his lenders.

Ms. James’s burden of proof at the trial was higher: To persuade the judge that Mr. Trump had violated other state laws, she had to convince him that the former president acted with intent. And some of the evidence helped her cause: Two of Mr. Trump’s former employees testified that he had final sign-off on the financial statements, and Mr. Trump admitted on the witness stand that he had a role in drafting them.

Still, her ability to extract further punishments based on those other violations is also a product of 63(12), which grants the attorney general the right to pursue those who engage in “repeated fraudulent or illegal acts.”

In other fraud cases, authorities must persuade a judge or jury that someone was in fact defrauded. But 63(12) required Ms. James only to show that conduct was deceptive or created “an atmosphere conducive to fraud.” Past cases suggest that the word “fraud” itself is effectively a synonym for dishonest conduct, the attorney general argued in her lawsuit.

Once the attorney general has convinced a judge or jury that a defendant has acted deceptively, the punishment can be severe. The law allows Ms. James to seek the forfeit of money obtained through fraud.

Of the roughly $355 million that Mr. Trump was ordered to pay, $168 million represents the sum that Mr. Trump saved on loans by inflating his worth, she argued. In other words, the extra interest the lenders missed.

The penalty was in the judge’s hands — there was no jury — and 63(12) gave him wide discretion.

The law also empowered Justice Engoron to set new restrictions on Mr. Trump and his family business, all of which Mr. Trump is expected to appeal.

The judge also ordered a monitor to assume more power over Mr. Trump’s company, who will appoint an independent executive who will report to the monitor from within the company.

Even before she filed her lawsuit against the Trumps in 2022, Ms. James used 63(12) as a cudgel to aid her investigation.

The law grants the attorney general’s office something akin to prosecutorial investigative power. In most civil cases, a person or entity planning to sue cannot collect documents or conduct interviews until after the lawsuit is filed. But 63(12) allows the attorney general to do a substantive investigation before deciding whether to sue, settle or abandon a case. In the case against Mr. Trump, the investigation proceeded for nearly three years before a lawsuit was filed.

The case is not Mr. Trump’s first brush with 63(12). Ms. James’s predecessors used it in actions against Trump University, his for-profit education venture, which paid millions of dollars to resolve the case.

The law became so important to Ms. James’s civil fraud case that it caught the attention of Mr. Trump, who lamented the sweeping authority it afforded the attorney general and falsely claimed that her office rarely used it.

He wrote on social media last year that 63(12) was “VERY UNFAIR.”

William K. Rashbaum contributed reporting.

Ben Protess is an investigative reporter at The Times, writing about public corruption. He has been covering the various criminal investigations into former President Trump and his allies. More about Ben Protess

Jonah E. Bromwich covers criminal justice in New York, with a focus on the Manhattan district attorney's office, state criminal courts in Manhattan and New York City's jails. More about Jonah E. Bromwich

Watch CBS News

Read the full decision in Trump's New York civil fraud case

By Graham Kates

Edited By Stefan Becket, Paula Cohen

Updated on: February 16, 2024 / 8:27 PM EST / CBS News

The judge overseeing the civil fraud case in New York against former President Donald Trump and the Trump Organization has issued his long-awaited ruling , five weeks after the  trial in the case concluded . 

Judge Arthur Engoron ordered Trump and his company to pay $354 million in fines — a total that jumps to $453.5 million when pre-judgment interest is factored in. It also bars them from seeking loans from financial institutions in New York for a period of three years, and includes a three-year ban on Trump serving as an officer or director of any New York corporation. 

Additional penalties were ordered for Trump's sons, Eric and Donald Trump Jr., who are executives at the company, and two former executives, Allen Weisselberg and Jeffrey McConney.

New York Attorney General Letitia James  brought the civil suit  in 2022, seeking a  penalty that grew to $370 million  and asking the judge to bar Trump from doing business in the state. 

Judge Engoron had already ruled in September that Trump and the other defendants were  liable for fraud , based on the evidence presented through pretrial filings. 

