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How to Use Bullet Lists and Number Lists in a Research Paper

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Academic articles often include lists, which organize the material and provide the reader with a quick overview of a section. There are different ways to format lists, but some general principles apply to all of them: they should be constructed in a parallel fashion, and they should be consistent. Numbers, letters, and bullet points are not required in all cases. Academic writers who use The Chicago Manual of Style will find various formats there, but four common list formats are presented here.

Types of List Formats

Run-in lists.

A run-in list, as the name suggests, is included as part of the general text. Elements can be separated in different ways, as shown in the examples below.

Separated with a Colon:   When a complete sentence is followed by a list of items, separate the sentence from the list with a colon.

E.g. “ Do not venture into the wilderness without these items: a knife, a book of matches, a flashlight, and a map. ”

Separated with Numbers:  When the list is part of the sentence, you can separate the items by numbering them.

E.g. “ The Housing Committee passed resolutions on (1) annual salaries, (2) fundraising efforts, and (3) community building. ”

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Vertical Lists

A vertical list should be preceded by a complete sentence that gives an overview of the points being listed. The list does not need to have a bullet point format and a punctuation mark is not at the end of the entries. For example:

Your admissions packet should include these items:

The three-page statement of purpose

The financial questionnaire

Your contact information

If the lead-in sentence is a complete one and all entries in the list are complete sentences, a punctuation mark should follow each entry. For example (using bullet points):

Make perfect banana bread every time by following these easy steps:

  • Preheat the oven to 325 degrees.
  • Grease an 8 x 8 baking dish.
  • Combine all the dry ingredients (listed above).
  • Gently fold in the wet ingredients (listed above).
  • Pour the batter into the dish and bake for 45 minutes.

Again, note that because each entry in the list is a complete sentence, a final period is used.

Vertical Lists Punctuated as a Sentence

When a list is too long or convoluted to be presented as one sentence, you can use a vertical list that is punctuated like a sentence. This format is especially useful when the phrases include internal punctuations or the reader might find it difficult to follow the meaning. An example follows below.

Biology instructors have made significant changes to their curricula and classrooms, and today it is common to find

  • innovative research techniques, especially those requiring knowledge of anatomy, in labs;
  • greater focus on teamwork;
  • in-class lectures customized for learning styles; and
  • bilingual lesson plans.

Vertical Lists with Subdivided Items

A complex vertical list may be formatted in a way that resembles an outline, using numbers and letters to provide a logical structure. The lead-in (introductory) line should be a complete sentence, as seen in the example below.

Students should be prepared to discuss the following topics:

  • Regional History
  • Geography and landmarks
  • Erosion in mountainous areas
  • Notable Figures
  • The first tribal chieftains
  • The emergence of political divisions and leaders
  • The role of women
  • Cultural Developments
  • The spread of language
  • Music used to bind communities

The next time you read a research paper , look for lists and examine how they were constructed. Do the entries use a consistent format? Are the numbers and/or letters correctly placed and in the proper order? Is the lead-in line a complete sentence? If you find that these steps are all present, chances are that the author took the time to research the structure of lists and present them accurately. Now you can do the same.

References:

  • Get It Write. Handling Vertical Lists.  Retrieved from http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/101406VerticalLists.htm

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More apa style guidelines: lists.

When listing three or more items, include a serial comma (also known as an Oxford comma) before the last item and the conjunction “and” or “or.” If one or more clauses contains commas in them, use a semicolon instead of a comma to separate the clauses. (Note that the term "seriation" used in APA 6 does not appear in APA 7 and has been replaced by "lists.”)

You may also list items in three other formats: lettered, numbered, and bulleted.

Lettered Lists (APA 7, Section 6.50)

If you have a series of elements in the body of a paragraph, separate each element with lowercase letters enclosed in parentheses. Although only necessary for more complex elements, here is a simple example: (a) lions, (b) tigers, and (c) bears. Items and phrasing should be parallel.

Numbered Lists (APA 7, Section 6.51)

When ordinal position is important, list items vertically.

The organization’s emergency management protocol consists of seven sequential steps:

  • Step 1 involves ...
  • Step 2 consists of …
  • Step 3 has five components: ...

This would be appropriate when you need to show a specific order of elements, such as in steps in a procedure or conclusions.

List items should be complete sentences or paragraphs in a series (not phrases).

Use Microsoft Word’s numbered list function to create the list; select the option with Arabic numerals (not enclosed within parentheses) followed by a period. Capitalize the first word after the number and the first word of any subsequent sentence. End each sentence with appropriate final punctuation. List items should be double-spaced and indented .5 inch.

Bulleted Lists (APA 7, Section 6.52)

Bulleted lists are appropriate when presenting a list of items in no particular order. Bulleted list items can be complete sentences or phrases or sentence fragments. Use Word’s bulleted list function to create the list. List items should be double-spaced and indented .5 inch.

If complete sentences, begin each list item with a capital letter as you would a regular sentence and insert final punctuation (usually a period) at the end of each list item.

Recommendations for improving patient safety at the facility include the following:

  • Install adequate lighting and ventilation in wards, patient rooms, and other areas.
  • Incorporate regular training and drills to promote staff awareness of safety procedures.
  • Regularly solicit staff and patient and family feedback using an outside firm.

If phrases or sentence fragments, begin each list item with a lowercase letter.

In APA 7, you have two options for punctuating bulleted phrases: to include no punctuation after each list item and after the last list item or to include commas or semicolons, as appropriate, after each list item and final punctuation at the end of the list. (Note that APA 6 only recommended the option to punctuate lists with commas or semicolons.)

The first option may be better for shorter, less complex lists.

  • installing adequate lighting and ventilation
  • incorporating regular training and drills
  • regularly soliciting staff and patient and family feedback

The second option may be better for longer, more complex lists.

  • installing adequate lighting and ventilation in wards, patient rooms, and other areas;
  • incorporating regular training and drills to promote staff awareness of safety procedures; and
  • regularly soliciting staff and patient and family feedback using an outside firm.

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Make Your Essay Structure Rock-Solid with These Tips

Lindsay Kramer

So you’ve been assigned an essay. Or, probably more realistically, two, three, or four essays  . . . and they’re all due the same week. 

We’ve all been there: overwhelmed, staring down that blank screen, and not sure which essay to start with or how to get it started. 

