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DNA Replication (A-level Biology)

Why does dna replicate.

Most organisms produce new cells every day through a process called cell division which occurs continuously.

DNA replication occurs before the cell divides. DNA replicates itself during the S phase of the cell cycle so that each daughter cells has a copy of the DNA after cell division.

DNA replication mean that parents can pass their DNA to their offspring. This passing of DNA and the genetic information stored in DNA is known as “ Genetic Continuity ”. The replication of DNA is crucial to ensuring genetic continuity both during cell division and between parents and offspring during reproduction.

The Process of DNA Replication

1) double helix unwinding.

  • The first step of DNA replication is unwinding of the DNA double helix . Because DNA is a base-paired double helix, it replicates itself by unwinding and using each of its strands as a template to form a new strand.
  • Hydrogen bonds are broken during unwinding . There is breakage of hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs on the two polynucleotide chains.
  • An enzyme called DNA helicase is involved . DNA helicase unwinds the DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs on the two strands of DNA.
  • It is important to understand that the entire DNA does not unwind simultaneously . DNA replication occurs along an entire molecule of DNA and the unwinding happens in one region of the molecule at a time. This is done to ensure stability of the molecule.

A-level Biology - DNA Replication

2) Semi-Conservative Replication

A-level Biology - DNA Replication

  • The unwound strands of DNA are referred to as the parental strands . Free floating nucleotides in the nucleus are attracted to these parental strands of DNA.

3) DNA Polymerase (Condensation Reactions)

  • Condensation reactions occur to complete DNA replication . The newly attracted nucleotides are only hydrogen bonded with the parental strand. To create a new strand of DNA, condensation reactions between these nucleotides need to occur in order to synthesise the daughter polynucleotide chain in order to complete DNA replication.
  • DNA polymerase is the key enzyme. These condensation reactions are catalysed by the enzyme DNA polymerase , which reads the nucleotides and enables them to join. DNA ligase is responsible for the actual condensation reaction.

Mechanism of DNA Polymerase

  • In a DNA double helix, the two strands are antiparallel. We previously established how in DNA, one strands goes from 3’ to 5’, and the opposite strand goes from 5’ to 3’.

DNA polymerase Works in the 5′ to 3′ direction

  • DNA polymerase catalyses addition of free nucleotides . DNA polymerase “reads” the parental strand, and catalyses the addition of the free-floating nucleotides.
  • DNA polymerase starts building at the 5’ end of the daughter strand . DNA polymerase can only bind to the 3′ end of a parental strand and work in one direction. This means they build the new strand in the 5′ to 3′ direction only.
  • One of the daughter strands will be the leading strand. Since DNA strands are antiparallel but DNA polymerase can only work in one direction, replication has to occur in opposite directions on the two strands. Remember that DNA is also being unwound in one direction only too. The daughter strand which will go in the 5′ to 3′ direction towards the replication fork can be made continuously because the DNA polymerase can move continuously in this direction and follow the replication fork. This strand is called the leading strand .

A-level Biology - DNA Replication

DNA polymerase reads and DNA ligase catalyses

  • DNA polymerase reads the nucleotide sequence . When DNA polymerase binds to the parental DNA it reads the nucleotide sequence and recruits complementary nucleotides to form a hydrogen bond with the parental nucleotide. In doing so, DNA polymerase carries out a “proofreading” activity. It makes sure that only complementary nucleotides are pairing in order to prevent mutations from happening.
  • DNA ligase catalyses condensation reactions . As the DNA polymerase recruits new nucleotides, DNA ligase catalyses condensation reactions between the new nucleotides to create a polynucleotide chain.

A-level Biology - DNA Replication

  

DNA Replication is the process of making a copy of the genetic information contained in DNA. This process is necessary for cell division and the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next.

DNA Replication occurs through the semi-conservative mechanism, where each strand of the DNA double helix acts as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. The DNA strands separate, and each strand is used as a template to build a new complementary strand by the addition of nucleotides.

The main enzymes involved in DNA Replication are helicase, primase, DNA polymerase, and ligase. helicase unwinds the double helix, primase synthesizes RNA primers, DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the template strand, and ligase seals the gaps between the nucleotides.

