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Typing Through Time: Keyboard History

Keyboards and typing technology have come a long way over the past couple of centuries. The first typing devices were designed and patented in the 1700s while the first manufactured typing devices came about in the 1870s. These machines featured “blind typing” technology, where characters were printed on upside-down pages that remained unseen until completion. Since then, we have seen several updates in design, layout, technology, and function that are more efficient and user-friendly. The type-writer has changed shape dramatically over the years, eventually becoming electronic- then practically obsolete as we moved into the age of computers and the birth of the keyboard. The keyboard is the number one computer interface used around the world and an integral object for many of us that most people take for granted. This paper will explore the history of typing, detailing the innovations across time that have accumulated into the definition of today’s standard for the ultimate typing experience.

Table of contents

Chapter one: design – the evolution of the typewriter, chapter two: design – the development of the computer keyboard.

• Chapter Three: Design – Computer Keyboard Layouts

To begin the exploration of the first keyboards, we must first examine the origins of typing and the first typing devices. What did the first typing machines look like? The first manufactured typewriters resembled sewing machines more than what most people imagine when they think of a “typewriter.” Remington, who manufactured the first typewriters, was also manufacturing sewing machines at the time, leading to this initial design atheistic. The first Remington typewriters, created by Sholes, Glidden, and Soule even came with a foot pedal (like a sewing machine) to control carriage returns. So how did we get to where we are now, in the high-tech age of computers and plastics? To move forward, it’s important to first move backward in time and see how these first commercially successful type-writers came to be.

Technically the first documented typing devices predate the Remington’s Sholes & Glidden typewriter, though none of them were manufactured for commercial use. In 1714, the first patent for a typing machine was issued in London, England to Henry Mill. Though there is no evidence that the machine was constructed, or sold, all we know is that this typing device was intended to prepare legal documents in a manner that was neat, legible, and in a standardized format. Fast forward to 1808, another typing machine was patented to Pellegrino Turri in Italy. His machine was intended to allow the blind to “write.” With Pellegrino Turri’s typing device, also came the first Carbon Copy. Pellegrino’s invention of the carbon copy has made a lasting impact on the modern office (carbon copies are still regularly used on triplicate forms, phone messages and memo pads, sales receipts, etc.). In 1829 William Austin Burt also created a writing mechanism, a “Typowriter” that instead of keys, used dials to print characters, making this process slower than handwriting to produce words on a page, but it was a way to print legible uniform text. The typowriter was also created with the intended use for the blind. A later model of the typowriter, created by John Jones in 1852 is pictured below. None of these devices gained much public interest or commercial success.

From 1829 up until 1870 many other typing devices were patented along with the ones mentioned above, and like the previous devices, none of them went into commercial production or mainstream use. The only ones worth mentioning, for the sake of being extraordinary, were Father Francisco Jaâo de Azevado’s “homemade” typewriter made from wood and knives in Brasil (1861), and Denmark’s Hansen Writing Ball (1865), both pictured below. Father Azevado’s typewriter is arguably the first “typewriter” as the mechanism is the most similar to the commercial models that followed its inception. It was completely constructed of household materials which makes it particularly interesting and impressive. Brazilians argue that his invention should be credited as the First Typewriter. Moving across the globe to Denmark just a few years later, The Hansen Writing Ball was invented by Reverend Rasmus Malling-Hansen, in 1865. The half-sphere shape of the ball is unlike any other typing device before or after it, and regardless of visual appeal, The Hansen Writing Ball gained quite a bit of attention in Europe and England as a fully functional typing device. It is documented that Hansen Writing Balls could be found in operation up until 1909 in many offices and businesses in England and Europe. Because of the relative success of this product, Malling-Hansen released a few different versions of this invention. His first Writing Ball began as an electric device, but later he released the “Tall Model” in 1875- where no electricity was needed. The fact that it no longer required electricity resulted in a broader range of consumers in various rural and urban locales.

Soon after the Hansen Writing Ball’s creation, Sholes (an Inventor), Glidden (a Mechanic), and the help of Soule (a Printer) came along with their 1867 type-writer that changed the world of typing as we know it. It is this “Type-Writer” that gave us the word typewriter, and is the model that is referred to as “The First Typewriter.” Interestingly enough, though this was the most successful typing device of that time, Sholes and Glidden were too frustrated by slow sales so they sold their patent to Densmore and Yost for $12,000. Machinist and clock-maker Matthais Schwalbach made the Sholes and Glidden typewriter in Milwaukee, and had Remington manufacture and sell it. Soon after this sewing machine-like model was created and sold, the foot pedal was removed with carriage returns being controlled on the typewriter itself. Following this change, a slightly smaller, desk-top version of the typewriter came to be (though still extremely heavy and full of metal), losing the sewing machine look and defining its look like a typewriter. By 1910 all typewriters were more or less standardized, sharing very similar resemblances across the board until the IBM Selectric was introduced in 1961.

The Selectric typewriter, no longer used type-bars that struck the page. The Selectrics used typeballs (resembling golf balls) that rolled, tilted, and printed the letters on the page without the typebars. This was huge because typewriter jams (when two typebars interlocked if you typed too fast) were no longer an issue. This increased typing speed, and efficiency. The other new element brought to the typewriter scene with the Selectrics was that the typeballs could easily be taken out, and replaced with others to change fonts quickly on the same document. This was also a major advancement in the industry. Though the Selectrics were still quite heavy, large, hunks of metal that were difficult to move around, the typeballs were small, easy to move, accessories that gave typists more freedom and accessibility. The Selectric Typewriter was produced up until the 1980s with three models that evolved over those decades: The Selectric I, The Selectric II, and The Selectric III. They were available in a variety of colors including vintage blue, mossy green, burnt red, beige, and black.

The typewriter has come a long way over the years, all leading into the age of computers and the most widely used input device: the computer keyboard. Though the first computers and computer keyboards were created before the Selectric, these power-house typewriters were so great at putting text on the page that they continued to be used alongside keyboards, as computers gained in popularity. Hunter S. Thompson was known to write on one, and some writers such as David Sedaris to this day still use and prefer their Selectric Typewriter. Typewriters have largely been replaced and taken over by the keyboard as the preferred, and most used typing device. A few years ago, rumors generated by the Daily Mail even went as far as to publish that the “Last Typewriter Factory Left in the World Close[d] its Doors” which as it turns out was an exaggeration, and false  ( as confirmed by NPR ). Though the age of typewriters has faded and they have become more of a novelty than a necessity, several government offices continue to use typewriters to produce legal documents, which has kept and will keep typewriters in production, at least for the time being.

While typewriters were widely used throughout the 1950s to the 1970s, computers were starting to emerge as a consumer-friendly product, beginning the age of the computer keyboard as a primary input device.  To understand the development of the computer keyboard, it’s important to understand the development and evolution of the computer. In 1946, the first computer, ENIAC was constructed and teletype was used to input data. As you can see below, the ENIAC computer took up an entire room, hundreds of times larger than the modern computer laptop. What was teletype and how is it different from modern computer keyboard input?

Teletype and ENIAC computers used cards  (similar in shape to index cards) that were inserted into the Teletype while a series of holes called keypunches would be punched into the cards according to which keys were pressed on the teletype machine. After the cards were keypunched by the computer, they were brought over to a card-reader that would analyze the deck of cards as data (tangible memory).

In 1948 the BINAC computer used a different input/output method, with an electromagnetically controlled teletype to input data and print results. The BINAC is what paved the way for the shape of computers and computer keyboards to come, though it would still take a few more decades to move away from the teletype/punchcard computers. Another punchcard computer popular at the time was the UNIVAC I, produced in 1951 and is also pictured below.

In 1964, Bell Labs and M.I.T. created the MULTICS computer, a time-sharing, multi-user system with VDT, a video display terminal. The text was instantly visible on the screen as it was typed, which made communicating commands, programs, and controls to computers more efficient than previous teletype methods of input. By the late 1970s, all computers used VDT and electric keyboards. It was simply the most straightforward and user-friendly method of interacting with computers (no stack of cards to punch holes in and keep organized). The first keyboards that were sold in the 1970s were all built from scratch, piece by piece, and were heavy as they were fully mechanical. Since so much time and effort was needed to create these keyboards, and since the target market was primarily computer programmers and engineers, they were built for function and not for visual aesthetics. This meant there wasn’t a keyboard cover or cabinet, making the keyboard more or less exposed.

Some keyboards were built into personal computers at the time. In the mid-1970s Imsai and Altair created the first small PCs for consumer use, generally referred to as the S100 computer systems. These machines were built piece by piece and provided the bare essentials. There were no hard drives or floppy discs on these first machines, so there was no way to save data on them. The keyboard was located on the front panel of the computer, as a set of key switches. If users wanted a standard keyboard, IBM sold a converted electric typewriter, but as supplies were limited and the product wasn’t in high demand many users had to convert their electric typewriters if they wanted an easier to use a keyboard to enter programming code. Additionally, a second keyboard had to be connected for data entry. It wasn’t provided with purchase, requiring that users had to build their own.

In the late 1970s Apple, Radio Shack, and Commodore all had the foresight to see the large market in computer keyboards and started manufacturing keyboards for their computers, paving the way for the modern assumption that all computers come with a keyboard and that keyboards are the primary, standard input device. Below is a 1970s Radio Shack commercial for the TRS-80 .

In 1981, IBM released its first PC. In 1986, it came equipped with the Model M keyboard. This computer keyboard was wildly successful because it was so easy to use, users didn’t have to convert their typewriters or provide their build of the keyboard to use as an input device for their computers. The Model M was a mechanical keyboard, and used the highest quality construction, giving typists the satisfaction of tactile feedback, acute accuracy, and comfort. The only drawback of this keyboard was that the “Shift” and “Enter” keys were reportedly too small for the majority of the user’s preferences. Because of this, IBM made and sold “Keytop Expanders” which fit over the shift and enter key switches to expand the keys. All of the keyboards at this time were limited in that they were only offered in two colors: beige and grey, until the late 1980s when black was introduced as an option.

In the 1990s membrane switches began to replace the mechanical key switch, as it was quieter, weighed less, and suited the needs of the new laptop generation. This was also an advantage for the manufacturers because membrane keyboards were much cheaper to produce. Unfortunately, the quality of the keyboard significantly dropped as these superficial keyboard aesthetics dominated (slimmer, quieter, lighter weight, easier to be mobile with). The technology and mechanics of these keyboards will be detailed in future chapters, and mechanical keyboard information can be found here: in our Mechanical Keyboard Guide . Here’s a photo showing the dramatic difference between early Apple mechanical keyboards (1983), and decades later the modern non-mechanical Apple keyboards (2010).

Other changes in keyboard design, whether or not improving upon function, have included the folding keyboard, the water-proof (and washable) keyboard, the keyboard that also functions as a mouse, thumb-sized keyboards (for mobile devices and travel), and virtual touch-screen keyboards.

Over the years there have been several other designs that verge on science fiction- like the laser keyboard, the flying saucer keyboard , the jellyfish keyboard , and the fully-programmable, LCD-key display Optimus Maximus Keyboard. It’s mind-bending to see the evolution of keyboards in terms of where they started as teletype machines and typewriters- to where they’ve evolved into all the options we have quite literally at our fingertips.

Keyboards come in all shapes, sizes, and colors these days, though it’s important to remember that without the original, simple,  powerhouse mechanical keyboards of IBM we wouldn’t be where we are today. With all of the design innovations being manufactured, there is no surprise that many creative keyboard aficionados have started to emerge with their inventive modifications to improve the typing experience and aesthetic. Richard “Doc” Nagy has taken his creativity, and craftsmanship to the next level in keyboard design and has built some very interesting and inventive keyboard mods that seem to have traveled back in time, with a paradoxically futuristic edge.  From steampunk and art deco-themed keyboards to keyboards with scrabble tiles for keys, Doc’s modified mechanical keyboards are true works of art (and fully functional). Visit Doc’s site,  Datamancer.net for his complete gallery.

Chapter Three: Design – The History and Evolution of Keyboard Layouts

Qwerty layout.