In high school and college, it’s not enough to just write strong essays. One of the most important skills to develop is writing strong essays efficiently . And the foundation of that skill is knowing how to structure an essay. With a template for the basic essay structure in hand, you can focus on what really matters when you’re writing essays: your arguments and the evidence you’re using to support them. Take a look at the basic essay structure below and see how the parts of an essay work together to present a coherent, well-reasoned position, no matter what topic you’re writing about. 

Make your essays shine. Polish your writing with Grammarly Write with Grammarly

Basic essay structure: the 3 main parts of an essay

Almost every single essay that’s ever been written follows the same basic structure: 

Introduction

Body paragraphs.

This structure has stood the test of time for one simple reason: It works. It clearly presents the writer’s position, supports that position with relevant examples, and neatly ties their supporting arguments together in a way that makes their position evident. 

It all starts here. This is where you introduce the topic you’re discussing in your essay and briefly summarize the points you’ll make in the paragraphs that follow. 

This is also where you state your thesis. Your thesis is the most important part of your essay because it’s the point you’re making . It needs to take a clear stance and shouldn’t include hedging language that undermines that stance like “seems to” or “possibly could.”

Here are a few examples of thesis statements:

  • In the final scene of The Awakening , Edna Pontellier’s decision demonstrates that it was impossible for her to have the lifestyle she truly wanted in the society in which she lived.
  • Due to its volatility and lack of government regulation, Bitcoin cannot become a viable currency for everyday purchases.
  • While the habitability of Mars has not yet been proven, evidence suggests that it was once possible due to bacteria samples found on the Red Planet.

An easy way to write your thesis statement is to think of it as a summary of your essay. Your thesis makes and supports your essay’s point in one concise sentence. 

When you proofread your finished essay, make sure your thesis is clearly stated in your introduction paragraph. If it’s not clear, go back and write a definitive thesis statement. 

>>Read More: How to Write a Persuasive Essay

Your essay’s body paragraphs are where you support your thesis statement with facts and evidence. Each body paragraph should focus on one supporting argument for your thesis by discussing related data, content, or events. 

If you’re not sure whether you should include a specific point or detail in your body paragraphs, refer back to your thesis statement. If the detail supports your thesis, it should be in your essay. If it doesn’t, leave it out. Your thesis statement is the core of your basic essay structure, so everything else in the essay needs to relate to it in some way. 

In your essay’s conclusion paragraph , you summarize the points you made and bring your argument to its logical conclusion. Because your reader is now familiar with your thesis, the summary in your conclusion paragraph can be more direct and conclusive than the one in your intro paragraph.

>>Read More: 7 Writing Tips from Professors to Help you Crush your First Essays

How many paragraphs are in an essay?

There’s no hard-and-fast requirement for college essays. In high school, you were probably taught to write five-paragraph essays. This is a solid essay structure to work with, but in college, you generally have more flexibility with assignment lengths and formats. 

Now, consider five the minimum—not the standard—number of paragraphs you should include in your essays. 

Essay structure examples

There are a few different ways to present information in an essay. Often, your assignment will tell you what kind of essay to write, such as a chronological, compare and contrast, or problems-methods-solution essay. If you’re not sure which is best for your assignment, ask your instructor. 

Chronological

A chronological essay guides the reader through a series of events. This essay structure is ideal if you’re writing about:

  • A current or historical event
  • A book or article you read for class
  • A process or procedure

With this kind of essay, you first introduce your topic and summarize the series of events in your introduction paragraph. Then, each body paragraph takes the reader through a key stage in that series, which might be a decisive battle in history, a pivotal scene in a novel, or a critical stage in a judicial process. In your conclusion, you present the end result of the series you discussed, underscoring your thesis with this result. 

Compare and contrast

A compare-and-contrast essay has a structure that discusses multiple subjects, like several novels, concepts, or essays you’ve been assigned to read.

There are a few different ways to structure a compare-and-contrast essay. The most obvious is to spend one paragraph discussing the similarities between the topics you’re covering (comparing), then one paragraph detailing their differences (contrasting), followed by a paragraph that explores whether they’re more alike or more different from each other. 

Another method is to only compare, where each of your body paragraphs discusses a similarity between the topics at hand. Or you can go the only-contrast route, where your body paragraphs explore the differences. Whichever you decide on, make sure each paragraph is focused on one topic sentence . Every new comparison or contrast should occupy its own paragraph.

Problems-methods-solution

As its name implies, this kind of essay structure presents the writer’s position in three segments:

  • Ways to resolve the problem 
  • The solution achieved by using these strategies to resolve the problem 

This kind of essay works great if you’re discussing methods for resolving a problem, like knowing how to distinguish between credible and non-credible sources when you’re doing research for assignments. It can also work when you’re tasked with explaining why certain solutions haven’t worked to fix the problems they were created for. 

With this kind of essay, begin by introducing the problem at hand. In the subsequent body paragraphs, cover possible methods for resolving the problem, discussing how each is suited to fixing the problem, and potential challenges that can arise with each. You can certainly state which you think is the best choice—that could even be your thesis statement. In your conclusion paragraph, summarize the problem again and the desired resolution, endorsing your method of choice (if you have one). 

In this kind of essay, you can also include a call to action in your final paragraph. A call to action is a direct order for the reader to take a specific action, like “call your congressperson today and tell them to vote no” or “visit grammarly.com today to add Grammarly browser extension for free.”

>>Read More: How to Write Better Essays: 5 Concepts you Must Master

With the basic essay structure down, you can get to writing

For a lot of students, getting started is the hardest part of writing an essay. Knowing how to structure an essay can get you past this seemingly insurmountable first step because it gives you a clear skeleton upon which to flesh out your thoughts. With that step conquered, you’re on your way to crushing your assignment.

writing a list in an essay

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3. DOCUMENT DESIGN

Lists, when used correctly, can be a technical writer’s—and reader’s—best friend. Lists allow you to emphasize important ideas. They also increase the readability of text by simplifying long sentences or paragraphs and adding aesthetic passive space to make reading more pleasant. However, using the wrong kind of list or poorly formatting a list can create confusion rather than enhance readability. Therefore, it is important to understand the various types of lists and how and why to use them.