RNA primers are short stretches of RNA that are synthesized by primase and are used to initiate DNA Replication. The primers provide a starting point for the addition of nucleotides by DNA polymerase. Once the primer is in place, the DNA polymerase can start adding nucleotides to the template strand, building the new complementary strand.

DNA Replication ensures the accuracy of the copied genetic information through the proofreading function of DNA polymerase. DNA polymerase checks each nucleotide before adding it to the new strand and corrects any mistakes. Additionally, there are enzymes, such as exonucleases, that can remove incorrect nucleotides from the new strand before the replication process is complete.

If DNA Replication goes wrong, it can result in mutations in the genetic information. Mutations can have a variety of effects on an organism, ranging from no effect at all to serious health problems. Some mutations can lead to the development of diseases, such as cancer, while others can result in changes in physical characteristics or behavior.

DNA Replication is important because it allows for the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next. It is also necessary for cell division, allowing cells to divide and form new cells. Additionally, DNA Replication is essential for the repair of damaged DNA, helping to maintain the stability and integrity of the genetic information.

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CIE 1 Cell structure

Roles of atp (a-level biology), atp as an energy source (a-level biology), the synthesis and hydrolysis of atp (a-level biology), the structure of atp (a-level biology), magnification and resolution (a-level biology), calculating cell size (a-level biology), studying cells: confocal microscopes (a-level biology), studying cells: electron microscopes (a-level biology), studying cells: light microscopes (a-level biology), life cycle and replication of viruses (a-level biology), cie 10 infectious disease, bacteria, antibiotics, and other medicines (a-level biology), pathogens and infectious diseases (a-level biology), cie 11 immunity, types of immunity and vaccinations (a-level biology), structure and function of antibodies (a-level biology), the adaptive immune response (a-level biology), introduction to the immune system (a-level biology), primary defences against pathogens (a-level biology), cie 12 energy and respiration, anaerobic respiration in mammals, plants and fungi (a-level biology), anaerobic respiration (a-level biology), oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis (a-level biology), oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport chain (a-level biology), the krebs cycle (a-level biology), the link reaction (a-level biology), the stages and products of glycolysis (a-level biology), glycolysis (a-level biology), the structure of mitochondria (a-level biology), the need for cellular respiration (a-level biology), cie 13 photosynthesis, limiting factors of photosynthesis (a-level biology), cyclic and non-cyclic phosphorylation (a-level biology), the 2 stages of photosynthesis (a-level biology), photosystems and photosynthetic pigments (a-level biology), site of photosynthesis, overview of photosynthesis (a-level biology), cie 14 homeostasis, ectotherms and endotherms (a-level biology), thermoregulation (a-level biology), plant responses to changes in the environment (a-level biology), cie 15 control and co-ordination, the nervous system (a-level biology), sources of atp during contraction (a-level biology), the ultrastructure of the sarcomere during contraction (a-level biology), the role of troponin and tropomyosin (a-level biology), the structure of myofibrils (a-level biology), slow and fast twitch muscles (a-level biology), the structure of mammalian muscles (a-level biology), how muscles allow movement (a-level biology), the neuromuscular junction (a-level biology), features of synapses (a-level biology), cie 16 inherited change, calculating genetic diversity (a-level biology), how meiosis produces variation (a-level biology), cell division by meiosis (a-level biology), importance of meiosis (a-level biology), cie 17 selection and evolution, types of selection (a-level biology), mechanism of natural selection (a-level biology), types of variation (a-level biology), cie 18 biodiversity, classification and conservation, biodiversity and gene technology (a-level biology), factors affecting biodiversity (a-level biology), biodiversity calculations (a-level biology), introducing biodiversity (a-level biology), the three domain system (a-level biology), phylogeny and classification (a-level biology), classifying organisms (a-level biology), cie 19 genetic technology, cie 2 biological molecules, properties of water (a-level biology), structure of water (a-level biology), test for lipids and proteins (a-level biology), tests for carbohydrates (a-level biology), protein structures: globular and fibrous proteins (a-level biology), protein structures: tertiary and quaternary structures (a-level biology), protein structures: primary and secondary structures (a-level biology), protein formation (a-level biology), proteins and amino acids: an introduction (a-level biology), phospholipid bilayer (a-level biology), cie 3 enzymes, enzymes: inhibitors (a-level biology), enzymes: rates of reaction (a-level biology), enzymes: intracellular and extracellular forms (a-level biology), enzymes: mechanism of action (a-level biology), enzymes: key concepts (a-level