The most widely used keyboard layout is QWERTY, named as such for the positioning of the keys in the top left row. Christopher Latham Sholes and Carlos Glidden produced the first typewriter featuring the QWERTY layout in 1874 and though there have been minor changes over the past centuries, for the most part, it has remained consistent. One of the differences between the original  QWERTY layout from the current version was its lack of a “1” key, and consequently “!” key. Instead of typing the numeral one, typists would use the lower-case L (l). To type an exclamation mark, typists would use a period (.), hit backspace, then type an apostrophe (‘) above it. Another key added in later versions was the “=” and “+” key. These symbols were used very infrequently on typewriters as it was generally assumed that Adding Machines were used to do all the mathematical notation. If typists wanted to produce a plus-sign, they would type a hyphen (-), hit backspace, then type a colon (:). When they wanted to type an equal sign, they would type a hyphen (-), hit backspace, and then type an underscore (_).   At the start of the QWERTY layout, typewriters were only able to print UPPER CASE letters, as the “shift key” had not yet been introduced. At the end of the 19th century in 1894, The Duplex full keyboard brought lower case letters to the typewriter by featuring separate keys for lower case and UPPER CASE letters. There were twice as many keys with this design which eventually lead to the invention of the “shift key.” The shift key allowed for a consolidated keyboard similar to the first models that only typed capital letters, as well as the use of both lower and uppercase characters with the same key. Additionally, having a shift key allowed the numerical keys to be shared with special characters such as the ampersand (&) and percent (%) signs for further keyboard consolidation. One problem that arose after the shift key was added was that holding down the shift key to type more than one letter at a time was particularly difficult on early typewriters. This led to the “SHIFT LOCK” key, later to be renamed “CAPS LOCK” by modern typists. Shift lock allowed typists to switch back and forth between lower and upper case characters, as well as numerical and special characters with ease.

QWERTY layouts were developed as a means to slow typists down. In the beginning stages of the typewriter, people typed so quickly, that they often jammed the keys as they flew up to hit the typewriter ribbon. To prevent this, QWERTY was born to decrease typing efficiency and speed. This is why, rather than placing the most commonly used letters in convenient, central, finger placements, they are instead found in awkward locations, like the “A” key under the left pinkie finger. Likewise, the less commonly used letters are placed in the prime areas of the layout. Notice, for example how the “J” and “K” keys are under the right pointer and middle fingers. With these inconvenient placements, more than 50% of keystrokes take place on the top row, and roughly 30% take place on the bottom row. That means that less than 20% of all keystrokes occur where your fingers are centrally placed, the row commonly referred to as the “home row.” So if this layout is so inefficient and awkward, why are we still using it today?   The QWERTY layout has stuck with us for the past century for two reasons: it was the first established layout that everyone grew accustomed to and accepted; and when computers began to come into play, the leaders in the computer keyboard industry opted to keep the QWERTY layout on their manufactured keyboards- effectively binding generations of typists to an inefficient layout. When IBM and the other major manufacturers chose to stick with QWERTY, everyone else followed their lead. Thus they established the standard in layout design for decades to come- regardless of how inefficient and outdated.

Dvorak Simplified Layouts

The QWERTY model keyboard is still used today by some of the world’s fastest typists, but imagine how much faster and more efficient typing could be if the keys we use most often were under the strongest of our fingers in the easiest to access areas. That’s where Dvorak comes in. The Dvorak simplified layout was introduced in 1936 by Dr. August Dvorak and offers a keyboard layout that is more intuitive and efficient for modern typists. Dr. Dvorak conducted extensive research on the English language (and other languages using the Roman alphabet) and studied the physiology of the hand. Dr. Dvorak’s research brought forth not only the Dvorak layout, but also two additional keyboard layouts designed for people with one hand: one keyboard for those with only one right hand, and the other for those with only a left.

Dvorak’s keyboard for Left-Hand Only

Dvorak’s keyboard for right-hand only.

These single-handed keyboards allow one-handed typists to easily type 50 WPM. If he was able to design a keyboard easy for one-handed typists to use, imagine the functionality and efficiency possible for two-handed typists. On a Dvorak keyboard, all of the most commonly used characters fall under the “home row.” He placed the vowels: “A,” “O”, “E,” “U,” and “I,” under the left hand; and the letters: “D,” “H,” “T,” “N,” and “S,” under the right hand.   In addition to the awkward placement of common letters, the QWERTY design also requires the same finger to type common letter combinations, and the same hand to type common words. All of these elements aided in slowing down typists, to limiting typewriter jams. Dvorak noticed this speed bump and considered it for his simplified layout, where the same finger or hand isn’t required to type all of the characters in frequent letter combinations and words while the other fingers or hand sit idly.   The simplified Dvorak layout was slightly modified and adjusted over the years and finally solidified in 1982. The design requires less finger motion, which both increases typing speed and reduces finger strain. It is also supposedly much easier to learn since the characters fall in less awkward positions, and the most common letters are all lined up next to each other on the home row. Dvorak layouts never overcame the popularity of QWERTY layouts, even though Dvorak is compatible with almost all modern computer models (including Mac OS X , Microsoft Windows , Linux, and BSD-UNIX).   This goes to show the power and control that comes with simply being the first. In the eyes of the vast majority of the typing public, it’s “easier” to use the more difficult, and strain-inducing layout rather than start anew with something better. No matter how poorly QWERTY translates to modern typists, for many of us, it’s our “first language” and learning a new language takes a lot of time, dedication, and studying.

Other Specialty Layouts and Novelties: Colemak

The third most popular keyboard layout after QWERTY, then Dvorak, is the Colemak layout . Though this layout hasn’t reached as much of a fan base as the first two, it has gained some notoriety. Because only 17 keys differ from the QWERTY layout, this keyboard layout is fairly easy to relearn after years of QWERTY use. This has helped the Colemak layout to gain a following amongst typists who no longer want to adhere to an outdated QWERTY mode of typing, but are frustrated with the learning curve involved in readjusting to the Dvorak layout. Colemak is named after its creator, Shai Coleman, though Shai decided to match the last two letters to the Dvorak layout namesake (hence, Colemak), to perhaps appeal more to the alternative keyboard layout seeking community and draw some similarities between the two. This is the youngest of the three layouts discussed, though layout designs and updates continue to be tested and developed regularly. Due to the popularity of the three layouts discussed, all other options receive little to no recognition or public attention. The main focus of newer alternative keyboard layouts tends to be an emphasis on mixing the familiarity of QWERTY with the efficiency of Dvorak. Who knows what will evolve in the years to come, only time will tell.

Do you have a suggestion for a topic you’d like us to cover? Thanks for reading! Please stay tuned for the next installment.

• The Evolution of Keyboards
• The Science Behind Keyboard Design
• Mechanical vs. Membrane Keyboards
• Ergonomic Keyboards
• Guide to Choosing the Right Keyboard
• Comparing Keyboard Layouts
• Gaming Keyboards vs. Regular Keyboards
• Keyboard Care 101
• Keyboard Shortcuts to Enhance Productivity
• Impact of Keyboard Sounds on Productivity
• The Future of Keyboards

The Evolution of Keyboards: From Typewriters to Tech Marvels

Introduction.

The keyboard has journeyed from a humble mechanical device to an indispensable part of modern computing. This page explores the fascinating evolution of keyboards, highlighting key developments and innovations that have shaped the way we type today.

The Typewriter Era

The story of the keyboard begins with the typewriter . Invented in the 19th century, the typewriter was the first device to use a set of keys to imprint characters on paper. Pioneers like Christopher Sholes played a critical role in developing the early keyboard layout, including the creation of the QWERTY design, which remains the standard layout to this day.

Transition to Computing

As the digital age dawned, the keyboard evolved from a mechanical device to an electronic component of the computer. This transition marked a significant shift in design and functionality, adapting the keyboard to meet the demands of digital input.

Technological Milestones

Over the years, keyboards have seen numerous innovations:

• QWERTY Layout : The enduring layout designed for efficiency and speed.
• Ergonomic Designs : Introduction of keyboards designed to reduce strain and enhance comfort.
• Wireless Technology : Cutting-edge keyboards that eliminate the need for physical cables.
• Mechanical Switches : Providing tactile feedback and durability for heavy use.

Modern Keyboards

Today's keyboards are marvels of technology, offering features like:

• RGB Lighting : Adding a personalized aesthetic touch.
• Programmable Keys : For customized functionality.
• Diverse Layouts and Designs : Catering to different user preferences and needs.

The keyboard's evolution is a testament to human ingenuity and adaptability. From the typewriter to contemporary high-tech designs, keyboards have continually evolved to meet the changing needs of users. As we look to the future, the keyboard remains a fundamental part of our digital experience, constantly adapting and improving.

Explore more about the tools you use every day with our comprehensive guides and articles on key-test.com .

How Typewriters Changed Everything

Voice recognition technology is beginning to compete with typing. Would the end of typing change the business world forever?

After decades of development, voice recognition technology is beginning to compete with typing when it comes to sending texts, interacting with computers, and even writing whole articles. The end of typing could shake things up, judging from how much typing changed the world when it was first introduced.

In 1888, the typewriter as we know it was less than a decade old, but it was already changing the shape of the business world , according to an account by P.G. Hubert, Jr. published that year. “With the aid of this little machine an operator can accomplish more correspondence in a day than half a dozen clerks can with the pen, and do better work,” Hubert wrote. He noted that the machine had improved dramatically from an early form in 1874 that could only print capital letters, which “were more or less liable to get out of order.”

Citing “innumerable tests,” Hubert wrote that typewriters could save 40 minutes out of an hour, compared with the pen. And the growing ranks of businesses that depended on clerical workers had taken notice. The major typewriter maker, Remington—the creator of the QWERTY keyboard we all know and love —had gone from selling 1,400 typewriters in 1882 to 14,000 in 1887.

Remington manufactured the iconic new machine of business in the same factory that had built many of the revolvers used in the Civil War. The symbolism didn’t escape Hubert, who wrote: “In the old days the sword was forged into the ploughshare; in our day the gun has given way to the typewriter.”

This was an era when companies were beginning to hire women for clerical tasks, and Hubert noted that the new technology was a particular boon for female employment. He pointed out that typing generally paid as much or more as teaching, the main professional job open to women at the time.

Looking back at the typewriter’s early decades from the vantage point of 1986, Robert A. Waller also emphasized the economic and cultural changes the typewriter facilitated.  Businesses began to apply Fredrick Taylor’s ideas about scientific management to the office, leading to the creation of secretarial pools. Typewriters helped manufacturers’ business offices grow in tandem with faster production and more extensive transportation networks.

Meanwhile, the growing employment of single women gave them new economic power. New restaurants popped up catering to women workers. Some contemporary writers tied women’s growing employment in offices to the fight for suffrage, while some religious leaders decried the opportunities for sin created by the mixing of genders in the workplace.

Waller concludes that we ought to look at the typewriter as the equal of the telephone and the electric light in creating the new business world of the twentieth century.

“Overall, the nation’s characteristic mania that nothing is worth doing unless done quickly was accentuated by the speed with which the typewriter could perform writing chores,” he writes.

Today, that same mania could push us to shift away from typing altogether.

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The Origin of the Keyboard: A Historical Overview

Lillian Coomer July 28, 2023 Origin of the keyboard Comments Off on The Origin of the Keyboard: A Historical Overview 1 Views

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Throughout history, the keyboard has been an essential tool for human communication and interaction with technology. From typewriters to computer keyboards, this seemingly ubiquitous device has undergone numerous transformations in its design and functionality. Understanding the origin of the keyboard requires delving into a rich historical tapestry that spans centuries and encompasses various technological advancements.

One notable example of how the keyboard evolved can be seen in the transition from mechanical typewriters to electric ones. In the early 20th century, manual typewriters dominated offices and homes, demanding physical force to strike keys and imprint characters onto paper. However, as electricity became more readily available, inventors sought ways to enhance typewriter efficiency by introducing electrical components into their designs. This shift not only reduced typing effort but also paved the way for future developments in keyboard technology.

The Predecessors: Early Typing Machines

Imagine a world without the convenience of keyboards, where typing was a cumbersome and laborious task. Before the advent of modern keyboards, early typing machines laid the foundation for the efficient input devices we use today. This section explores the predecessors to keyboards, tracing their origins back to the 19th century.

In the mid-1800s, inventors sought ways to mechanize writing in order to increase productivity and improve legibility. One notable example is the Hansen Writing Ball, patented by Rasmus Malling-Hansen in 1867^[^1^]. This peculiar contraption featured a spherical design with keys arranged along its surface. While it never gained widespread popularity due to its complex structure and steep learning curve, this early attempt at creating a typing machine paved the way for subsequent innovations.