The judge had largely affirmed James' allegations that Trump and others at his company had inflated valuations of his properties by hundreds of millions of dollars over a the course of a decade and misrepresented his wealth by billions in a scheme, the state said, intended to trick banks and insurers into offering more favorable deal terms.

Trump and his legal team long expected a defeat, with the former president decrying the case as "rigged" and a "sham" and his lawyers laying the groundwork for an appeal before the decision was even issued. He is expected to appeal.

Read Judge Engoron's decision here :

  • The Trump Organization
  • Donald Trump
  • Letitia James

Graham Kates is an investigative reporter covering criminal justice, privacy issues and information security for CBS News Digital. Contact Graham at [email protected] or [email protected]

More from CBS News

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  • International

Hearings on Trump's criminal cases in New York and Georgia

By Kara Scannell , Lauren del Valle , Jeremy Herb , Zachary Cohen , Jason Morris, Nick Valencia , Kristina Sgueglia, Dan Berman , Tori B. Powell and Matt Meyer , CNN

Here are key takeaways from Fani Willis' stunning testimony

From CNN's Marshall Cohen, Devan Cole, Holmes Lybrand and Katelyn Polantz

The Georgia election subversion case against  Donald Trump and 14 of his allies took a stunning turn Thursday when two top prosecutors testified under oath about their romantic relationship at a hearing triggered by allegations of self-dealing that have the potential to derail the entire effort.

The all-day hearing escalated steadily throughout the day, culminating with Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis taking the witness stand for a combative brawl with defense attorneys that drew several rebukes from the judge.

These are key takeaways:

  • Willis' defiant afternoon: Things quickly went off the rails. Willis didn’t act much like a traditional witness on the stand and was more like a prosecutor, arguing with the defense attorneys, raising objections, making legal arguments and even having exchanges with Judge Scott McAfee . She even raised her voice at one point. This led to a few rebukes from McAfee. Willis repeatedly accused some of the defense attorneys of peddling lies – before and after the judge’s admonishment.
  • Willis says she's not on trial: Willis seized several opportunities to defend herself. “You think I’m on trial,” Willis said, in her sharpest pushback of the day. “These people are on trial for trying to steal an election in 2020,” she added, pointing toward the table of attorneys representing defendants in the criminal case. “I’m not on trial, no matter how hard you try to put me on trial.” She later slammed the defense attorneys, calling them “confused” and “intrusive.”
  • When did the relationship start? On the stand, prosecutor Nathan Wade stuck to his earlier claim – in a sworn affidavit submitted to the court – that his romantic relationship with Willis began in early 2022 and that they split travel and vacation expenses. But Robin Bryant-Yeartie, a former friend of Willis and Fulton County employee, contradicted that claim , testifying that she had “no doubt” that the Willis-Wade affair began in late 2019. Notably, that would be before Willis hired Wade to lead the Trump probe in late 2021.
  • Wade and Willis describe using cash for reimbursements: Wade and Willis have offered a simple explanation for why there’s essentially no paper trail to back up his claims they split expenses: Willis used cash .
  • When did the relationship end? There was also a dispute over when the relationship ended, and whether it had any impact on the decision to seek the massive RICO indictment against Trump and others last August. Both said the relationship ended in summer 2023. Willis implied that the physical component ended earlier in the summer, but that the two had a “tough conversation” that fully ended things afterward.
  • Huge distraction from Trump's charges: Nothing that happened Thursday undercut the factual allegations against Trump, Rudy Giuliani, Mark Meadows, or the other GOP allies who are accused of trying to overturn the 2020 election. But the hearing shifted the conversation away from those allegation and away from Trump’s legal woes for now.

Trump reacts to Willis' testimony in Georgia

From CNN's Kate Sullivan

Former President Donald Trump on Thursday reacted to c and her lead prosecutor on the 2020 election case, Nathan Wade.

“FANI NEVER PAID CASH. SHE GOT FREE TRIPS AND OTHER THINGS FROM HER LOVER, WITH THE EXORBITANT AMOUNTS OF MONEY SHE AUTHORIZED TO BE PAID TO HIM. A GIANT SCAM. WITCH HUNT!!!”  Trump posted  on Truth Social. 