biology), enzymes: introduction (a-level biology), cie 4 cell membranes and transport, transport across membranes: active transport (a-level biology), investigating transport across membranes (a-level biology), transport across membranes: osmosis (a-level biology), transport across membranes: diffusion (a-level biology), signalling across cell membranes (a-level biology), function of cell membrane (a-level biology), factors affecting cell membrane structure (a-level biology), structure of cell membranes (a-level biology), cie 5 the mitotic cell cycle, chromosome mutations (a-level biology), cell division: checkpoints and mutations (a-level biology), cell division: phases of mitosis (a-level biology), cell division: the cell cycle (a-level biology), cell division: chromosomes (a-level biology), cie 6 nucleic acids and protein synthesis, transfer rna (a-level biology), transcription (a-level biology), messenger rna (a-level biology), introducing the genetic code (a-level biology), genes and protein synthesis (a-level biology), synthesising proteins from dna (a-level biology), structure of rna (a-level biology), dna structure and the double helix (a-level biology), polynucleotides (a-level biology), cie 7 transport in plants, translocation and evidence of the mass flow hypothesis (a-level biology), the phloem (a-level biology), importance of and evidence for transpiration (a-level biology), introduction to transpiration (a-level biology), the pathway and movement of water into the roots and xylem (a-level biology), the xylem (a-level biology), cie 8 transport in mammals, controlling heart rate (a-level biology), structure of the heart (a-level biology), transport of carbon dioxide (a-level biology), transport of oxygen (a-level biology), exchange in capillaries (a-level biology), structure and function of blood vessels (a-level biology), cie 9 gas exchange and smoking, lung disease (a-level biology), pulmonary ventilation rate (a-level biology), ventilation (a-level biology), structure of the lungs (a-level biology), general features of exchange surfaces (a-level biology), understanding surface area to volume ratio (a-level biology), the need for exchange surfaces (a-level biology), edexcel a 1: lifestyle, health and risk, phospholipids – introduction (a-level biology), edexcel a 2: genes and health, features of the genetic code (a-level biology), gas exchange in plants (a-level biology), gas exchange in insects (a-level biology), edexcel a 3: voice of the genome, edexcel a 4: biodiversity and natural resources, edexcel a 5: on the wild side, reducing biomass loss (a-level biology), sources of biomass loss (a-level biology), transfer of biomass (a-level biology), measuring biomass (a-level biology), net primary production (a-level biology), gross primary production (a-level biology), trophic levels (a-level biology), edexcel a 6: immunity, infection & forensics, microbial techniques (a-level biology), the innate immune response (a-level biology), edexcel a 7: run for your life, edexcel a 8: grey matter, inhibitory synapses (a-level biology), synaptic transmission (a-level biology), the structure of the synapse (a-level biology), factors affecting the speed of transmission (a-level biology), myelination (a-level biology), the refractory period (a-level biology), all or nothing principle (a-level biology), edexcel b 1: biological molecules, inorganic ions (a-level biology), edexcel b 10: ecosystems, nitrogen cycle: nitrification and denitrification (a-level biology), the phosphorus cycle (a-level biology), nitrogen cycle: fixation and ammonification (a-level biology), introduction to nutrient cycles (a-level biology), edexcel b 2: cells, viruses, reproduction, edexcel b 3: classification & biodiversity, edexcel b 4: exchange and transport, edexcel b 5: energy for biological processes, edexcel b 6: microbiology and pathogens, edexcel b 7: modern genetics, edexcel b 8: origins of genetic variation, edexcel b 9: control systems, ocr 2.1.1 cell structure, structure of prokaryotic cells (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: comparing plant and animal cells (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: plant cell organelles (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: the endoplasmic reticulum (a-level biology), eukaryotic cells: the golgi apparatus and lysosomes (a-level biology), ocr 2.1.2 biological molecules, introduction to eukaryotic cells and organelles (a-level biology), ocr 2.1.3 nucleotides and nucleic acids, ocr 2.1.4 enzymes, ocr 2.1.5 biological membranes, ocr 2.1.6 cell division, diversity & organisation, ocr 3.1.1 exchange surfaces, ocr 3.1.2 transport in animals, ocr 3.1.3 transport in plants, examples of xerophytes (a-level biology), introduction to xerophytes (a-level biology), ocr 4.1.1 communicable diseases, structure of viruses (a-level biology), ocr 4.2.1 biodiversity, ocr 4.2.2 classification and evolution, ocr 5.1.1 communication and homeostasis, the resting potential (a-level biology), ocr 5.1.2 excretion, ocr 5.1.3 neuronal communication, hyperpolarisation and transmission of the action potential (a-level biology), depolarisation and repolarisation in the action potential (a-level biology), ocr 5.1.4 hormonal communication, ocr 5.1.5 plant and animal responses, ocr 5.2.1 photosynthesis, ocr 5.2.2 respiration, ocr 6.1.1 cellular control, ocr 6.1.2 patterns of inheritance, ocr 6.1.3 manipulating genomes, ocr 6.2.1 cloning and biotechnology, ocr 6.3.1 ecosystems, ocr 6.3.2 populations and sustainability.