To understand these advancements further, let us delve into four key factors that influenced the development of early typing machines:

• Industrial Revolution : The rapid industrialization during this era spurred technological progress across various fields. As industries grew and communication became more crucial than ever before, there arose a need for faster methods of written correspondence.
• Demand for Efficiency : With an increasing demand for efficiency in business transactions and administrative tasks, typewriters emerged as potential solutions. Their ability to produce clear and uniform text made them highly desirable tools.
• Technological Innovations : Advancements in metalworking techniques enabled precision engineering necessary for constructing intricate mechanical parts within typing machines.
• Evolving User Requirements : Users desired simplicity, speed, and ease-of-use when it came to writing machines. Inventors took note of these demands while striving towards perfecting their creations.

To illustrate how early typing machines evolved over time, consider Table 1 below:

In summary, the development of early typing machines can be attributed to various factors such as industrialization, demands for efficiency, technological advancements, and evolving user requirements. The next section will delve into a pivotal moment in the history of keyboards: the invention of the first commercially successful typewriter by Christopher Latham Sholes and his associates.

The First Typewriter: The Sholes and Glidden

The early development of typing machines paved the way for the eventual creation of the keyboard as we know it today. These predecessors, though primitive in comparison to modern keyboards, laid the foundation for the standardized layout and functionality that would become integral to typewriters.

One notable predecessor was the Hansen Writing Ball invented by Rasmus Malling-Hansen in 1865. This peculiar-looking device featured a spherical arrangement of keys around a central point. Users typed by pressing down on each key individually, causing an arm with a corresponding letter at its end to strike against an inked ribbon and leave an imprint on paper. Although not widely adopted due to its complex design and high cost, the Hansen Writing Ball demonstrated that a practical writing machine was indeed possible.

To understand how these early typing machines influenced subsequent developments, let us consider four key aspects:

• Layout: Early models experimented with different layouts, including circular arrangements like Malling-Hansen’s invention or linear setups resembling piano keys.
• Mechanics: Typing machines incorporated various mechanical mechanisms such as levers, springs, and linkages to translate keystrokes into written characters.
• Keyboards vs Key-buttons : Some devices used buttons rather than individual keys; users pressed these buttons directly onto paper instead of using inked ribbons or carbon copies.
• Portability: While most early typing machines were large and cumbersome, some inventors sought to create portable versions suitable for use while traveling.

By examining these aspects across early typing machines through bullet points below:

• Different layouts tested (e.g., circular or linear)
• Various mechanical components utilized (levers, springs, linkages)
• Distinction between keyboards and key-buttons
• Attempts at creating portable devices

Additionally, we can illustrate this information visually through a table:

As we delve deeper into the history of typing machines, it becomes evident that these early predecessors played a crucial role in shaping the development and eventual standardization of keyboards. Understanding their influence is essential in tracing the evolution of this fundamental input device.

Transitioning seamlessly into ‘The First Typewriter: The Sholes and Glidden,’ we begin exploring how one particular invention propelled typewriters further along their evolutionary path.

The Remington Standard: The Rise of Typewriters

Following the invention of the typewriter by Henry Mill in 1714, it wasn’t until the mid-19th century that significant advancements were made in this technology. The breakthrough came with the creation of a practical and efficient machine known as the Sholes and Glidden typewriter. This section will delve into its development, impact, and features.

To understand the significance of the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, let us consider a hypothetical scenario. Imagine a bustling office environment filled with clerks feverishly transcribing business documents by hand. Each stroke of their pens is time-consuming and prone to errors, causing frustration among both employers and employees alike. However, with the introduction of the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, these inefficiencies are drastically reduced.

This revolutionary device boasted several notable features:

• Keyboard Layout: The QWERTY keyboard layout was introduced on this typewriter model. Designed to prevent key jams caused by frequently used letter combinations being close together, this layout has persisted despite advances in technology.
• Shift Key Functionality: For added versatility, the shift key allowed for upper case letters to be typed using metal typebars striking inked ribbons against paper.
• Carriage Return Mechanism: By incorporating a carriage return lever alongside an escapement mechanism, users could move onto new lines swiftly without interrupting their typing flow.
• Durability: Built from robust materials such as steel frames and cast iron components, this typewriter offered durability that ensured longevity even under heavy use.

In addition to these remarkable features, here is a bullet point list showcasing some emotional benefits experienced by users:

• Increased Efficiency: With faster typing speeds compared to handwriting, productivity soared within offices around the world.
• Improved Accuracy: Automatic alignment mechanisms prevented skewed or misaligned text commonly encountered when writing manually.
• Professional Appearance: Documents produced with this advanced machine exhibited a level of neatness and uniformity that impressed clients.
• Empowerment: The Sholes and Glidden typewriter provided opportunities for individuals, particularly women, to enter the workforce as skilled typists.

Consider the following table highlighting some key aspects of this innovative tool:

As we conclude our exploration into the Sholes and Glidden typewriter, it is evident that its introduction was a turning point in written communication. This section has shed light on the development of this revolutionary device, its impact on office environments, and its remarkable features. In our subsequent section, we will delve deeper into the evolution of typewriters from manual to electric models.

Typewriter Evolution: From Manual to Electric

The Remington Standard typewriter, with its innovative QWERTY keyboard layout, revolutionized the way people communicated in the late 19th century. However, as technology continued to advance, manual typewriters faced limitations that hindered productivity and efficiency. This led to a new era of typewriter evolution: the transition from manual to electric machines.

Imagine a bustling office in the early 20th century, filled with rows of typists pounding away at their keys. Among them is Sarah, a skilled typist who dreams of increasing her typing speed without straining her fingers. She yearns for a solution that can alleviate this physical strain while maintaining accuracy and precision.

Electric typewriters emerged as the answer to Sarah’s dilemma. These machines utilized electrical power to automate key pressing and reduce exertion on the part of the typist. The introduction of electric motors greatly enhanced typing speeds and reduced fatigue, making it easier for individuals like Sarah to meet demanding deadlines.

To better understand the advancements made during this period, let us examine some notable features that contributed to the popularity of electric typewriters:

• Automatic carriage return: Electric machines were equipped with an automatic carriage return feature that eliminated the need for manually pushing the carriage back after completing each line.
• Backspace key: Unlike their manual counterparts which lacked a dedicated backspace function, electric typewriters incorporated a convenient backspace key that allowed users to easily correct errors.
• Margin justification: With adjustable margins and automatic margin justification capabilities, electric typewriters facilitated neater document formatting by ensuring uniform alignment throughout.
• Ribbon reversal mechanism: Traditional ribbon cartridges required frequent replacement when one side became worn out. Electric typewriters overcame this inconvenience by introducing a ribbon reversal mechanism that extended ribbon usage before replacements were necessary.

As demand for faster and more efficient writing tools grew, manufacturers focused on refining existing designs and incorporating additional features into electric typewriters. This continuous innovation eventually paved the way for even more significant advancements in keyboard technology.

Transitioning from electric typewriters to modern computer keyboards would mark a pivotal moment in the evolution of typing devices. In the subsequent section, we will delve into the rise of the QWERTY keyboard layout and its enduring influence on contemporary input methods.

QWERTY Keyboard: The Dominant Layout

Imagine a bustling office in the late 1970s, filled with secretaries and typists clacking away on their word processors. These revolutionary machines marked a significant shift in keyboard technology, as they introduced electronic components that enhanced typing efficiency and convenience. This section explores the rise of word processors and their impact on keyboard design.

During this era, word processors evolved from being purely mechanical to incorporating electrical circuits for more advanced functionality. One example is the Wang OIS (Office Information System), which gained popularity due to its ability to store documents digitally. With this machine, typists could edit text before printing it out, saving time and reducing errors. The introduction of these early digital systems paved the way for future advancements in keyboard technology.

To better understand how word processors transformed keyboards during this period, let’s examine some key developments:

• Integration of memory modules: Word processors began incorporating memory modules that allowed users to save and retrieve documents electronically. This eliminated the need for physical storage media like paper or floppy disks.
• Enhanced editing capabilities: Compared to traditional typewriters, word processors offered features such as spell-checking and automatic formatting. These innovations not only improved accuracy but also increased productivity by eliminating manual proofreading tasks.
• Streamlined user interfaces: The introduction of display screens provided users with visual feedback while typing, allowing them to review and make corrections instantly. Additionally, function keys were incorporated into keyboards to provide one-touch access to common commands.

Now let’s delve deeper into these changes by examining a comparison table showcasing the differences between traditional typewriters and innovative word processors:

As word processors gained popularity, their impact on keyboard design extended beyond just the office environment. These machines revolutionized how people interacted with text, laying the groundwork for future innovations in personal computing.

Transitioning into the subsequent section about “The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard: A Contender,” we can observe that even during this era of word processors, alternative keyboard layouts were being developed to challenge the dominance of QWERTY.

The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard: A Contender

From QWERTY to Dvorak: A Shift in Keyboard Layouts

Imagine a scenario where you are typing an important document on your computer, constantly battling with typos and struggling to maintain a steady rhythm. Frustration sets in as you realize that the layout of your keyboard may be hindering your productivity. This is precisely the predicament faced by many individuals who seek alternatives to the dominant QWERTY keyboard layout. In this section, we will explore one such alternative—the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard—and its potential to challenge the supremacy of QWERTY.

The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard, developed by Dr. August Dvorak and his brother-in-law Dr. William Dealey in the 1930s, aims to address some of the limitations associated with QWERTY. The layout was designed based on extensive research into typing efficiency, considering factors such as finger travel distance and hand movement patterns. By rearranging the keys according to frequency of use and optimizing finger placement, Dvorak sought to create a more intuitive and efficient typing experience.

To better understand how the Dvorak layout differs from QWERTY, let us examine some key features:

• Ergonomics : The Dvorak keyboard places commonly used vowels on the left-hand side and frequently used consonants on the right-hand side, reducing strain on either hand during prolonged typing sessions.
• Efficiency : With over 70% of keystrokes occurring on the home row—a central row containing letters like A, S, D—Dvorak emphasizes placing common letters closer together for faster access.
• Transition Difficulty : Switching from QWERTY to Dvorak involves a significant learning curve since familiar muscle memory must be retrained. However, proponents argue that once mastered, users can achieve higher speeds and reduced fatigue due to improved ergonomics.
• Compatibility : While the Dvorak layout is not standard on most devices, it can typically be enabled through software settings, allowing users to adapt their keyboards accordingly.

Despite its potential advantages, widespread adoption of the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard has been limited. The dominance of QWERTY in the market, coupled with resistance from established typing organizations and infrastructure investments in QWERTY-based systems, has hindered full-scale implementation. Nevertheless, alternative keyboard layouts like Dvorak continue to inspire discussions about optimizing productivity and user comfort.

Moving forward, we will explore key layouts around the world that are tailored to specific languages and cultural contexts—a testament to the diverse ways in which people interact with technology and communicate globally.

Key Layouts Around the World: Language-Specific Designs

The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard, with its ergonomic design and claims of increased typing efficiency, posed a formidable challenge to the dominance of the QWERTY layout. However, it was not the only alternative that emerged during this period. Various language-specific designs began gaining traction around the world as different countries sought to adapt keyboards to suit their unique linguistic requirements.

One example of such adaptation can be seen in Japan, where the JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards) keyboard layout was developed. With three character sets—Roman letters for English input, hiragana for native Japanese words, and katakana for loanwords—the JIS layout efficiently accommodates both languages on a single keyboard. This case study highlights an important aspect of keyboard evolution: the need to cater to diverse linguistic needs within a given region.

• Enhanced ease of use for speakers of specific languages.
• Increased productivity due to reduced keystrokes or optimized placement.
• Improved accessibility for individuals with physical disabilities.
• Preservation and promotion of cultural heritage through script-specific designs.

Additionally, we present a table showcasing some notable examples of language-specific keyboard layouts:

Through these adaptations, keyboards play a crucial role in enabling effective communication across various languages and cultures. By tailoring key arrangements according to unique linguistic demands, users can type more comfortably and efficiently while preserving their cultural identities.

Transitioning seamlessly into our next section about multilingual keyboards adapting to different scripts…

Multilingual Keyboards: Adapting to Different Scripts

From QWERTY to AZERTY: Key Layouts Around the World

In exploring the history of keyboards, it is important to examine how key layouts have evolved around the world. While the QWERTY layout dominates in many English-speaking countries, different language-specific designs have emerged throughout history. One such example is the AZERTY layout used primarily in French-speaking regions.