Guidelines for Creating Lists

Adhere to the following guidelines when creating lists of any kind:

  • Include between 2-8 items in a list. You must have at least two items in a list (or it’s not a list; it’s just an item). Avoid having more than 8 items in a list, as too many items can have the reverse effect. If you emphasize too many ideas, you end up emphasizing nothing. NASA recommends no more than 8 steps in an emergency procedure; more than 8 can be overwhelming in a crisis situation.
  • Try to avoid splitting a list over two pages if possible.
  • Avoid overusing lists. A list should always have explanatory text around it to indicate what this is a list of and why it is needed. A series of lists does not give a reader adequate information and context.
  • Adjust spacing before, after, and within lists to enhance readability. Avoid having a list of information all scrunched up into a dense block of text; this defeats the purpose of enhancing readability.
  • Capitalize the first letter of each list item.
  • Use parallel phrasing for each listed item (note that each item in this list starts with a verb that is bolded only to catch your attention, not as a style you must follow).
  • Never use a heading to introduce a list.

Each kind of list is suited for specific purposes. All lists must conform to a set of rules of construction and formatting. Learning to use the Paragraph formatting tool in Word (see Figure 3.3.1 ) is crucial to designing effective lists.

NOTE : If you are making lists by hitting ENTER then TAB and then a dash, you are doing it wrong, and this will make future editing and maintaining readability very difficult if not impossible. Especially when writing documents collaboratively that will need extensive revision and editing, you must make sure to use the correct formatting tools.

Common Types of Lists

Just as bar graphs serve a different purpose than pie charts, different kinds of lists also serve different purposes. This section will describe when and how to use the following five commonly used types of lists:

  • Bullet Lists : use when order of listed items is not important
  • Numbered Lists : use when order is important, such as steps in instructions
  • In-sentence Lists : use when you want to maintain sentence structure and paragraphing, and have a short list (2-4 items)
  • Labelled Lists : use when the listed items require some explanation or amplification (like this one)
  • Nested Lists : use when listed items have sub-lists (list within a list).

BULLET LISTS

Bullet lists are the most commonly used kind of list. They are effective when

  • You want to emphasize two or more items
  • You can place the items in any order (no particular order is required)
  • You want to add white space to your document to enhance readability.

Bullet list items should generally be short (a word or a phrase). If you find your bulleted items are longer than this, consider using another kind of list, such as a labelled list or a nested list.

NUMBERED LISTS

Use numbered lists when the order of the listed items is important and ideas must be expressed in chronological order. For example, use a numbered list when you must enumerate a series of steps in instructions, or when you are introducing ideas that will be discussed in a certain order in the following text. If you have a list of more than 8 items, consider breaking up the list in two or more stages or categories (Steps in Stage 1, Steps in Stage 2, etc .).

Revision of your document should be undertaken in 4 stages done in the following order:

  • Check formatting for readability
  • Review content to ensure the document contains all necessary information
  • Edit sentence style and structure to ensure ideas are clearly and correctly expressed in a formal and precise manner
  • Proofread for grammar, spelling, punctuation and usage errors.

NOTE :   The 4 steps in the sample numbered list each begin with a verb ( check, review, edit , and proofread ), indicating what the reader should do, and the numbers indicate the order in which these steps should be performed.

IN-SENTENCE LISTS

Use in-sentence lists when you want to (a) keep paragraph style, (b) to avoid having too many lists on one page, and (c) when the list items are relatively short and can be expressed in a sentence clearly without creating a run-on. The previous sentence is an example of an in-sentence list. Note that a bracketed, lower-case letter introduces each listed item.

Typically, in-sentence lists have 2-4 items. Generally avoid putting more than 4 items in this kind of list (unless they are very short), or your sentence might become difficult to read.

LABELLED LISTS

Use a labeled list when you are listing items that need further explanation. These can be bulleted or numbered. Start the list item with the word or term (the “label” portion), placed in italics and/or bold, and followed by a colon. After the colon, write the explanation or amplification of the term or concept in normal body text.

The course assessment plan includes three main written assignments given in the following order:

  • Report One : an internal proposal written in Memo format
  • Report Two : an internal proposal written in Short Report format
  • Report Three : A comparative recommendation report written for an external client in Long Report format.

The plan also includes two oral presentations:

  • Presentation 1 : Individual or pair presentation on a technical writing topic (worth 5%)
  • Presentation 2 : Team presentation giving a progress report on Report 3 (worth 10%).

Make sure the label portions (before the colon) are phrased consistently and either italicized or bolded (or both!) for emphasis; try to make the explanations that follow roughly equal in length and detail.

NESTED LISTS

A “nested” list is a list-within-a-list or a list with sub-listed items. These can be useful for avoiding overly long bullet lists by categorizing items into sub-lists. Note the long bullet list on the left does not effectively categorize items, so emphasis is lost. The Nested List on the right is more effective.

This is not an exhaustive list of the kinds of lists you may run across in your technical reading. These are simply the most common kinds of lists, and ones you should be able to identify and use effectively in your technical writing assignments to enhance readability.

A Note on Punctuating the End of List Items

Conventions for punctuating list items vary depending on the context. Legal writing tends to use more punctuation than technical writing (list items often end in semicolons and the final item is introduced by an “and”). In technical documents, because this style favours simplicity, you typically place a period only after the final item in your list. If each listed item has complete sentences within it, then you will place a period at the end of each list item. If you have a simple bullet list, you may omit the final period.

EXERCISE 3.3 Identify the document design errors in the following example

Five Kinds of List :

  •     Bullet lists
  • numbered lists.
  • Lists can be written within a sentence using bracketed letters to introduce the list items.
  • Also called a “list within a list”
  • Labelled List

Integrating Lists into Body Text

Just as there are rules for constructing lists, there are rules for how to incorporate them into your text. Most importantly, a list must be introduced by a lead-in sentence (or clause) that contains both a subject and a verb. Technical writers often use the expression “the following” somewhere in the lead-in sentence to clearly indicate that a list of items will follow.

If the lead-in is a complete sentence that contains both a subject and verb ( ie . it could end in a period), it should end in a colon that introduces the listed items. If the sentence is not a complete thought, ( ie . you could not put a period there) the lead-in should not end in any punctuation, and each listed item must be able to grammatically complete the lead-in sentence.

Complete lead-in sentence ( ends in a colon )

The term design project must allow students to incorporate the following elements into their solution:

  • Mechanical engineering principles
  • Electrical engineering knowledge
  • Software/programming basics.

Partial lead-in sentence ( no punctuation after lead-in )

The term design project must allow students to design a solution using

GRAMMAR TIP: One of the most common errors found in technical reports has to do with the introduction of lists and how these are punctuated. Here are some additional examples of how—and how NOT—to introduce lists.

Don’t use a colon before a list unless the introduction to the list is a complete thought, that is, an independent clause . Remember this rule: if you can’t put a period there, then you can’t put a colon there.