importance of dna essay a level biology

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Top marks A-Level Biology Essay - Explain the importance of shapes fitting together

Top marks A-Level Biology Essay - Explain the importance of shapes fitting together

Subject: Biology

Age range: 16+

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26 September 2018

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A full high grade essay for A-Level Biology, discussing the topic: The importance of shapes fitting together in cells and organisms. Includes wider knowledge not from A-Level specification.

Includes: > Introduction, explanation of specificity in biology > Enyzme shape, structure and active site > Enzymes involved in DNA replication > Complementary nature of DNA bases & hydrogen bonding > Immune response - antigens and antibodies > Enzymes involved in the immune response, like in the inflammation process > Mutated protein impacts, like in Mediterranean fever. > Pharmacology - agonists and antagonists, such as carbachol.

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Top mark A-Level Biology Essays

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  • 21 February 2024

Why citizen scientists are gathering DNA from hundreds of lakes — on the same day

  • Lydia Larsen

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

You have full access to this article via your institution.

A citizen scientist wears protective gloves and takes samples from a fresh water lake.

The LeDNA project will disperse hundreds of volunteers to sample environmental DNA from the world’s lakes. Credit: K. Deiner

In a first-of-its-kind project, researchers are tapping into the power of citizen science to collect DNA samples from hundreds of lakes worldwide. Not only will the resulting cache of environmental DNA (eDNA) be the largest ever gathered from an aquatic setting in a single day — it could yield a fuller picture of the state of biodiversity around the globe and improve scientists’ understanding of how species move about over time.

importance of dna essay a level biology

Rare bird’s detection highlights promise of ‘environmental DNA’

Scientists are increasingly using eDNA — which is shed by all organisms — to evaluate the presence of species in a given environment. Researchers have shown that it can be cheaply and efficiently extracted from water 1 , soil 2 , ice cores 3 and filters from air-monitoring stations 4 . It has even been used to detect endangered species that haven’t been spotted for years, including a Brazilian frog species (putatively assigned to Megaelosia bocainensis ) that researchers thought went extinct in the 1960s 5 .

Kristy Deiner, an environmental scientist at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich who leads the massive lake project, says that eDNA represents a “paradigm shift” in how scientists monitor biodiversity. Deiner’s research group has already received applications from more than 500 people across 101 countries to participate in collecting eDNA from their local lakes and shipping the samples to ETH Zurich.