The AZERTY keyboard layout, named after the first six letters on its top row, was developed as a way to accommodate the unique needs of French typists. This layout differs from QWERTY by rearranging several keys and adding specific characters commonly used in French writing. For instance, accents frequently found in the French language are directly accessible without requiring additional keystrokes or shortcuts.

To better understand how different languages shape keyboard layouts, let us consider some notable characteristics:

• Efficiency: Keyboards designed for certain languages aim to improve typing speed and reduce finger movement by placing frequently used characters within easy reach.
• Cultural Considerations: Language-specific keyboards often reflect cultural norms and values. They may incorporate symbols or special characters that hold significance within particular communities.
• Standardization Challenges: Harmonizing key layouts across various languages presents significant challenges due to linguistic differences and varying requirements specific to each script.
• Adaptability: Modern technology allows users to switch between multiple key layouts with ease, allowing for multilingual functionality and catering to diverse user preferences.

To illustrate these points further, refer to Table 1 below highlighting some distinct features of selected language-specific keyboard layouts:

Table 1: Examples of Language-Specific Keyboard Layouts

Examining the evolution of key layouts around the world provides valuable insights into how keyboards have adapted to meet the specific needs of different languages. In our next section, we will delve into the challenges faced in creating multilingual keyboards that can accommodate a wide range of scripts.

Mechanical Keyboards: The Clickety-Clack Era

The development of multilingual keyboards has been crucial in enabling individuals from diverse linguistic backgrounds to interact with technology more effectively. A notable case study that exemplifies the significance of adapting keyboards to different scripts is the evolution of the Arabic keyboard layout. Prior to its introduction, Arabic-speaking users faced numerous challenges when typing on standard QWERTY keyboards due to the fundamental differences between the two writing systems.

To address this issue, a specialized Arabic keyboard layout was devised, incorporating modifications tailored specifically for the Arabic script. This adaptation involved rearranging keys and assigning multiple characters to each key through the use of diacritics. These adjustments enabled a smoother and more intuitive typing experience for native Arabic speakers, facilitating greater efficiency and accuracy in written communication.

When considering the broader context of multilingual keyboards, several factors come into play:

Cultural Sensitivity: Multilingual keyboard layouts should take into account cultural norms and preferences regarding text input methods. By accommodating specific language requirements, these keyboards demonstrate respect for diversity and promote inclusivity.

Linguistic Considerations: Each language possesses unique phonetic characteristics and grammar rules that influence how it is typed. Designing multilingual keyboards requires careful attention to such nuances, ensuring accurate representation of various languages while maintaining ease of use.

User Experience Optimization: The goal of multilingual keyboard design is not only to enable efficient typing but also to enhance user experience by minimizing errors and reducing cognitive load associated with switching between different layouts or scripts.

Technological Advancements: As technological capabilities evolve, so do multilingual keyboards. With advancements like predictive text algorithms and machine learning models, these keyboards can provide increasingly accurate suggestions and adapt better to individual user preferences.

In light of these considerations, it becomes evident that developing multilingual keyboard layouts necessitates an understanding of both linguistic intricacies as well as cultural sensitivities present within diverse communities worldwide.

The advent of mechanical keyboards marked a significant milestone in the evolution of keyboard technology. Unlike their rubber dome counterparts, mechanical keyboards utilize individual switches beneath each keycap, resulting in a distinct tactile feedback and audible click with every keystroke.

1 | Enhanced Typing Experience: The satisfying tactile response and auditory feedback offered by mechanical keyboards often result in improved typing speed and accuracy. This aspect has made them popular among writers, programmers, and other individuals who engage in extensive text input tasks.

2 | Durability: Mechanical keyboards are renowned for their durability and longevity. Due to the robustness of the individual switch mechanisms, these keyboards can withstand heavy usage over extended periods without experiencing a decline in performance.

3 | Customizability: Enthusiasts appreciate the customizability options provided by mechanical keyboards. From choosing different types of switches with varying actuation forces to personalizing keycaps and backlighting effects, users can tailor their typing experience according to their preferences.

4 | Nostalgic Appeal: For many users, particularly those familiar with older computer systems or vintage typewriters, the distinctive clickety-clack sound produced by mechanical keyboards evokes nostalgia and adds an element of charm to the overall computing experience.

In summary, multilingual keyboard layouts accommodate diverse linguistic needs while promoting cultural sensitivity. On the other hand, mechanical keyboards have gained popularity due to enhanced typing experiences, increased durability, customizability options, and nostalgic appeal associated with their unique characteristics. As we transition into exploring membrane keyboards as a quieter alternative in the subsequent section

Membrane Keyboards: A Quiet Alternative

From the Clickety-Clack Era to a Quiet Alternative

As mechanical keyboards dominated the market, manufacturers began exploring alternatives that could provide users with a quieter typing experience. The rise of membrane keyboards in the late 1980s offered just that – a less noisy option without compromising functionality and durability.

One can imagine a bustling office environment where the symphony of keystrokes on mechanical keyboards fills the air. However, for those seeking tranquility amidst productivity, the introduction of membrane keyboards was met with enthusiasm. These keyboards utilize a different mechanism, replacing individual switches found in mechanical keyboards with pressure pads underneath each key. When a key is pressed down, it activates an electrical circuit through two membranes layered together, resulting in contact registration.

To better understand why membrane keyboards gained popularity, let us explore some notable advantages they offer:

• Silence : Membrane keyboards emit significantly lower noise levels compared to their mechanical counterparts, making them suitable for environments where silence is valued.
• Affordability : With fewer moving parts and simpler construction than mechanical keyboards, membrane models are often more cost-effective to manufacture and purchase.
• Durability : Due to their sealed structure, membrane keyboards tend to be resistant to dust and liquid spills, providing improved protection against accidental damage.
• Customization Options : Manufacturers have leveraged advances in technology to introduce backlighting features and customizable designs into membrane keyboard models.

This shift from clickety-clack to quiet revolutionized the way people interacted with their computers. As consumers sought ergonomic solutions that allowed for comfortable extended use, designers recognized the importance of incorporating user-friendly elements into keyboard design. Ergonomics became paramount as individuals spent increasing amounts of time using computers daily.

Transition: With comfort at the forefront of design considerations…

Designing for Comfort: Ergonomics in Keyboards

As technology continued to advance, the need for keyboards that provided not only functionality but also comfort became increasingly important. The design of keyboards began to focus on ergonomics, aiming to reduce strain and promote a more natural typing experience. One notable case study that exemplifies this shift is the introduction of split keyboards.

Split keyboards are designed with a separation between the left and right halves, allowing users to position their hands in a more relaxed and neutral posture. This innovative design helps alleviate muscle tension and can potentially reduce the risk of repetitive strain injuries like carpal tunnel syndrome. By adapting the keyboard layout to match the natural alignment of our wrists, split keyboards offer a unique solution that prioritizes user comfort without compromising functionality.

To better understand how ergonomics has influenced keyboard designs over time, let’s explore some key considerations taken into account by manufacturers:

• Key Placement : Manufacturers have meticulously studied finger movements during typing sessions to ensure optimal placement of keys. By strategically positioning frequently used keys within easy reach, ergonomic keyboards aim to minimize unnecessary hand movement and decrease fatigue.
• Wrist Support : Many modern keyboards feature built-in wrist rests or detachable ones to provide additional support while typing. These padded surfaces help maintain proper wrist alignment and prevent excess pressure on sensitive areas.
• Adjustability : Recognizing that individuals have different preferences and body types, manufacturers have introduced adjustable features such as tilting mechanisms or variable height settings. These customizable options allow users to find their most comfortable typing position and reduce stress on their muscles and joints.
• Quiet Operation : In response to concerns about noise pollution in office environments, keyboard designers have developed quieter keystroke technologies that produce less sound when pressed. This innovation enhances both user experience and overall workplace tranquility.

Emphasizing user well-being through ergonomic design principles has revolutionized the way we interact with keyboards today. The incorporation of split keyboards and other ergonomic features has not only improved comfort but also increased productivity by reducing physical strain. As technology continues to evolve, the focus on designing keyboards with ergonomics in mind remains crucial.

Transitioning into the subsequent section about “Virtual Keyboards: Typing in the Digital Age,” it is evident that advancements in technology have impacted more than just physical keyboard design. With the rise of touchscreen devices and virtual interfaces, typing has taken on a whole new dimension.

H2: Virtual Keyboards: Typing in the Digital Age

Building upon the advancements in keyboard design to enhance user comfort, virtual keyboards have emerged as a popular alternative in the digital age. By eliminating physical keys and utilizing touch-sensitive interfaces, these virtual keyboards offer increased flexibility and convenience. This section will explore the evolution of virtual keyboards and their impact on modern typing practices.

Virtual Keyboards: Enhancing Typing Experience To illustrate the benefits of virtual keyboards, let us consider a hypothetical scenario where an individual is using a tablet with a touch-screen interface. Instead of relying on traditional physical keys, they can effortlessly type by tapping directly on the screen. This innovative approach not only allows for seamless integration with various devices but also improves portability and usability.

• Enhanced mobility due to reduced size and weight.
• Customizable layouts cater to different language preferences.
• Reduced risk of repetitive strain injuries associated with traditional keyboards.
• Accessibility features such as adaptable font sizes benefit users with visual impairments.

The Rise of Virtual Keyboards As technology continues to advance, so does the popularity of virtual keyboards. With smartphones becoming ubiquitous, people are increasingly reliant on touch-screen devices that employ virtual keyboards as their primary input method. Additionally, tablets and other portable gadgets often favor this innovation due to its compact nature and adaptability.

Furthermore, virtual keyboards have revolutionized text input for individuals with physical disabilities. Features such as predictive text and voice recognition have made typing more accessible to those who struggle with traditional keyboards. The widespread adoption of virtual keyboards in different sectors, including healthcare, education, and business, further exemplifies their significance in modern society.

In summary, the advent of virtual keyboards has transformed the way we interact with technology. By offering increased mobility, customization options, ergonomic benefits, and improved accessibility features, these digital interfaces continue to shape the future of typing experiences. As technology progresses further, it is crucial to recognize the impact that Virtual Keyboards have had on enhancing our digital interactions while catering to a diverse range of user needs.

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The Evolution of Typing Machines: Historical Keyboard Origins

The invention of the typing machine revolutionized written communication, enabling individuals to produce text at …

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Shift happens: Writing about the history of keyboards

After discovering that a history of keyboards— from typewriters to iPhones—had yet to be written, designer and typographer Marcin Wichary got to work.

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When the designer and typographer Marcin Wichary stumbled upon a tiny museum just outside Barcelona five years ago, the experience tipped his interest in the history of technology into an obsession with a very particular part of it: the keyboard. 

“I have never seen so many typewriters under one roof. Not even close,” he shared on Twitter at the time. “At this point, I literally have tears in my eyes. I’m not kidding. This feels like a miracle.”

He’d had a revelation while wandering through the exhibit: Each key on a keyboard has its own stories. And these stories are not just about computing technology, but also about the people who designed, used, or otherwise interacted with the keyboards. 

Take the backspace key, he explains: “I like that [the concept of] backspace was originally just that—a  space  going  backward.  We are used to it erasing now, but for a hundred years, erasing was its own incredibly complex endeavor. You needed to master a Comet eraser, or Wite-Out, or strange correction tapes, and possibly all of the above … or give up and start from scratch whenever you made a typo.” 

These days, even the cheapest desk keyboard is in some way “ergonomic,” allowing for reduced effort and improved response compared with even the best of the mechanical and electric typewriters that preceded them. But some keyboards go further than most, rotating or tenting their respective halves to allow a less stressful hand and arm position.

Some keyboards enable communication between people who might find that difficult. Shown here are a simple keyboard connected to a singular Braille cell; a typewriter making it possible to print in Braille; and a machine that allowed people who are hard of hearing to type over telephone wires.

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The Past, Present and Future of Keyboard Sizes and Layouts

• by history tools
• March 25, 2024

Keyboards have evolved dramatically over the last century, from the early typewriter-inspired designs to the wide range of compact, customizable and wireless models we see today. Understanding this evolution along with the ergonomic considerations, customization options and emerging trends paints a fuller picture and better informs keyboard purchases. This comprehensive guide approaches the subject from both a historical and future-gazing perspective.