Wade and Willis pushed back against allegations from the defense that Willis was essentially getting kickbacks from Wade in the form of vacations. They said they split expenses and that Willis reimbursed Wade in cash for certain things.

Georgia judge says no ruling will be issued tomorrow in case over whether to dismiss Willis

From CNN’s Holmes Lybrand

Fulton County Superior Judge Scott McAfee looks on during a hearing at the Fulton County Courthouse on Thursday, February 15, in Atlanta, Georgia.

Fulton County Judge Scott McAfee said he would not issue any rulings Friday after the evidentiary hearing on efforts to disqualify District Attorney Fani Willis from the Georgia election subversion case. 

“I’m not ruling on any of this tomorrow,” McAfee said in closing the hearing Thursday. “This is something that’s going to be taken under advisement on all aspects.”  

McAfee also raised the possibility of scheduling final arguments from the parties at a later date. 

“My goal, my hope is perhaps we can just close the evidence tomorrow, and we can take it from there,” McAfee said.

Willis woke up "ready to testify," bishop who prayed with her before court says

From CNN's Nick Valencia and Devon Sayers

Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis woke up Thursday morning "ready to testify," according to the African Methodist Episcopal bishop who says he prayed with her before today’s hearing.

Bishop Reginald Jackson told CNN he met with Willis earlier this morning before court began to "offer her words of encouragement," and they prayed together.

"She seemed comfortable. She seemed eager to address," Jackson said.  "I had the feeling this morning that she was ready for this. It's been going on for over a month, these efforts to destroy her reputation,” he added. “She wanted to meet it head on.” 

When the bishop spoke to Willis this morning before court, he said he told Willis "to keep praying and that the people have her back. I really believe they do."

Hearing ends for the day and Willis will continue testimony Friday 

From CNN's Holmes Lybrand and Dan Berman

The first day of an evidentiary hearing over whether to dismiss Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis from the Georgia election subversion case has concluded after Willis and her top prosecutor, Nathan Wade, testified over their relationships and payments they made during vacations together.

The district attorney's testimony will continue Friday at 9 a.m. ET, with Willis starting with under cross examination from District Attorney lawyer Anna Cross.

Defense attorney Ashleigh Merchant, who is leading the removal effort, said she plans to call two more witnesses after that.  

Cross also said she had three to four witnesses to call tomorrow, which she estimated would take four to five hours.

Willis: "I'm not on trial, no matter how hard you try to put me on trial"

From CNN's Devan Cole

Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis testifies during a hearing on the Georgia election interference case on Thursday in Atlanta.

Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis pushed back forcefully on Thursday as she engaged in a tense back and forth with a defense attorney seeking to disqualify her from the 2020 election interference case she’s brought against Donald Trump and others.

“You've been intrusive into people's personal lives. You're confused,” she told Ashleigh Merchant, an attorney for defendant Mike Roman.

“You think I'm on trial. These people are on trial for trying to steal an election in 2020,” she added, pointing toward the table of attorneys representing defendants in the criminal case.

Willis says Wade made sexist remarks during relationship

From CNN’s Devan Cole and Marshall Cohen

Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis testifies during a hearing on the Georgia election interference case on Thursday in Atlanta.

In an extraordinary moment in court Thursday, Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis testified about sexist behavior from Nathan Wade, the top prosecutor on the election interference case with whom she once had a romantic relationship.

“It's interesting that we're here about this money. Mr. Wade is used to women that, as he told me one time: 'The only thing a woman can do for him is make him a sandwich,'” she testified as she faced tough questioning from defense attorney Steve Sadow, who represents Donald Trump, about whether their romantic relationship ended last summer because of the forthcoming indictment against the former president and his allies. 

“We would have brutal arguments about the fact that I am your equal," she continued. "I don't need anything from a man — a man is not a plan. A man is a companion. And so there was tension always in our relationship, which is why I would give him his money back. I don't need anybody to foot my bills. The only man who's ever foot my bills completely is my daddy.” 

The defense attorneys have zeroed in on the timing of when the Willis-Wade relationship ended because it's critical to their self-dealing allegations against Willis.