These global-scale projects are “really what the eDNA community needs”, says Philip Francis Thomsen, an environmental scientist at Aarhus University in Denmark and a volunteer for the lake project.

“By involving citizens, we not only increase the geographical scope of our sampling but also foster a sense of public ownership and awareness regarding global biodiversity issues,” says CĂĄtia LĂșcio Pereira, the project’s coordinator, who works with Deiner at ETH Zurich.

A boon for biodiversity

Although eDNA is generally considered to be a boon for biodiversity monitoring, researchers recognize that it’s not perfect. For instance, DNA from a particular site might come from a species that just briefly passed through the region, rather than living there. And researchers don’t have a clear understanding of how factors such as microbial ingestion of the DNA, high temperatures and ultraviolet radiation degrade the genetic material once it has been shed, or how those factors might alter the list of species detected.

Deiner acknowledges the limitations, but says that eDNA-monitoring technology has come a long way since it was first used decades ago. She and her team have a plan to carefully handle the samples they receive, extract their genetic material and amplify the plant and animal DNA to detect the presence of species.

“We’re more fine-tuning things now,” Deiner says.

Sampling sites: World map showing the locations of potential sampling lakes for the LeDNA project.

Source: LeDNA.

Deiner also doesn’t necessarily see the transfer of eDNA from one region to another as a negative thing — it could even be used to her advantage. She began studying how eDNA moves in rivers about ten years ago. The genetic material, she suggests, could flow from soil, down rivers and into lakes, making these watery pools the ideal location to sample from to get an idea of the species diversity of an entire region, or catchment.

Her project — called LeDNA, which stands for lake eDNA — aims to prove that the eDNA from a lake represents not just lake-dwelling species, but also terrestrial animals that live along the rivers that feed into the lake and around the lake itself. It will also examine the differences in species richness between geographical regions, and try to decipher how species in various habitats might be interacting with one another.

Local sampling

Deiner’s research group recruited volunteers for LeDNA through a combination of social media, networking with other eDNA researchers and reaching out to citizen-science groups. The recruits will be assigned a lake near them from a curated list of 5,000 around the globe.

“We really worked hard to try and reach a lot of these areas so that the sample is truly a global effort,” Deiner says.

importance of dna essay a level biology

Accidental DNA collection by air sensors could revolutionize wildlife tracking

Although the team hasn’t finalized the lakes that it will sample, it hopes to include about 800, says LĂșcio Pereira (see ‘Sampling sites’). The researchers also say that they have mostly finished their recruiting phase, although they still want more volunteers in Asia, North Africa and the Middle East.

Once assigned a lake, volunteers will receive instructions and a water-sampling filter. They will all aim to gather their samples on the same day — 22 May, which is the International Day for Biological Diversity — although there is a flexible two-week window for collection if they need it.

Francis Thomsen points out that hundreds of people taking samples might lead to issues with data quality, depending on how closely they each follow the set protocols sent to them. Sampling eDNA, however, is easier to standardize than other biodiversity-monitoring methods, in which surveyors typically have to locate and identify individual species in person, he says.

LĂșcio Pereira says that the team recognizes the possible threat to data quality, but that the volunteers will all have identical sampling kits and in-depth training on the sampling protocol.

A perk of participating in the project, particularly for eDNA scientists, is that local partners will be able to use their data in their own research, as well as contribute to LeDNA publications. “What’s cool about this is it’s participatory,” says Rachel Meyer, director of the California eDNA programme, which is run by University of California researchers and matches volunteers with scientists to collect eDNA samples across the state. The data is there “if people want it”, she says, “and there’s plenty of incentive to want it”.

Nature 626 , 934-935 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00520-y

Goldberg, C. S. et al. Methods Ecol. Evol. 7 , 1299–1307 (2016).

Article   Google Scholar  

Allen, M. C. et al. Sci. Rep. 13 , 180 (2023).

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Varotto, C. et al. Sci. Rep. 11 , 1208 (2021).

Littlefair, J. E. et al. Curr. Biol. 33 , R426–R428 (2023).

Lopes, C. M. et al. Mol. Ecol. 30 , 3289–3298 (2021).

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