The History of Keyboard Sizes and Layouts

Keyboards originated from typewriter layouts in the late 19th century. The QWERTY design emerged as the standard, included with the earliest computer terminals and mass-marketed personal computers in the 1970s and 80s. This cemented QWERTY as the de facto typing standard, though it was notoriously inefficient.

Early computer keyboards mimicked the wide footprints of typewriters to accommodate spool spacing, resulting in large gaps between key clusters. But by the mid-1990s, keyboards with space-saving compact layouts began gaining popularity in Japan for use with handheld devices and early laptops.

This sparked a wave of innovation around shrinking keyboard sizes while retaining usability. By the 2000s the first 60% and tenkeyless designs emerged, paving the way for contemporary compact layouts.

The exploding mobile revolution of the 2010s then drove rapid innovation in wireless and portable keyboards paired with tablets and phones. Bluetooth removed wires from the equation entirely. And enthusiasts began taking keyboard customization to new heights with DIY kits and mods.

Current State of Keyboard Sizes and Layouts

The keyboard market in 2023 offers greater choice than ever across sizes, layouts and customization options. Let‘s analyze the data landscape:

Global Keyboard Shipments by Size

Compact keyboard share is growing over 6% annually, pointing to a shift in demand for more space-efficient boards. Yet full-size and TKL still dominate overall volume.

Regional Layout Statistics

While ANSI rules North America, ISO and JIS layouts understandably skew towards Europe and Asian markets respectively based on localization needs.

Efficiency Gain of Alt Layouts vs QWERTY

Per research studies, alternative legend arrangements offer noticeable speed boosts through optimized letter placement. But QWERTY persists due to legacy adoption.

Ergonomic Experts on Healthy Typing

"Moderate wrist support, coupled with an angle between 20-25° allows gravity to pull the hands down rather than the user pushing up. This reduces strain." – Dr. Ken Levangie, PT

"Split designs properly space left and right hands, promoting neutral postures. Ortholinear layouts meanwhile mirror natural key reach zones." – Dr. Tyisha Fernandes, OT

"Columnar staggering places keys where fingers fall instead of forcing unnatural lateral reaches. A more natural relaxation of the digits." – Dr. Relly Union, Hand Surgery

Incorporating ergonomic principles in keyboard design is crucial for comfort during prolonged typing sessions. From integrated wrist rests to optimized layouts and key placements, prioritizing physiology promotes productivity by avoiding fatigue, strain or injury.

Macro Recording & Rebinding

Programmability extends keyboard functionality beyond simple typing. Modern boards allow complex macros for multi-key sequences while gaming gear permits rebinding keys. This customizability streamlines workflows.

The Future of Keyboards

Multiple trends point to continued evolution in the keyboard market:

Miniaturization – Continued appetite for ever more compact designs while retaining usability.

Split & Columnar – Ortholinear and split keyboards gaining mainstream appeal for their ergonomic profiles.

Niche Layout Adoption – Growth projected for alternative layouts as knowledge spreads.

Posture Focus – Expect integrate wrist rests, angles and palm lifts to prevent RSI.

Customization – Demand rising for switch choices, keycaps and tuning mods.

Wireless Dominance – Over 60% of keyboards sold will cut the cord as Bluetooth ubiquity rises.

AR/VR Integration – Advanced functions may migrate to virtual keyboards paired with headsets.

While the core QWERTY keyset staying constant due to legacy adoption, we anticipate innovation in other areas enhancing efficiency, customization, comfort and connectivity approaches. Users stand to benefit thanks to specialization across size factors and use cases.

Final Thoughts

Keyboards have come a long way from the early typewriters inspiring their layouts and sizes. As computers shrunk from room-sized mainframes to compact portables, so did keyboards adapt with condensed formats. And developments will continue as ergonomics, customization options and niche layouts capture user attention while wireless connectivity removes wire clutter. The future promises keyboards tailored more than ever to specific requirements across data entry, gaming, coding and general office use.

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The First Typewriters

History of Typewriters, Typing, and Qwerty Keyboards

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A typewriter is a small machine, either electric or manual, with type keys that produced characters one at a time on a piece of paper inserted around a roller. Typewriters have been largely replaced by personal computers and home printers.

Christopher Sholes

Christopher Sholes was an American mechanical engineer, born on February 14, 1819, in Mooresburg, Pennsylvania, and died on February 17, 1890, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He invented the first practical modern typewriter in 1866, with the financial and technical support of his business partners Samuel Soule and Carlos Glidden. Five years, dozens of experiments, and two patents later, Sholes and his associates produced an improved model similar to today's typewriters.

The Sholes typewriter had a type-bar system and the universal keyboard was the machine's novelty, however, the keys jammed easily. To solve the jamming problem, another business associate, James Densmore, suggested splitting up keys for letters commonly used together to slow down typing. This became today's standard "QWERTY" keyboard.

Remington Arms Company

Christopher Sholes lacked the patience required to market a new product and decided to sell the rights to the typewriter to James Densmore. He, in turn, convinced Philo Remington (the rifle manufacturer) to market the device. The first "Sholes & Glidden Typewriter" was offered for sale in 1874 but was not an instant success. A few years later, improvements made by Remington engineers gave the typewriter machine its market appeal and sales skyrocketed.

Typewriter Trivia

• George K. Anderson of Memphis, Tennessee patented the typewriter ribbon on 9/14/1886.
• The first electric typewriter was the Blickensderfer.
• In 1944, IBM designs the first typewriter with proportional spacing.
• Pellegrine Tarri made an early typewriter that worked in 1801 and invented carbon paper in 1808.
• In 1829, William Austin Burt invents the typographer, a predecessor to the typewriter.
• Mark Twain enjoyed and made use of new inventions, he was the first author to submit a typewritten manuscript to his publisher.
• The History of the Computer Keyboard
• The Brief History of Smartphones
• The History of Computer Peripherals: From the Floppy Disk to CDs
• The Early History of Communication
• Interrobang (Punctuation)
• Today in History: Inventions, Patents, and Copyrights
• How to Type German Characters on Your Computer
• Handwriting
• The History of Transportation
• A Brief History of the Invention of Plastics
• A Brief History of Adidas
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• How to Type Accents in Italian on a Keyboard
• A Brief History of the Age of Exploration
• What Do German Keyboards Look Like?
• History of Computer Printers

Computer History: From The Antikythera Mechanism To The Modern Era

In this article, we shed light on the most important moments in computer history, acknowledging the people that have contributed to this evolution.

Keyboards And Mice

• Page 1: Introduction
• Page 2: The Antikythera Mechanism
• Page 3: The Pascaline And Other Early Calculators
• Page 4: Babbage's Analytical Engine, Ada Lovelace And Programming
• Page 5: IBM In Its Early Years
• Page 6: The Triode, Transistor And Op-Amp
• Page 7: Alan Turing And The COLOSSUS
• Page 8: Claude Shannon's Master Thesis
• Page 9: The First Electronic Digital Special-Purpose Computer
• Page 10: Harvard Mark Ι
• Page 11: Stibitz's Complex Number Calculator And Nordsieck's Differential Analyzer
• Page 12: Konrad Zuse's Z Series Computers & Plankalkül Programming Language
• Page 13: The First Bug In Computer History
• Page 14: ENIAC And EDVAC Computers
• Page 15: UNIVersal Automatic Computer I - UNIVAC I
• Page 16: Big Blue Makes Its Entry In The Computer Market
• Page 17: Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE)
• Page 18: TX-0, DEC PDP-1, The Hacking Ethic And Other DEC Computers
• Page 19: Cray Supercomputers
• Page 20: The Information Technology Revolution - The First Processors (CPUs)
• Page 21: Xerox PARC And ALTO Computer
• Page 22: The Era Of Microcomputers: ALTAIR 8800 And Other Early Computers
• Page 23: Apple I And II: Switching PSU And The Lack Of Cooling Fans
• Page 24: Commodore PET And TRS-80
• Page 25: VisiCalc's Revolution And IBM's Entrance Into The Personal Computer Market
• Page 26: ZX SPECTRUM: The Home Computer Era Begins
• Page 27: Commodore 64 And CP/M
• Page 28: Amstrad 464, 664 And 6128
• Page 29: Atari 520ST And 1040ST(F)
• Page 30: ATARI TOS, (Mega) STE, TT And The Jaguar Gaming Console
• Page 31: Commodore Amiga
• Page 32: Intel 80386 And The Attack Of The Clone PCs - Acorn Archimedes
• Page 33: NeXT Cube
• Page 34: The First Graphics Processing Units (GPUs)
• Page 35: The First Video Games And Game Consoles
• Page 36: Video Games And Game Consoles Of The 1980s, 1990s And Beyond
• Page 37: Keyboards And Mice
• Page 38: Epilogue

The first typewriter was introduced in 1860, and the term was also used to describe the person who operated the machine. Naturally, the layout of keyboards originates from the early typewriters, since there was no need to reinvent the wheel.

The Sholes & Glidden company established the QWERTY  layout in 1874 and since then it has been the standard layout for all English-language keyboards. There is an urban legend that the QWERTY layout actually makes typing slower and it does so because in the early days typewriters broke down frequently when someone typed very fast. This layout probably isn't the most optimal for the English language because you have to move your fingers between rows to type the most common letters, but it was actually invented to increase typing speed, not to slow users down.

The second common keyboard layout is the Dvorak , however it hasn't managed to replace QWERTY yet, although many popular operating systems support it.

The keyboard has been the basic input device for computers for many decades now, and this will probably remain unchanged for years to come.

Mice (AKA Computer Mouse)

The pointing device that reflects a hand's 2D movement through the form of a pointer on a computer screen is called a mouse. The same device also features buttons and a rolling wheel, in order to enhance its functionality and allow for more controls.

The late Douglas Carl Engelbart is recognized as the inventor of the computer mouse. The same inventor took part in the development of hypertext, computer networking and the GUI interface, which clearly shows his great role in the human-computer interaction field. Engelbart, along with another engineer named Bill English, created the first computer mouse in the 1960s. In the corresponding patent the device was described as the "X-Y position indicator for a display system."   It was called a mouse later on because the cable resembled a mouse's tail. Obviously, there were no wireless mice in those days.

The German company Telefunken also invented a mouse in 1968, however the company believed that this device was too small to apply for a patent. Surely a regrettable decision.

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One of the first computers that used a mouse was the Xerox Alto in 1973. And the first widely available mice were offered by Microsoft in 1983, when Microsoft Word offered mouse compatibility. Nonetheless, the mouse started to become popular thanks to the Apple Macintosh 128K (1984) and the Atari ST computers (1985).

Long before the invention of mice, trackballs were used mostly in military applications. The first trackball device was invented in 1941 by Ralph Benjamin for a radar plotting system.

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Aris Mpitziopoulos is a Contributing Editor at Tom's Hardware US, covering PSUs.

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The History of Typewriters

Early Versions

In 1714, Henry Mill patented the first writing machine, which he called a “Machine for Transcribing Letters.” Little is known about his machine, however, and it appears that it may never have been built. More than a century later, an American named William Burt invented the first typographer, a precursor to the typewriter, in 1830. His machine used a dial to select letters rather than individual keys. Although Burt created the machine to help him increase efficiency in his job as a government surveyor, the dial design made it slow going, so it was not a very practical solution.

The First Typewriter

The first typewriter was patented by Christopher Latham Sholes in 1868. During the summer of 1867, Sholes worked with machinist Samuel W. Soulé and fellow inventor Carlos Glidden to develop the machine. By 1873, they had created 50 units, but because they were unable to sell them, they sold the production rights to gun manufacturer Philo Remington. In 1874, the first Remington typewriter appeared. It was sold by E. Remington & Sons and featured only capital letters. Four years later, the Remington No. 2 debuted; it was the first typewriter to offer both uppercase and lowercase letters.

The QWERTY Key Layout

Perhaps the most lasting impact of the typewriter is the QWERTY key layout. It was invented by Sholes as a way to reduce key jamming on his typewriter. He originally tried an alphabetic layout but ran into issues with jamming. But when he moved three of the most common letters (E, T, and A) to the left-hand side, he found that the layout slowed typists down enough to avoid jamming. In 1932, the rival Dvorak keyboard was introduced by William Dealey and August Dvorak. Their alternative layout made typing faster and more accurate, but it never caught on because the QWERTY layout was already so entrenched. And indeed, we still use the QWERTY key layout today on computer keyboards and cellphones all over the world!