In some cases, a list might not be helpful and instead might just over-complicate your document. In such cases, list your ideas in sentence form, within the paragraph, as in the final panda example below. A page with too many lists looks like an outline instead of a coherently expressed series of ideas.

EXERCISE 3.4 Which of the follow lead-ins should end in a colon? Which should end with no punctuation?

  • Our solution aims to meet the following objectives
  • The design constraints that must be considered are
  • All proposed designs must abide by the following constraints
  • The proposed solutions offers many tangible benefits, such as
  • The proposed solution offers the following tangible benefits

EXERCISE 3.5 Identify the types of lists below

EXERCISE 3.6

  • Could you categorize them into nested lists? What kind of categories?
  • Consider what text would introduce and follow your list.
  • What kind of document would contain a list of vehicle types? Who would read it?
  • Read Farkas’ article on “Understanding and using PowerPoint” (.pdf) [1] and create a set of bullet-listed notes summarizing his ideas on “Criteria for Creating Bullet Points.”
  • D. K. Farkas, “ Understanding and using PowerPoint ,” STC Annual Conference Proceedings , May 2005, pp. 313-320. ↵

Technical Writing Essentials by Suzan Last is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Writing from Near and Far

Writing from Near and Far

Transform Your Travels Into Meaningful Memoir

How to Write a List Essay

If you’re feeling stuck with your travel memoir writing, an interesting and playful structure to try is to tell your story in the form of a how-to list. This structure is like an instruction manual, but humorously reframes each step as part of your story. Some example titles might be:

How to Not Get Deported in Singapore How to Get Your Heart Broken in Hanoi How to Get Over Sea Sickness in Greece How to Become a Lifelong American Expatriate

What would your title be?

Let’s think about an example: If you had a life changing experience on a boat ride down the Ganges River, your title might be ‘How to be Profoundly Moved on the Ganges River’. You might start out with: “1. Decide to book a flight to India. Change your mind. Change it back. Ask your friends if you’re making the right decision. Listen to your husband telling you, ‘Just go. It’s not that big of a deal.”

As you can see, this type of essay is written in the second person. That means you’ll be using ‘you’ in place of ‘I’, and writing in the imperative voice (giving commands) rather than unfolding a traditional tale.

This type of essay will also include numbers for each ‘step’ in your how to guide. I suggest not having too many steps. Between 5 and 15 is a good range to aim for. Some steps can be longer than others—they don’t necessarily need to be of similar lengths.

Still going with our example, the rest of ‘How to be Profoundly Moved on the Ganges River’ could focus on your transition from ambivalence to profound experience as you spend time on the river, meet the others on the boat with you, and make stops along the way.

These steps could start something like this:

“Meet Chris from Idaho on the walk up to the temple. He tells you …”

And “Walk next to Daveed, your guide. Decide to listen closely to everything he says about …”

And “Avoid stray dogs at all costs. You read about this in the guide books, but acting upon this advice is different than reading. You love dogs, but you must suppress this love for now.”

Obviously I’m just making up these examples to help you get some ideas for your own how to essay.

Even if you’ve written about a particular trip in the past in a more traditional way, this structure can help you reframe that experience and write it from a different angle. This kind of structure is also great for online publications, since so much of what we read online these days is comprised of lists. This how to structure gives the impression of a light, quick read. And your interpretation of this kind of essay can certainly fit that, but it can also be dense and profound, only masking as light Internet fodder.

Take a look at this example from the Agni review  titled Breakup Tips.

Even though Breakup Tips is not travel themed, it is still a great (and quick) example of a how to essay that reaches for profound over light. Almost every sentence starts with an imperative: “Stand,” “Draw,” “Wait,” “Pull,” “Find,” etc. It’s a good idea to start most of your numbered sections with a command word to pull off the conceit that this is an instructional text.

I’ve also published one of these essays, mentioned as an example above: How to Become a Lifelong American Expatriate . Writing my story as a how to guide allowed me to give a broad overview of my travels and moves to different countries over the years, all masked as instructions to the reader. The appealing and humorous aspect of these kinds of essays is the suspended belief that any of these lists could ever actually exist as an instruction to someone else, when of course they couldn’t. That’s what makes it fun, and potentially profound. When we push ourselves to tell our stories in unconventional forms, magic can happen.

If you start to write this, I’d love to read it! Send me an email with your draft, and I’ll give you some helpful feedback.

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How to Incorporate a List As a Paragraph

While many lists are presented in a bulleted or numbered format, writing lists into a paragraph can allow for better flow to your paper. Lists are often used to introduce a series of topics within one paragraph. Some style guides, such as Modern Language Association or MLA format, prefer lists to be presented in a paragraph rather than in bullet form. Other styles, such as the Chicago Manual of Style, suggest that using bullets appears cumbersome in formal papers. You can follow some guidelines for appropriately incorporating lists into paragraph format.

Sentence Seriation

Introduce the series and then write out the series after a colon. For example: “Use the MLA style guide to find: (1) general guidelines for research papers, including paper formatting; (2) instructions to create in-text citations; and (3) rules for Works Cited pages.” The list appears after the colon and each item in the list is marked with a number in parentheses. While MLA prefers items in lists to include numbers in parentheses, APA style allows you to use lower-case letters for seriation with sentences.

Form Enhances Content

Use parallel structure, keeping all items in the list in the same form. For example, in the list you just read in the first section, you wouldn't write "looking up rules for Works Cited pages” for the third bullet point. Since the first two points start with nouns, the third point should follow suit. Writing, "rules for Works Cited pages" keeps the three list items in the same form.

  • Purdue Online Writing Lab: APA Headings and Seriation
  • University of Wisconsin-Madison: Using Semicolons
  • Purdue Online Writing Lab: Parallel Structure

Cara Batema is a musician, teacher and writer who specializes in early childhood, special needs and psychology. Since 2010, Batema has been an active writer in the fields of education, parenting, science and health. She holds a bachelor's degree in music therapy and creative writing.

How to Properly List Things in a Sentence

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| Danielle McLeod

Photo of author

Danielle McLeod

Danielle McLeod is a highly qualified secondary English Language Arts Instructor who brings a diverse educational background to her classroom. With degrees in science, English, and literacy, she has worked to create cross-curricular materials to bridge learning gaps and help students focus on effective writing and speech techniques. Currently working as a dual credit technical writing instructor at a Career and Technical Education Center, her curriculum development surrounds student focus on effective communication for future career choices.