In court filings, defendant Mike Roman's team argued that Willis would be incentivized to bring an indictment because it would prolong the case, and keep the money flowing to Wade. And, according to their theory, back to her as well, through vacations and other gifts.

Willis said on the stand that their break-up had “absolutely nothing” to do with the indictment.

Fulton County judge admonishes parties to remain professional

Fulton County Superior Judge Scott McAfee looks on during a hearing in the case of the State of Georgia v. Donald John Trump at the Fulton County Courthouse on February 15, in Atlanta, Georgia. 

Fulton County Judge Scott McAfee admonished parties in court on Thursday after heated exchanges between District Attorney Fani Willis and the defense attorney trying to get her removed from the Georgia election subversion case. 

“We all know what professionalism looks like,” McAfee said. “We won’t talk over each other. And from there, we’ll get through this.”

The judge took a brief break during Willis’ testimony after she raised her voice in court, holding up several motions filed by defense attorney Ashleigh Merchant and declaring: “It is a lie.” 

Merchant was asking if the top prosecutor she hired to investigate Trump had ever visited Willis “at the place you lay your head?”

“So let’s be clear because you’ve lied in this,” Willis said, pointing to copies she held of the filings. Willis, continuing to point at the copies, added, “right here, I think you lied right here.”

Willis details trips she took with top prosecutor in Trump case

District Attorney Fani Willis detailed vacations and trips she took with prosecutor Nathan Wade, who she hired to investigate Donald Trump and others for election interference in Georgia, saying she would pay cash for everything.

“When I travel I always pay cash,” Willis said of the trips with Wade, saying that she paid Wade back for certain travel and excursions during the trips.

Willis has been accused of financially benefitting from hiring Wade, who defense attorneys say paid for vacations for the two. The vacations, according to Willis, included trips to Aruba, the Bahamas Belize as well as Napa Valley where they attended wine tastings.

“He likes wine, I don’t really like wine to be honest with you,” Willis said. “I like Grey Goose.” 

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Trump opts against Supreme Court appeal on civil immunity claim over Jan. 6 lawsuits

Then-President Donald Trump

WASHINGTON — Lawsuits seeking to hold Donald Trump personally accountable for his role in the Jan. 6 attack on the Capitol can move forward after the former president chose not to take his broad immunity claim to the Supreme Court.

Trump had a Thursday deadline to file a petition at the Supreme Court contesting an appeals court decision from December that rejected his immunity arguments, but he did not do so.

The appeals court made it clear that Trump could still claim immunity later in the proceedings in three cases brought by Capitol Police officers and members of Congress.

"President Trump will continue to fight for presidential immunity all across the spectrum," said Steven Cheung, a Trump spokesman.

The civil lawsuits against Trump are separate from the criminal case against him that also arose from Jan. 6. On Monday, Trump asked the justices to put that case on hold on immunity grounds.

Trump's lawyers argued that any actions he took on Jan. 6 fall under the scope of his responsibilities as president, thereby granting him immunity from civil liability. The U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia rejected that argument, ruling that Trump was acting in his role as a political candidate running for office, not as president.

But the court added that when the cases move forward in district court, Trump "must be afforded the opportunity to develop his own facts on the immunity question" in order to show he was acting in his official capacity. He then could again seek to have the lawsuits dismissed, the court said.

“We look forward to moving on with proving our claims and getting justice for our Capitol Police officer clients who were injured defending our democracy from Defendant Trump,” said Kristy Parker, a lawyer for plaintiffs in one of the cases.

The lead plaintiff in the civil immunity case is James Blassingame, a Capitol Police officer who was injured in the Jan. 6 riot. Fellow plaintiffs in several lawsuits that were consolidated on appeal include lawmakers who were at the Capitol that day.

The legal arguments being made by Trump are similar to those he is making in his criminal case as he seeks to prevent a trial from taking place before the November election.

In rejecting Trump's immunity claim in the criminal case, a different panel of judges in the same appeals court did not directly address whether Trump's actions were official acts. The court instead assumed that they likely were official acts and found that, even then, Trump could not claim immunity.

criminal globalization essay

Lawrence Hurley covers the Supreme Court for NBC News.

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