An Explosion in Popularity

In the 1890s, John Thomas Underwood, a Remington competitor, purchased the rights to a new typewriter design from an inventor named Franz Xavier Wagner. The Underwood 1 debuted in 1896 and was the first typewriter to bear the design we are familiar with today. Underwood typewriters were known for their superior engineering and quickly gained popularity. In 1897, the US Navy purchased 250 units. By 1915, Underwood typewriters were everywhere. They were so in demand that the company employed 7,500 workers and produced 500 typewriters each day.

A Noisy Problem

The iconic clickity-clack sound we associate with typewriters was almost eradicated early on. Thankfully for clickity-clack enthusiasts everywhere, the attempt was unsuccessful. In the early 20 th century, typewriters were becoming the norm in workplaces. They were also creating a lot of noise. The Noiseless Typewriter Company tried to solve the issue when they debuted their first machine in 1917. However, it failed to live up to its name and it did not sell well, so the characteristic clickity-clack sound of typewriters endured.

Electric Typewriters

Between World War I and World War II, electric typewriters that used a motor to power the typebar emerged. Although they wouldn’t fully catch on until the 1950s, they started to gain prominence in the 1930s. The Electromagnetic Typewriter was the most noteworthy of these early models, and in 1933, IBM purchased the company. Two years later, in 1935, IBM released the first successful electric typewriter, the IBM Model 01. The Model 01’s powered operation and relatively closer key layout allowed for lighter and more efficient keystrokes. In 1961, IBM released the Selectric typewriter that featured different fonts, italics, and languages. For the first time, typewriter keys began to resemble the modern computer keyboard we are familiar with today.

Word Processors, Computers & The Decline of the Typewriter

In 1964, IBM further improved on their own design with the Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter, which allowed for document editing and reprinting. It was, in effect, the world’s first word processor. The Selectric II came out in 1971, and the final model, the Selectric III, premiered in the 1980s. Although computers began to take over beginning in the 1980s, typewriter innovations continued well into the 21 st century. In fact, the last Brother typewriter was made in 2012. And while many of us today consider typewriters to be just another piece of antiquated technology, they still play a role in the modern world. For example, many writers prefer to use typewriters to avoid the distractions that come with writing on a computer. Vintage typewriters are preserved in the homes of influential writers like Rudyard Kipling, Ian Fleming, and Mark Twain, who was the first author to submit a book manuscript that had been typed on a typewriter. There is also a brisk market for antique typewriters today, and many people enjoy collecting these vintage machines.

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History of the Computer Keyboard

Most of us probably use one every day – even on mobile devices such as phones and tablets. However, have you ever wondered why the letters on a computer keyboard are not placed in alphabetical order? How did the layout of the computer keyboard really originate? 

The first semblance of a computer keyboard was in the invention of the typewriter. In 1868, Christopher Latham Sholes patented the first modern typewriter. Nine years later, in 1877, the Remington Company mass produced the first typewriters. These were then further developed to become the first standard computer keyboard just like the ones we use today. 

Teletype Machine

The teletype machine was one of the earliest breakthroughs in keyboard technology. It was created sometime in the mid-1800s. Over the course of the century, many inventors helped to develop and improve it, including Charles L. Krum, David Edward Hughes, Donald Murray, Edward Kleinschmidt, Emile Baudot, Frederick G. Creed and Royal Earl House. However, it was largely due to the work of Charles Krum from 1907 to 1910 that the teletype machine was adapted and made practical for the everyday user. 

QWERTY Layout

The QWERTY keyboard layout was patented in 1878 by Sholes and his partner James Densmore. Although there are several beliefs as to why this particular keyboard layout was developed, one explanation is that the QWERTY layout was meant to reduce the physical limitations of typewriters at that time. On early typewriters, typists would press a key that pushed a metal hammer to strike an inked ribbon, which would then mark the keyed character on a paper before the hammer returned to its rest position. The problem with this mechanism was that when common pairs of letters were keyed together, the mechanism could potentially jam. Separating these letters would minimize jamming of the mechanism and make the typewriter run smoother. 

Dvorak Layout

The Dvorak keyboard layout was patented in 1936 by Dr August Dvorak and his brother-in-law, William Dealey. The keyboard took 12 years to perfect, and was developed through extensive study of languages that used the Roman alphabet, the physiology of the hand and numerous practical studies. This layout aims to be faster and more ergonomic than the QWERTY default. Dvorak users believe this keyboard requires less finger motion, thus reducing errors, increasing typing speed and reducing injuries from repetitive finger motion, such as carpal tunnel syndrome. 

Dvorak has not replaced QWERTY for a number of reasons. Some say that it was due to the second World War occurring shortly after the Dvorak keyboard was patented. Others believe that by the time Dvorak was patented, most typewriters were already using QWERTY, and to change them would be costly and inefficient. Moreover, most people were probably already used to typing using QWERTY and did not feel the need to change. However, there are still dedicated Dvorak typists today, and most operating systems offer the option to change your keyboard mapping to Dvorak. 

Keypunch Technology

The 1930s saw the invention of new technologies that attempted to combine typewriters with telegraphs, creating a new keyboard model that was able to register input and print an output while also able to communicate like the telegraph. Additionally, a new innovation was created that combined punch card systems with typewriters. This technology, called keypunches, was further developed into the early calculator (known at that time as “adding machines”). These early calculators were hugely successful – by 1931, IBM had already sold more than $1 million worth of adding machines. 

Keypunching was integrated into early computer designs, such as the Eniac computer in 1946. Two years later, the Binac computer was developed, which used an input system consisting of an electro-mechanically controlled typewriter that fed inputs onto magnetic tape. This contributed to the birth of the electric typewriter, taking technology one step further to developing the modern computer. 

The First Computer Screens

In 1964, MIT, Bell Laboratories and General Electric collaborated to create a computer system called Multics, which allowed for time-sharing and multi-user operation. A user interface was developed for this system which made use of the cathode ray tube technology being used in televisions at that time. This created a display screen for the computer which was called a video display terminal. The text that the user was typing would be displayed on the screen, making it much easier for people to create, edit and delete text. 

Personal Data Assistants

The early teletype machines and keypunches had one major drawback – since they made use of so many electro-mechanical steps to transmit simple data between the keyboard and the computer, they were considerably slow. With the development of electric keyboards and video display terminals, keyboards could now send electronic impulses directly to the computer, thus speeding up the process and saving time. As such, computers were largely adapted to use these technologies by the early 1980s. 

In 1991, Hewlett-Packard introduced the first handheld device that enabled mobile computing, the HP95LX. It was basically a handheld computer, compact enough to carry along, and even came with its own small QWERTY keyboard – although it was difficult to type quickly due to the keyboard’s size. Nobody had coined the term “personal data assistant” yet then, but the HP95LX would be the first. 

Personal data assistants would facilitate productivity features to the everyday folk, such as web and email access, spreadsheets, word processing editors, personal schedules and other desktop applications, digitizing many aspects of people’s lives in one pocket-sized device. 

Beyond the Computer Keyboard

People began to explore other forms of computer input. In the early 1990s, the first pen input devices were created, although they were not very effective since the technology to recognize handwriting was not developed enough. Input via handwriting was not machine readable and required more memory to be saved compared to typing letters. Although early personal data assistants such as GRiDPaD, Poqet, Penpad and Momenta tried to incorporate pen input, they were ultimately not very viable for everyday use. 

Apple came up with the Newton project in 1993 as another form of pen input, but it was expensive and the handwriting recognition was poor. Following that, two Xerox researchers, Goldberg and Richardson, invented a system called Unistrokes that allowed users to handwrite a form of shorthand which would then be converted into letters on a device. Palm Pilot was released in 1996 and took off in popularity. 

The Soft Keyboard

Despite the advances into handwriting recognition technology, most people still stuck with computer keyboards as their main form of input because it was still more accurate, faster and the capture of data took up less memory. Mobile phones grew in popularity in the 2000s, sparking off the problem of getting a keyboard small enough to be used accurately on a mobile device. 

Early mobile phone designs included the phone keypad seen on dated Nokia models. Other companies, such as Blackberry, tried to shrink the complete keyboard to fit below the device’s screen. Eventually, the “soft keyboard” was developed – not made of hardware keys, but rather a visual display on the screen that functioned on touchscreen technology. A user would input text by tapping with their fingers or a stylus. The soft keyboard would also disappear when not in use, saving space for other displays on the screen. Most of us would probably be familiar with the soft keyboard on many mobile devices today. 

The Future of Computer Input

As artificial intelligence systems have evolved in recent years, it is now possible to input text without typing a single key or writing a single stroke – using voice recognition technology. Although current voice recognition technology may still leave much to be desired, there may come a day when they replace computer keyboards fully. 

ARTS & CULTURE

Fact of fiction the legend of the qwerty keyboard.

What came first: the typist or the keyboard? The answer may surprise you

Jimmy Stamp

What came first: the typist or the keyboard? The answer depends on the keyboard. A recent article in Smithsonian’s news blog, Smart News, described an innovative new keyboard system that proposes a more efficient alternative to the ubiquitous “universal” keyboard best known as QWERTY – named for the first six letters in the top row of keys. The new keyboard, known as KALQ, is designed specifically for thumb-typing on today’s smart phones and tablets. It’s an interesting and by all accounts commercially viable design that got me thinking about the rationale behind the QWERTY keyboard. Unlike KALQ, it couldn’t have been designed to accommodate a specific typing technique because, well, the idea of typing –touch typing, at least– hadn’t been invented yet. It turns out that there is a lot of myth and misinformation surrounding the development of QWERTY, but these various theories all seem to agree that the QWERTY layout was developed along with, and inextricably linked to, early typewriters.

In the 1860s, a politician, printer, newspaper man, and amateur inventor in Milwaukee by the name of Christopher Latham Sholes spent his free time developing various machines to make his businesses more efficient. One such invention was an early typewriter, which he developed with Samuel W. Soulé, James Densmore, and Carlos Glidden, and first patented in 1868 . The earliest typewriter keyboard resembled a piano and was built with an alphabetical arrangement of 28 keys. The team surely assumed it would be the most efficient arrangement. After all, anyone who used the keyboard would know immediately where to find each letter; hunting would be reduced, pecking would be increased. Why change things? This is where the origin of QWERTY gets a little foggy.

The popular theory states that Sholes had to redesign the keyboard in response to the mechanical failings of early typewriters, which were slightly different from the models most often seen in thrift stores and flea markets. The type bars connecting the key and the letter plate hung in a cycle beneath the paper. If a user quickly typed a succession of letters whose type bars were near each other, the delicate machinery would get jammed. So, it is said, Sholes redesigned the arrangement to separate the most common sequences of letters like “th” or “he”. In theory then, the QWERTY system should maximize the separation of common letter pairings. This theory could be easily debunked for the simple reason that “er” is the fourth most common letter pairing in the English language. However, one of the typewriter prototypes had a slightly different keyboard that was only changed at the last minute. If it had been put into production this article would have been about the QWE.TY keyboard:

By 1873, the typewriter had 43 keys and a decidedly counter-intuitive arrangement of letters that supposedly helped ensure the expensive machines wouldn’t break down. Form follows function and the keyboard trains the typist. That same year, Sholes and his cohorts entered into a manufacturing agreement with gun-maker Remington, a well-equipped company familiar with producing precision machinery and, in the wake of the Cilvil War, no doubt looking to turn their swords into plowshares. However, right before their machine, dubbed the Sholes & Glidden, went into production, Sholes filed another patent, which included a new keyboard arrangement. Issued in 1878, U.S. Patent No. 207,559 (top image) marked the first documented appearance of the QWERTY layout. The deal with Remington proved to be an enormous success. By 1890, there were more than 100,000 QWERTY-based Remington produced typewriters in use across the country. The fate of the keyboard was decided in 1893 when the five largest typewriter manufacturers –Remington, Caligraph, Yost, Densmore, and Smith-Premier– merged to form the Union Typewriter Company and agreed to adopt QWERTY as the de facto standard that we know and love today.