Lists are a popular way for people to stay organized. Perhaps you jot down grocery items or tasks you need to complete at work each day on a sticky note or your phone. But, when you need to communicate lists in writing and speech, you need to organize them in a manner to show importance and clarity to your audience.

Items aren’t the only thing you can make a list of either: ideas, claims, directions, and even complicated storylines can be integrated into a list format.

The biggest challenge I encounter when teaching English is how to punctuate list items properly. Let’s look at how to write a sentence with a list below and where and when to use punctuation, so your information is clear to your reader.

What is the Best Way to Write a List?

When jotting down some quick list items for your eyes only (such as a simple grocery list), you probably don’t care what your lists look like. But list format matters when you have an audience.

Listing things in a sentence can contain simple items, such as what you might pick up from a store. Or a list might illustrate complicated directions or ideas to help support a claim. No matter the content, organization and punctuation matter , as does the proper grammar for listing items.

There are two types of lists: vertical and horizontal. Both are very useful and communicate ideas effectively when used in the proper context.

When to Use Vertical Lists

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Vertical, bulleted lists are great to use when you need to make a very visual point concerning your list items. This style of organization is best used for emails and memos that are formal but brief and very specific in the information being shared. It also works great to help break larger sentences into something quick and easy to view.

For example:

  • A copy of your licensure certification
  • Your available transportation dates
  • A list of all students attending
  • An overview of your trip itinerary
  • The objectives of the lesson associated with the trip

It is also good for providing formal yet understandable directions.

  • 4 lbs of flour
  • 1 dozen eggs
  • 1 can each of baking soda and baking powder
  • 12 packets of yeast
  • 1 block of sharp cheddar cheese
  • 2 lbs fresh jalapeno peppers

Vertical lists are also the preference for a quick, informal item listing for personal use.

writing a list in an essay

Grocery List

When to Use Horizontal Lists

Horizontal lists are best used when writing out more complicated ideas in paragraph form. They work well for quick lists and are also the preference for writing dialog. These can be used in both formal and informal writing, especially when sharing complicated ideas or thoughts.

  • My frustration with the students had to do with their complete apathy toward the material, their disregard for wasted time, and their inability to realize how their actions were affecting their future.
  • I need you to run to the store to pick up a few items: milk, butter, eggs, and bread.
  • On our road trip, we passed through Fort Worth, Texas, where we spent a day at the Stockyards; Orlando, Florida, to visit my brother and his family; and Garden City, South Carolina, because I have a condo there.

How to Punctuate a List in a Sentence

Knowing the correct punctuation for list items is very important to avoid running your items together and creating a jumble of words. Lists not only use commas to separate items but also use colons and semicolons when the occasion arises.

Comma List Rules

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If you list three or more words, prepositional phrases, or clauses in a series, you need to use a comma to separate them. The comma placed between the final two items is called an Oxford (or serial) comma . Some people feel this is an unnecessary punctuation mark, but its use helps provide a visual separation to avoid confusion.

Use Commas to Separate Three or More Words

Commas separate words in a simple list of items to ensure your reader that they are separate items and not the same thing.

  • After work, I need to run to the grocery, laundry, and daycare.

Use Commas to Separate Three or More Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases add detail to your sentence’s main topic. Commas help separate these details to create understandable information.

  • Mykayla won the scholarship due to her detailed essay writing, her intrinsic motivation, and her interview preparation.

Use Commas to Separate Three or More Clauses

Clauses are detailed and consist of multiple words. A comma creates organization and structure, so your reader understands the information you share.

  • The high school marching band was plagued by many disappointments over the weekend when the bus they were traveling on got a flat tire, the competition they were performing in rained out after the first round, and the trip home took twice as long due to the rain.

When Not to Use a Comma

If your list items are already separated by coordinating conjunctions or you list pairs of items, you don’t have to use commas between them.

  • I went to the farm store for chicken and horse and dog food.
  • I love to make bacon and eggs, biscuits and gravy, and toast and jelly for breakfast.

Colon List Rules

Colons follow an independent clause to connect the information that follows with the main topic. When a colon introduces a list, what precedes it must be a complete sentence, even if the list is vertical.

Use a Colon to Introduce a List Horizontally

Horizontal lists are lists that are integrated into the sentence following the colon placement.

  • The school drill went flawlessly: everyone was organized, students stayed quiet, and the meeting place made it easy to take a head count.

Use a Colon to Introduce a List Vertically

If you use a colon to introduce a vertical list, you still need to place it after a complete sentence. Vertical lists work well for simple lists, or to list fragments when creating horizontal lists may create confusing or long sentences.

  • A choice of hot or iced coffee
  • Homemade breakfast pastries
  • Sandwiches made to order

Use a Colon to List Abbreviations

You can also use colons to list abbreviations.

  • MI: Michigan
  • SYP: Student Youth Program

When NOT to Use a Colon

Colons should not be used after headings, titles, or captions to introduce information. There are many other options you can use to indicate formatting.

  • Indentations
  • Underlining
  • Color changes

Semicolon List Rules

Semicolons are used to conjoin two complete sentences related to one another. It can also replace a comma and coordinating conjunction pair to avoid the repetitive use of and .

When used to separate list items, semicolons help create a division between elements that already include a comma. This can be as simple as city and state combinations or work to help clarify complex lists that contain descriptive instruction.

Use a Semicolon to List Locations

Semicolons are used to punctuate complex lists that include cities, states, and countries. Since commas are necessary to properly punctuate locations, a semicolon is needed if more than one is used in a series.

  • I’m using my vacation days this year to road trip through Moab, Utah; San Francisco, California; Portland, Oregon; and a stop to ski in Banff, Alberta, Canada before heading back home.

Use a Semicolon to Divide Events

Descriptive events that contain a comma should be separated by a semicolon if they are listed within a sentence.

  • Our trip to the Kennedy Space Center included a walking tour of the shuttle Atlantis, which is on display in the memorial building; a break in the Planet Play Zone, where children are immersed in space exploration; and an astronaut training experience, a real-life encounter with astronaut training scenarios.

Use a Semicolon for Descriptive Instructions

If your sentence includes detailed, punctured instructions, you will need to separate these steps using a semicolon.

  • Before our field trip on Friday, I need you all to complete the following information in advance: one, your physical health release; two, your physics worksheet on forces; three, your confirmed group members complete with contact information.

Use a Semicolon to Provide Detail

When including descriptive elements in your list items, you should include semicolons if the descriptions are already punctuated.