There’s a somewhat related theory that credits Remington’s pre-merger business tactics with the popularization of QWERTY. Remington didn’t just produce typewriters, they also provided training courses – for a small fee, of course. Typists who learned on their proprietary system would have to stay loyal to the brand, so companies that wanted to hire trained typists had to stock their desks with Remington typewriters. It’s a system that’s still works today, as illustrated by the devout following Apple built through the ecosystem created by iTunes, the iTunes store, and the iPod.

While it can’t be argued that deal with Remington helped popularize the QWERTY system, its development as a response to mechanical error, has been questioned by Kyoto University Researchers Koichi Yasuoka and Motoko Yasuoka . In a 2011 paper, the researchers tracked the evolution of the typewriter keyboard alongside a record of its early professional users. They conclude that the mechanics of the typewriter did not influence the keyboard design. Rather, the QWERTY system emerged as a result of how the first typewriters were being used. Early adopters and beta-testers included telegraph operators who needed to quickly transcribe messages. However, the operators found the alphabetical arrangement to be confusing and inefficient for translating morse code. The Kyoto paper suggests that the typewriter keyboard evolved over several years as a direct result of input provided by these telegraph operators. For example;

“The code represents Z as ‘· · · ·’ which is often confused with the digram SE, more frequently-used than Z. Sometimes Morse receivers in United States cannot determine whether Z or SE is applicable, especially in the first letter(s) of a word, before they receive following letters. Thus S ought to be placed near by both Z and E on the keyboard for Morse receivers to type them quickly (by the same reason C ought to be placed near by IE. But, in fact, C was more often confused with S).

In this scenario, the typist came before the keyboard. The Kyoto paper also cites the Morse lineage to further debunk the theory that Sholes wanted to protect his machine from jamming by rearranged the keys with the specific intent to slow down typists:

“The speed of Morse receiver should be equal to the Morse sender, of course. If Sholes really arranged the keyboard to slow down the operator, the operator became unable to catch up the Morse sender. We don’t believe that Sholes had such a nonsense intention during his development of Type-Writer.”

Regardless of how he developed it, Sholes himself wasn’t convinced that QWERTY was the best system. Although he sold his designs to Remington early on, he continued to invent improvements and alternatives to the typewriter for the rest of his life, including several keyboard layouts that he determined to be more efficient, such as the following patent, filed by Sholes in 1889, a year before he died, and issued posthumously:

But the biggest rivals to ever challenge QWERTY is the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard , developed by Dr. August Dvorak in the 1930s.

Dvorak users reported faster and more accurate typing, in part because the system dramatically increases the number of words that can be typed using the “home” row of keys where your fingers naturally rest – also known as the keys you type when you’re just trying fill space. asjdfkal; sdfjkl; asdfjkl; asdfjkl; dkadsf. asdfjklasdfjk. More recent research has debunked any claims that Dvorak is more efficient, but it hardly matters. Even in 1930 it was already too late for a new system to gain a foothold. While Dvorak certainly has its champions, it never gained enough of a following to overthrow King QWERTY. After all, the world learned to type using Remington’s keyboard.

When the first generation of computer keyboards emerged, there was no longer any technical reason to use the system – computers didn’t get jammed. But of course, there’s the minor fact that millions of people learned to type on the QWERTY keyboards. It had become truly ubiquitous in countries that used the Latin alphabet. Not only that, but way back in 1910, the system had been adopted by Teletype , a company that would go on to produce electronic typewriters and computer terminals widely used around the world, thereby ensuring QWERTY’s place as the new technological standard.

When a design depends on a previous innovation too entrenched in the cultural zeitgeist to change, it’s known as a path dependency . And this why the new KALQ proposal is so interesting. It attempts to break from the tyranny of Christopher Latham Sholes, whose QWERTY system makes even less sense on the virtual keyboards of tablets and smartphones than it does on a computer keyboards. Is the new KALQ system any different? In some ways, the answer is obviously yes. It has been designed around a very specific, very modern behavior – typing with thumbs. Like the telegraph operator QWERTY theory, the user is determining the structure of the keyboard. But it could still be argued that the KALQ system, or any similar system that may be developed in the future, is also a product of path dependency. Because no matter how the letters are arranged, they basic notion of individually separated letters distributed across a grid dates back to Sholes and co. tinkering away in their Milwaukee workshops. But it’s just not necessary in a tablet. If you gave an iPad to someone who had never used a keyboard and told them to develop a writing system, chances are they would eventually invent a faster, more intuitive system. Perhaps a gesture based system based on shorthand? Or some sort of swipe-to-type system? This is not to say that such a system would be better, it’s merely an observation that our most bleeding edge communication technology still dates back more than 150 years to some guys tinkering in their garage. Truly, the more things change, the more they stay the same.

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Jimmy Stamp | | READ MORE

Jimmy Stamp is a writer/researcher and recovering architect who writes for Smithsonian.com as a contributing writer for design.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Renaissance keyboards.

Double Virginal

Hans Ruckers the Elder

Musical Clock with Spinet and Organ

Veit Langenbucher

Claviorganum

Lorenz Hauslaib

Rectangular Octave Virginal

Rebecca Arkenberg Department of Education, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

Spinets, virginals, and harpsichords have strings that are plucked. What distinguishes them from each other is their form—the term harpsichord refers to the grand form of the instrument in which the strings run vertically front to back; the term virginal , or spinet , is applied to the square form of the instrument whose strings run horizontally.

Each key is attached to a vertical jack that rises when a key is depressed. As the jack ascends, a quill that protrudes from it plucks the string, then as it descends, the quill pivots to prevent a second pluck, and a cloth damper silences the string. The sound of these instruments is light, bright, and crisp, like a lute . However, these instruments are not capable of making dynamic changes; the force of the player’s fingers on the keys will not affect the loudness or softness of the sound.

Keyboard instruments were ideal for playing the polyphonic, or “many-voiced,” music of the Renaissance , because more than one key or melody could be played at the same time. Much printed keyboard music survives from the mid-sixteenth century onward. Spinets and virginals were especially popular among amateur musicians, particularly women. As part of their general education, both Mary of Burgundy ( 1975.1.137 ) and Margaret of Austria ( 1975.1.130 ) were instructed in music and taught to play keyboard instruments, probably clavichords, but an inventory of Margaret of Austria’s belongings also lists an espinetta, or spinet.

The relationship between courtly musicians and their display of musical ability is explained in The Book of the Courtier (1528) by Baldassare Castiglione:

So the courtier should turn to music as if it were merely a pastime of his and he is yielding to persuasion, and not in the presence of common people or a large crowd. And although he may know and understand what he is doing, in this also I wish him to dissimulate the care and effort that are necessary for any competent performance, and he should let it seem as if he himself thinks nothing of his accomplishment which, because of its excellence, he makes others think very highly of.

Arkenberg, Rebecca. “Renaissance Keyboards.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renk/hd_renk.htm (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Rebecca Arkenberg

• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Music in the Renaissance .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Violins .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Organs .” (October 2002)

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• The Golden Harpsichord of Michele Todini (1616–1690)
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Keyboarding 4 Pages 1020 Words

             In 1872, typewriters were invented, put into production and quickly gained popularity among the American people. Typing things out was a much easier form of written communication because it saved time making letters on paper by hand and it also made the appearance of documents more attractive looking and organized. The keyboard also allowed people who had hard to read handwriting a way of clearly expressing their documents to people without others having to struggle to read them.              Originally, the keys on the keyboard were arranged in an alphabetical pattern because it was logical to assume that since people had memorized the letters of the alphabet in a certain order, so it would be natural to relate the placement of the letter in the alphabet with the number of keys inward on the keyboard. This original plan for the keyboard worked so well, that typists began to type at speeds that were faster than the hands of the typewriter to hit and fall, so the keyboard was redesigned in order to force people to type at slower speeds.              This second keyboard design is the design that is still the standard to this day because Americans are resistant to change. This design is known as QWERTY, because those six letters are the first letter on the keyboard in the top row. Now that we have the technology of computers, we no longer need to worry about hammers on getting tangled together as they print a letter. Since the QWERTY keyboard was originally designed to slow down the typist, there are now two new major keyboards that are competing to be accepted as the new American standard keyboard; they are the Maltron and Dvorak design.              The MALTRON keyboard has been shown to relieve the symptoms of RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury). Maltron keyboards have been designed to be fully ergonomic to fit the shape and contours of people's hands. The keyboard's keys are arranges at different angle and different lengths to accommodate for th...

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The Role of Keyboarding in Academic Success

by Lcom Team | Nov 21, 2023 | Blogs

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Although keyboarding skills may evolve in the future, to date, it continues to be an integral skill in academic performance and success.

How Do Keyboarding Skills Affect Academic Performance?

In today’s digital age, keyboarding skills have become increasingly important for academic success. Students find themselves using digital tools to type essays, take notes, complete research projects, and take online exams or assessments more than ever before. The ability to keyboard effectively not only enhances productivity in these challenges, but also plays a pivotal role in academic performance.

Cognitive Load Reduction  

One of the primary ways keyboarding skills for students aid in academic success is by reducing cognitive load. In any lesson, assignment, or assessment that includes keyboarding, a student’s typing proficiency can either aid or hinder their cognitive load.

If a student has mastered keyboarding efficiency, they won’t be slowed as they commit their thoughts to the screen, meaning they can better maintain a train of thought as they can dedicate significantly less effort to the keyboarding process.  

However, if the student hasn’t mastered keyboarding skills (e.g. those who use the “hunt-and-peck” method of keyboarding), part of their cognitive load will be dedicated to finding and pressing keys, identifying and resolving errors, and more. This can cause slower performance, incomplete assignments, shorter paragraphs, greater errors, etc.

Confidence & Expression

Students who are proficient in keyboarding will have more confidence in themselves not only in keyboarding-related academic challenges but in their education in general. Keyboarding transcends computer science classes, extending into curriculum for English literature, history, science and more. With more and more curriculum bands including technology in assignments and assessments alike, those students who fall behind in basic skills such as keyboarding suffer.  

Efficiency & Time Savings

One of the most significant academic advantages of good keyboarding skills is improved efficiency and time management. Typing quickly and accurately allows students to complete assignments and tasks more swiftly. This efficiency gives them more time to focus on understanding the content and refining their work. In a fast-paced academic environment, time is often of the essence, and keyboarding proficiency can make a noticeable difference.

Assignments & Assessments

As online learning platforms and digital communication tools become increasingly prevalent in education, keyboarding skills are essential for everyday assignments as well as assessments. Students must navigate online exams, discussions and collaborative projects, all of which require effective digital communication. Proficient typing ensures that students can express themselves clearly and engage actively in these online activities.

College-Readiness

Keyboarding skills are a fundamental component of college readiness, as they enable students to navigate the digital landscape of higher education with confidence and competence. In the college environment, a significant portion of coursework and communication occurs through digital platforms, requiring students to type essays, participate in online discussions, and complete assignments efficiently. Proficient keyboarding not only allows students to keep up with the pace of college-level work but also empowers them to focus on understanding and analyzing the subject matter rather than struggling with the mechanics of typing.

Additionally, these skills are vital for effective research, data analysis and presentation of findings, all of which are integral to academic success in college and beyond. Moreover, as higher education increasingly embraces online and hybrid learning models, students with strong keyboarding abilities are better equipped to excel in a variety of academic contexts, making them more adaptable and prepared for the college experience.

Final Thoughts

Learning.com Team

Staff Writers

Founded in 1999, Learning.com provides educators with solutions to prepare their students with critical digital skills. Our web-based curriculum for grades K-12 engages students as they learn keyboarding, online safety, applied productivity tools, computational thinking, coding and more.

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Eid-ul-Fitr 2024: Date, history, significance, and all you need to know about the Islamic festival and its celebrations

Eid-ul-fitr 2024: eid marks the end of the holy month of ramadan. also known as eid-al-fitr or meethi eid, know its date, history and significance..

Eid-ul-Fitr 2024: Eid-ul-Fitr is one of the grandest festivals of the Islamic religion. Also known as Eid-al-Fitr or Meethi Eid , the festival marks the end of the holy month of Ramadan - during which Muslims observe a Roza (fast) from dawn to dusk for a month and engage in religious activities and acts of spiritual reflection. It falls on the first date of the 10th Shawwal of the Islamic calendar. People celebrate Eid by ending their Roza, thanking Allah for offering them health and resistance during Ramadan, wearing new clothes, preparing grand feasts, meeting their loved ones, doing charity, and more. If you and your family celebrate Ramadan with your loved ones, you should learn its date, history, significance, and celebrations.

(Also Read | Family activities for Eid-ul-Fitr 2024: Fun and meaningful ways to celebrate together )

Eid-ul-fitr 2024 date: when is eid.

Eid-ul-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic Lunar Calendar. While it falls on the first date of the 10th Shawwal of the Islamic calendar, the dates vary because they depend on the sighting of the crescent moon. Therefore, Eid-ul-Fitr will also fall on different days across regions.

In Kerala, Eid will be celebrated a day before the rest of the country because the moon sighting adheres to the traditional Islamic calendar and waits for the actual sighting of the moon. It is the only state that decided the Eid dates as per the sighting of the moon in Saudi Arabia.

This year, the Eld-ul-Fitr is likely to be celebrated on Wednesday, April 10, or Thursday, April 11, because Ramadan began on March 11 and will end on April 10/11.

Eid-ul-Fitr 2024: History, Significance and Celebrations

Eid-ul-Fitr is a joyous occasion celebrated by Muslims across the globe. It is believed that the Holy Quran was first revealed to Prophet Muhammad during Ramadan. This history can be traced back to 624 AD. Muslims believe the month-long fasting during Ramadan brings prosperity, harmony, and peace. They refrain from any negative thoughts during this period. Come Eid-ul-Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan, people break their Roza with a delicious meal and get together with friends and family.

Eid-al-Fitr also marks the Prophet's triumph in the Battle of Badr. Meanwhile, Eid-al-Fitr means "Festival of breaking the fast". On this day, people wear new clothes, prepare delicacies, do charity and wish their family and friends Eid Mubarak. They break the Roza with a delicious meal. Meanwhile, the delectable dishes prepared during Eid are Biryani, Haleem, Nihari, kebabs and Seviyan. Additionally, children receive gifts and money from elders, called Eidi.

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Watch CBS News

How did April Fools' Day start and what are some famous pranks?

By Aliza Chasan

April 1, 2024 / 6:00 AM EDT / CBS News

Historians aren't pulling your leg when they say no one is quite sure about the origins of April Fools' Day. 

April 1, the annual day of shenanigans, pranks, tricks and hoaxes, falls on Monday this year. While historians are unsure of the exact source of the tradition, they do know the custom goes back centuries, at least back to Renaissance Europe and possibly back to Roman times. Here's a look at what the experts say.

Theories, both real and false, tie April Fools' Day to Roman times 

Some believe April Fools' Day dates back to Hilaria festivals celebrated during classical Roman times. The festival was held on March 25 which, in Roman terms, was called the "eighth of the Calends of April," according to the Library of Congress. 

One theory tying the source of April Fools' Day to Roman times is a hoax. In 1983, an Associated Press reporter reached out to Joseph Boskin, a historian at Boston University, to discuss the origins of April Fools' Day. Boskin spun a tall tale to the reporter, assuming it would be fact-checked and revealed as fake. 

It wasn't. 

According to the story Boskin made up, a group of jesters convinced Emperor Constantine to make one of them king for a day. The appointed jester, named Kugel, declared it would be a day of levity. 

"I got an immediate phone call from an editor there, who was furious, saying that I had ruined the career of a young reporter," Boskin said in a Boston University post. "He said I told a lie. 'A lie?' I asked, 'I was telling an April Fools' Day story.'"

Middle Ages 

Some historians believe France is responsible for the humorous tradition, tying it to a calendar change in 1582, according to the History Channel . That year, France implemented the Gregorian calendar, shifting the start of the New Year from the spring equinox, which usually falls around April 1, to January 1. 

After the change, people who wrongly celebrated the new year in late March and early April were called "April fools."

The first clear reference to April Fools' Day is a 1561 Flemish poem by Eduard De Dene, which tells the story of a servant being sent on "fool's errands" because it's April 1, according to the Library of Congress. 

What are some famous April Fools' Day pranks?

In 1957, the BBC ran a broadcast on the Italian spaghetti harvest  that pretended the pasta was being harvested from trees. 

The BBC also ran an April Fools' report on flying penguins in 2008.

In Los Angeles, airline passengers were greeted with a banner saying "Welcome to Chicago" after landing on April 1, 1992, CBS Sunday Morning previously reported.

Taco Bell in 1996 advertised that it had bought the Liberty Bell and renamed it the "Taco Liberty Bell," according to the company.

As part of a 1997 April Fools' Day joke, Alex Trebek, host of "Jeopardy," swapped places with "Wheel of Fortune" host Pat Sajak, according to jeopardy.com .

On April 1, 2015, streaming giant Netflix shared faux public service announcements to remind viewers to "Binge Responsibly."

• April Fools' Day

Aliza Chasan is a digital producer at 60 Minutes and CBSNews.com. She has previously written for outlets including PIX11 News, The New York Daily News, Inside Edition and DNAinfo. Aliza covers trending news, often focusing on crime and politics.

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Why Taiwan Was So Prepared for a Powerful Earthquake

Decades of learning from disasters, tightening building codes and increasing public awareness may have helped its people better weather strong quakes.

Search-and-rescue teams recover a body from a leaning building in Hualien, Taiwan. Thanks to improvements in building codes after past earthquakes, many structures withstood Wednesday’s quake. Credit...

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By Chris Buckley ,  Meaghan Tobin and Siyi Zhao

Photographs by Lam Yik Fei

Chris Buckley reported from the city of Hualien, Meaghan Tobin from Taipei, in Taiwan.

• April 4, 2024

When the largest earthquake in Taiwan in half a century struck off its east coast, the buildings in the closest city, Hualien, swayed and rocked. As more than 300 aftershocks rocked the island over the next 24 hours to Thursday morning, the buildings shook again and again.

But for the most part, they stood.

Even the two buildings that suffered the most damage remained largely intact, allowing residents to climb to safety out the windows of upper stories. One of them, the rounded, red brick Uranus Building, which leaned precariously after its first floors collapsed, was mostly drawing curious onlookers.

The building is a reminder of how much Taiwan has prepared for disasters like the magnitude-7.4 earthquake that jolted the island on Wednesday. Perhaps because of improvements in building codes, greater public awareness and highly trained search-and-rescue operations — and, likely, a dose of good luck — the casualty figures were relatively low. By Thursday, 10 people had died and more than 1,000 others were injured. Several dozen were missing.

“Similar level earthquakes in other societies have killed far more people,” said Daniel Aldrich , a director of the Global Resilience Institute at Northeastern University. Of Taiwan, he added: “And most of these deaths, it seems, have come from rock slides and boulders, rather than building collapses.”

Across the island, rail traffic had resumed by Thursday, including trains to Hualien. Workers who had been stuck in a rock quarry were lifted out by helicopter. Roads were slowly being repaired. Hundreds of people were stranded at a hotel near a national park because of a blocked road, but they were visited by rescuers and medics.

On Thursday in Hualien city, the area around the Uranus Building was sealed off, while construction workers tried to prevent the leaning structure from toppling completely. First they placed three-legged concrete blocks that resembled giant Lego pieces in front of the building, and then they piled dirt and rocks on top of those blocks with excavators.

“We came to see for ourselves how serious it was, why it has tilted,” said Chang Mei-chu, 66, a retiree who rode a scooter with her husband Lai Yung-chi, 72, to the building on Thursday. Mr. Lai said he was a retired builder who used to install power and water pipes in buildings, and so he knew about building standards. The couple’s apartment, near Hualien’s train station, had not been badly damaged, he said.

“I wasn’t worried about our building, because I know they paid attention to earthquake resistance when building it. I watched them pour the cement to make sure,” Mr. Lai said. “There have been improvements. After each earthquake, they raise the standards some more.”

It was possible to walk for city blocks without seeing clear signs of the powerful earthquake. Many buildings remained intact, some of them old and weather-worn; others modern, multistory concrete-and-glass structures. Shops were open, selling coffee, ice cream and betel nuts. Next to the Uranus Building, a popular night market with food stalls offering fried seafood, dumplings and sweets was up and running by Thursday evening.

Earthquakes are unavoidable in Taiwan, which sits on multiple active faults. Decades of work learning from other disasters, implementing strict building codes and increasing public awareness have gone into helping its people weather frequent strong quakes.

Not far from the Uranus Building, for example, officials had inspected a building with cracked pillars and concluded that it was dangerous to stay in. Residents were given 15 minutes to dash inside and retrieve as many belongings as they could. Some ran out with computers, while others threw bags of clothes out of windows onto the street, which was also still littered with broken glass and cement fragments from the quake.

One of its residents, Chen Ching-ming, a preacher at a church next door, said he thought the building might be torn down. He was able to salvage a TV and some bedding, which now sat on the sidewalk, and was preparing to go back in for more. “I’ll lose a lot of valuable things — a fridge, a microwave, a washing machine,” he said. “All gone.”

Requirements for earthquake resistance have been built into Taiwan’s building codes since 1974. In the decades since, the writers of Taiwan’s building code also applied lessons learned from other major earthquakes around the world, including in Mexico and Los Angeles, to strengthen Taiwan’s code.

After more than 2,400 people were killed and at least 10,000 others injured during the Chi-Chi quake of 1999, thousands of buildings built before the quake were reviewed and reinforced. After another strong quake in 2018 in Hualien, the government ordered a new round of building inspections. Since then, multiple updates to the building code have been released.

“We have retrofitted more than 10,000 school buildings in the last 20 years,” said Chung-Che Chou, the director general of the National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering in Taipei.

The government had also helped reinforce private apartment buildings over the past six years by adding new steel braces and increasing column and beam sizes, Dr. Chou said. Not far from the buildings that partially collapsed in Hualien, some of the older buildings that had been retrofitted in this way survived Wednesday’s quake, he said.

The result of all this is that even Taiwan’s tallest skyscrapers can withstand regular seismic jolts. The capital city’s most iconic building, Taipei 101, once the tallest building in the world, was engineered to stand through typhoon winds and frequent quakes. Still, some experts say that more needs to be done to either strengthen or demolish structures that don’t meet standards, and such calls have grown louder in the wake of the latest earthquake.

Taiwan has another major reason to protect its infrastructure: It is home to the majority of production for the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, the world’s largest maker of advanced computer chips. The supply chain for electronics from smartphones to cars to fighter jets rests on the output of TSMC’s factories, which make these chips in facilities that cost billions of dollars to build.

The 1999 quake also prompted TSMC to take extra steps to insulate its factories from earthquake damage. The company made major structural adjustments and adopted new technologies like early warning systems. When another large quake struck the southern city of Kaohsiung in February 2016, TSMC’s two nearby factories survived without structural damage.

Taiwan has made strides in its response to disasters, experts say. In the first 24 hours after the quake, rescuers freed hundreds of people who were trapped in cars in between rockfalls on the highway and stranded on mountain ledges in rock quarries.

“After years of hard work on capacity building, the overall performance of the island has improved significantly,” said Bruce Wong, an emergency management consultant in Hong Kong. Taiwan’s rescue teams have come to specialize in complex efforts, he said, and it has also been able to tap the skills of trained volunteers.

Taiwan’s resilience also stems from a strong civil society that is involved in public preparedness for disasters.

Ou Chi-hu, a member of a group of Taiwanese military veterans, was helping distribute water and other supplies at a school that was serving as a shelter for displaced residents in Hualien. He said that people had learned from the 1999 earthquake how to be more prepared.

“They know to shelter in a corner of the room or somewhere else safer,” he said. Many residents also keep a bag of essentials next to their beds, and own fire extinguishers, he added.

Around him, a dozen or so other charities and groups were offering residents food, money, counseling and childcare. The Tzu Chi Foundation, a large Taiwanese Buddhist charity, provided tents for families to use inside the school hall so they could have more privacy. Huang Yu-chi, a disaster relief manager with the foundation, said nonprofits had learned from earlier disasters.

“Now we’re more systematic and have a better idea of disaster prevention,” Mr. Huang said.

Mike Ives contributed reporting from Seoul.

Chris Buckley , the chief China correspondent for The Times, reports on China and Taiwan from Taipei, focused on politics, social change and security and military issues. More about Chris Buckley

Meaghan Tobin is a technology correspondent for The Times based in Taipei, covering business and tech stories in Asia with a focus on China. More about Meaghan Tobin

Siyi Zhao is a reporter and researcher who covers news in mainland China for The Times in Seoul. More about Siyi Zhao

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