  • The luncheon included ham, turkey, and vegetable finger sandwiches with delicate cheeses; fresh melons, strawberries, and grapes with a sweet dipping sauce; and a choice of decadent fruit sorbets, tartlets, or hand-dipped chocolates for dessert.

When NOT to Use a Semicolon

Do not use a semicolon to replace a comma unless the list item that follows already includes comma punctuation. Also, do not use a semicolon to replace a colon. Semicolons do not introduce a list.

Let’s Review

Including lists in your writing to create descriptions and detail is an excellent way to create varied sentence structure. Although you don’t want to depend upon it too heavily, there are many ways to punctuate your items when you begin to include phrases and clauses within your list organization.

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How to Integrate a List of Things in an Essay or Paper

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In academic writing, all papers must follow strict formatting rules and structures. Essays, research papers, term papers, dissertations, theses, or reports are written in APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, or Oxford, among other formatting styles. With the structure comes some rules to maintain, and one of these rules is how to incorporate lists when writing.

Lists are ideal even when writing in prose, even if they abruptly disrupt the structure, design, length, and sometimes grammar of the written piece. They can be integrated into the prose (horizontally or run-in) or set vertically depending on the amount of information and its intended purpose.

What is in a list? You may ask .

A list makes your work easy to read without struggling to identify the main points. They make your format recognizable and your reading digestible.

If you use the right punctuation, syntax, and grammar and stick to the formatting style requirements, you are good at including lists in an essay or any academic writing task. However, you must know that you can only use a vertical list if there are more than three items, and anything less than that should not be listed and should follow the general sentence formatting rules.

Let us see how everything works and how to present a list in an essay.

Types of Lists in Academic Writing

You can format lists differently, provided they are parallel and consistent. In academic writing, there are two types of lists: run-in lists and vertical lists, and let us expound on the meaning and formats of each.

Run-in Lists

A run-in list is a list that is included as part of the general text, and they are laid out in line in running prose. It is a horizontal list that entails listing the items as part of the sentences in a paragraph using the correct punctuation. In APA, you can use seriation within sentences where an item in the sentence is preceded by a number or letter enclosed in two brackets, followed by a semicolon, and has a period at the end of the sentence. Let’s look at an example:

Based on post-world cup analysis research conducted by sports researchers, it emerged that (a) it united more people than ever; (b) created a sense of belongingness for football fans; (c) broke the fear caused by the Covid-19; (d) helped entertain millions of fans; (e) contributed to Qatar’s GDP.

You can introduce run-in lists through a complete sentence followed by a list of items preceded by a colon while a comma separates each item. Let us look at an example:

Every camper and hiker should be introduced to basic survival skills training so that they can: make a fire without flint or matches, forage food, track and navigate the wild, make simple tools, and manage emergency scenarios.

On the same note, the list can also be part of a sentence where each item is separated by numbers or letters in paragraphs. Let us look at an illustration.

Kids should train for and participate in triathlons because it: (1) keeps them active, (2) teaches them to set and meet goals, (3) helps them develop motor skills, and (4) develops strength, endurance, and balance.

Vertical Lists

Vertical lists are laid out vertically and can be ordered and labeled with numbers or letters or bulleted (unordered).

A vertical list is preceded by a complete sentence that gives a brief introduction or overview of the items or points in a list. Vertical lists do not necessarily have to be bulleted, nor do you require to put a punctuation mark at the end of each item in the entry.

Making a camping fire is a fun process that involves the following:

  • Have a source of water, a bucket, and a shovel
  • Gather enough wood for the fire
  • Pile a handful of tinder at the center of the fire pit
  • Kindle the fire and add more wood

When your lead-in sentence is complete, and all the entries comprise complete sentences, you can use a final period at the end of each item in the list.

When you have a long list that cannot be presented in a single sentence, use vertical lists that are punctuated as a sentence. You can use this structure when the phrases have internal punctuation, or the reader might have trouble getting the gist of your written text.

If you have a complex vertical list, you can format it like an outline. You can then use numbers or letters to itemize the items in the list. The lead-in or introductory sentence should be a complete sentence followed by a colon.

Vertical lists help improve readability by breaking blocks of prose or chunks. They also help the readers to skim the text with ease, and they also highlight important content. Finally, they can be used as a signpost or to cue the readers about the following content, especially when listing subheadings or sections.

Ensure that you observe the nuanced rules for punctuating vertical lists for every formatting style you use to write an academic paper.

When to Use Lists in an Essay or Paper

Even though lists can disrupt the formatting, grammar, and structure of an essay or a written piece, they are sometimes the necessary evil that makes such papers organized. Imagine reading a prose format text that has stuffed a list of items in a sentence, and you must read, interpret, or internalize. It would be a tough call, won’t it? That’s where lists come in. Lists are meant to get your reader’s attention so they can decode your message on the go and off the bat. You can use lists in an essay when:

  • Introducing a cluster of ideas
  • Including themes
  • Writing subtopics
  • Writing an assessment/evaluation checklist
  • Steps in a process or analysis (procedures, strategic planning or project planning, nursing SOAP Notes, etc.)
  • Components of an item (list of board of directors, recipes, etc.)
  • Signposting the ideas in your written piece
  • List of recommendations
  • Help navigate longer lists such as data sets

That said, you must adhere to parallelism and punctuation to the T when creating a list in an essay or any academic writing task. Besides, you must pay attention to the general formatting guidelines for the respective formatting style you are writing the paper.

Different Ways to List Items in an Essay

When assigned to write an essay or research paper in MLA, APA, Chicago, or Harvard formatting styles and you need to make a list, you should only proceed when it is unavoidable. Combine the list with good transition words, and you will make comprehensive, coherent, and cogent paragraphs that make your writing stand out.

That said, many ways to list items in an essay include using a numbered list, bulleted list, lettered list, and running text lists. Even though these means are allowed, you can only use lists sparingly in your writing.

1.      Bulleted or Unordered Lists

Bulleted lists are a preference when using lists that do not communicate hierarchical, superiority, priority, or chronological order. Although sparingly, you can use bulleted points in academic writing when:

  • Formulating recipes and introducing component lists.
  • Listing items
  • Emphasizing points after an interpretation
  • Clarifying the step-by-step process
  • Condensing descriptions
  • Providing evidence to support arguments and claims
  • Illustrating points
  • Providing examples

If opportunity allows, you are highly encouraged to use bullet lists in a research paper to make it readable as long as there is no condition to the list. If you have lists that are not too long, have them as separate paragraphs. You can also introduce short bulleted lists as titled sections. But if you have longer items to list and want to be thorough in your listing, use a bulleted list.

Before introducing the bullet list, ensure that you have an opening sentence explaining the list's contents. The introduction should give your readers a head start on the items, so they are not confused as they read.

When including the bulleted lists, indent them at least one inch or one tab stop from the left margin. The lists should be double or single, depending on the entire document's general spacing.

You cannot use a bulleted list in an academic essay or paper when:

  • Writing the conclusion of your paper
  • Writing the thesis statement
  • Writing the introduction paragraph

The use of bullet points is strictly prohibited in these circumstances. You can use bullet lists in quotations, as we share later in this article.

Related Reading: Transition words and phrases to use in a university essay .

2.      Numbered or Ordered Lists

Like bullet point lists, you can use numbered lists that are similar, only that the latter has numbers instead of bullet points. Besides, there are also rules to observe when using either.

Most formatting styles, such as MLA and APA, allow seriation (use of numbered or ordered lists). However, this should be done sparingly as well. Overusing the numbered lists will make your paper look more like an outline than an academic piece written in prose.

You should use numbered lists when describing a series of events or a logical arrangement of items. Every list begins with numerals and ends in a full stop/ period.

If you are integrating the list in prose, you need to use colons and bracketed numbers.

The main steps of taking a shower include: (1) getting your clothes off, (2) getting into the bathroom; (3) activating the shower and adjusting to the right temperature, and (4) taking a bath.”

Notice that you must open and close the parentheses and not use just one bracket.

You can also use a semicolon and bracketed numbers if your pieces of evidence have a comma in the middle, and Semicolons are used to separate the elements. Alternatively, you can make a vertical list rather than a run-in text to better capture readers' attention.

You can also list items by specifying their order. This is the first, second, third…nth.

3.      List with Letters

Lettered lists are like numbered lists in every aspect. Listing things in an essay using letters and brackets entails using lowercase letters within parentheses preceding the items in the list, followed by semicolons before introducing the next item. The second last item will have the semicolon and the word “and” or “or” before introducing the last item and finishing with a period.

The main steps of taking a shower include: (a) getting your clothes off, (b) getting into the bathroom; (c) activating the shower and adjusting to the right temperature, and (d) taking a bath.

4.      Running Text Lists

Ever heard of the famous Oxford comma? You can use it in a sentence to introduce a list of items in an essay within run-in texts, and the serial comma precedes the conjunction.

When you plan a hike, you must pick a safe destination, get good gear, have the right attitude, prepare well, and plan your trip.

Making Lists in APA formatting Style

APA formatting style, used primarily in social sciences, allows using both numbered and bulleted lists. You should consult with your instructor whether to include lists in your essay or piece of assignment for clarity so that you submit work that meets instructions.

In APA style, you can list with bullets if you want to separate points in a sentence. In this case, the list is not preceded by a colon, and the bulleted list is considered part of the sentence. This option is usually great when writing complex sentences that might be difficult to digest without punctuation. If the bulleted list contains phrases rather than sentences, there is no need for punctuation.

As an example:

The project planning team has assessed the suitability of the location and has already completed

  • the impact assessment report;
  • health and safety report;
  • work breakdown structure;
  • letters of request;
  • soil testing report as illustrated in their final letter.

In APA 7, using numbered lists is encouraged for complete sentences or paragraphs in a series. You can, for instance, use a numbered list when describing steps in a procedure or including itemized recommendations.

In APA 7, you have two options for punctuating bulleted phrases: to include no punctuation after each list item and after the last list item or to include commas or semicolons, as appropriate, after each list item and final punctuation at the end of the list. Example:

  • the impact assessment report
  • health and safety report
  • work breakdown structure
  • letters of request

Here is an example of a seriated list in APA

A survey should include (a) clear wording, (b) convenient access, (c)concise direction, and (d) simple language.

If you list three or more items, use a serial comma or Oxford comma before the last item and the conjunction “and’ or “or.” If you have one or more clauses that contain commas, you should use a semicolon instead of a comma to separate every clause.

Also Read: Signposting strategies for essays and papers .

How to make a List in MLA Format

In MLA style, primarily used in humanities subjects, there are many ways to integrate a list.

First, you can integrate a list into your essay's prose or paragraphs. In this case, the lists are introduced by the text.

E.g., “ We can praise Baldwin for his astute sociological observations, crafting meticulous sentences, and using metropolitan dialogue.”

Instead of using commas, you can also list using a colon.

For example, “ Baldwin is known, primarily, for three reasons: astute sociological observations, meticulous crafting of sentences, and using decidedly metropolitan dialogue.”

You can also introduce a vertical list in MLA either as a complete sentence or a list that continues the sentence that introduced it.

If you introduce a list by a complete sentence in the body, it should end in a colon first, then introduce the list as complete sentences or fragments. In this case, the first letter of each item in the list must be capitalized if they are a complete sentence. Besides, you should adhere to the punctuation rules for sentences.

Having gone through the report, four pertinent questions arise:

  • Are we prepared for the future?
  • Are our competitors edging us out of the market?
  • Do we have the capacity to counter competition?
  • When can we begin implementing new mechanisms to counter the effects we are seeing now?

You can also stratify some sentences in your MLA-format paper into a vertical list, and the lists will be considered as one single sentence.

In this case, since it is a sentence continuation, there is no need to include a colon before the list. Instead, begin the sentence as usual and format each item on a separate line.

Every item in the list ends in a semicolon. The second last item should have a semicolon and the word “or” or the word “and. The final item should have a closing punctuation of the sentence.

Several schools are reconsidering their physical security setups by

  • installing motion sensors;
  • installing gates with access controls;
  • hiring guards with military training;
  • only allowing authorized vehicles into the school; and
  • Log in to all the people who enter and leave the school digitally.

If you can avoid using numbered lists in MLA, please do so without hesitation.

Using Bulleted Lists with Quotes and Paraphrased Text

You can use bulleted lists to format paraphrased passages from a source. You need to use a signal phrase or citation in the sentence before the text. For example:

“Red and yellow are the best colors to decorate a restaurant because they induce feelings of hunger, energize customers to order more food, and prevent patrons from lingering in the dining area once they have finished their meals.” (Jackson, 2009)

This can be paraphrased as:

It is profit-oriented to decorate a restaurant with yellow and red colors. Jackson (2009) suggests

  • make people feel hungry;
  • lead to customers eating and therefore spending more;
  • and encourage diners to leave the restaurant once they have finished eating, freeing the tables for new customers.

A bulleted list can also function as a block quote, without quotation marks, if taken directly from the source. However, you must introduce the source with a signal phrase, and the quote should be single-spaced. If you change any words, you need to use brackets. You should also include the citation in the list item after the period after the last thing in the list.

Sticking to the same original passage, the right way to present this would be:

In her marketing study, Jackson highlights the benefits of decorating a restaurant with red and yellow color schemes citing that these colors,

  • induce (potential customers’) feelings of hunger,
  • energize customers to order more food, and
  • prevent patrons from lingering in the dining area once they have finished their meals. (Jackson, 2009, p. 29)

You can also use the bulleted list to quote individual list items directly and paraphrase some items. Again, you must use the signal phrase or citation in the paragraph preceding the list. You should also include quotation marks and citations with the quotes in verbatim. Taking the same example:

When it comes to restaurant décor, the findings of a marketing study by Jackson (2009) suggest that the colors red and yellow:

  • Make people feel hungry.
  • “Energize customers to order more food.” (Jackson, 2009, p. 29)
  • Encourage diners to leave the restaurant once they have finished eating, freeing the table for new customers.

Dos and Don’ts when Using Lists

As you strive to perfect listing items or things in an essay or paper, there are some things you should do and others that you should not do. Even though we have listed them as part of this guide, in the previous sections, let us gather them together for clarity. Below are some things you should do and others not to do with lists in academic writing:

  • Only group items that are related. As you write and edit lists in your essay or academic writing, ensure they belong together. Only give a list of items related to the paragraph, sentences preceding it, or those it is part of. If the things are unrelated, disband the list and use other strategies.
  • Your list should be easy to read. Instead of slapping everything else into your list, ensure it is structured and easy to read. The intention is to get the main idea out to your readers without them wasting much time. The list should be introduced well and straightforwardly. If there is a grammatically complex item, place it at the end of the list for easy processing.
  • Observe punctuation rules. Every academic writing style guide has a unique approach and the best ways to use either numbered or bulleted lists. You must adhere to punctuation styles, including a colon, semicolon, or period. The punctuation should be consistent and correct. If unsure, ask your instructor for clarification.
  • Stick to the grammatical rules. As you write the lists in your essay or paper, ensure that you observe grammatical rules such as capitalization rules.
  • Do it Sparingly . Your academic writing must demonstrate that you can comprehensively research, synthesize, and present facts about a specific topic or subject. Depending too much on lists can dilute the very purpose resulting in a subpar essay or paper. If there is an opening to use them, do it sparingly and only when unavoidable. You are not doing a PowerPoint slide and do not want your essay to look like a scatter graph. Draw meaningful connections using prose format that entails good flowing words, sentences, and paragraphs.

As you Exit….

Again, we insist that using numbered or bulleted items or points in academic writing should only be made when unavoidable.

  • How to write a perfect academic essay .
  • How to use quotes in essays and papers.

 The rationale is that formal academic writing entails synthesizing information and critically presenting arguments to explore in-depth topics, which can only be achieved with uninterrupted prose: complete sentences and paragraphs.

Capitalizing the items in a list depends on whether you are writing complete sentences or the list is part of a sentence in a paragraph. You can capitalize the first letter of the first word of the items in the list if you are writing a complete sentence where you don’t need a semicolon but a full stop or period at the end of each item.

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How do I incorporate lists into my essay in MLA style?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

In humanities essays, lists are generally run into the text rather than set vertically. A colon is often used to introduce a run-in list:

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie has written four novels: Purple Hibiscus , Half a Yellow Sun , The Thing around Your Neck , and Americanah .

But no colon is used before a list when the list is the object of the verb that introduces it:

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s novels include Purple Hibiscus , Half a Yellow Sun , and The Thing around Your Neck.

The list is the object of the verb include .

Essays Any Time

How to List Things in an Essay

Lists are essential components of essays because they make the paper easier to read and understand. Whether you are writing guides, recipes, academic papers, or informational articles, including lists is a good writing practice.

Nevertheless, lists can distort your paper’s structure, so you need careful consideration when listing things in your essay. So, how do you do it and balance between aesthetically improving your piece and, at the same time, not overdoing it?

Generally, a list is a form of presentation that helps to organize ideas orderly. It also provides information in an easy-to-read format. This makes it easier for your readers to understand what you are trying to convey.

In this post, we will go over the different types of lists that you can use when creating your essay, as well as when and why you should use them.

Importance of Listing Things in an Essay

You might be wondering why we need to use lists. A list helps you organize information, break up long paragraphs and make information easier to understand. Lists can also be used to make reading easier and more enjoyable.

Generally, the following are the benefits of listing things in an essay.

It gives your essay a better structure

A list is a simple but powerful device for organizing and presenting the information. Using a list in your essay gives the paper a strong structure and makes it easy to read.

Further, using lists in your essay can help you organize your ideas clearly and logically, which in turn, makes them easier to follow by the reader. In addition, because some papers may contain many points, lists make such articles more manageable for readers by breaking up large amounts of text into smaller chunks that are easier to digest.

It engages and gives readers a better memory

Listing is a great way to engage your readers. It’s easy for them to remember the points you make because they are in a list rather than in prose. If you have three or four main points in your essay and want them to stand out, and be memorable to the reader, listing them is an ideal route.

When you use lists, it makes it easier for the reader to follow what you are saying one by one. Lists are also helpful in organizing information and ideas you want to share and making them more memorable.

It helps you prioritize your points

Listing things in an essay helps you prioritize and make your strong points first, then finish with less crucial points. This is because you can easily follow through on listed points rather than in a paragraph.

This is also true for readers because you want to convince them at the start rather than wait until the end.

As highlighted, a list is a common way to present information in an essay. They help readers understand the ideas in your writing without much struggle.

In general, lists help you organize information or give a complete picture of something. For example, if you’re writing about how much time your family takes to do daily chores, you might list the time each of the following activities takes.

  • Cleaning the bathroom
  • Taking out the trash
  • Washing dishes

The following are some of the common ways on how to list things in an essay.

Using a bulleted list

Bulleted lists are a great way to organize your thoughts and make them easy for the reader to follow. They’re also easy to write, so if you’re struggling with an idea for your essay, try keeping things simple by listing everything out instead of trying to explain it in paragraphs.

You can use bulleted lists anywhere in your essay—the beginning or end, or even as a transition between paragraphs.

Bulleted lists can make any paper look more professional and organized, but they’re handy when writing research papers because they allow professors and graders to quickly skim through an essay and get a sense of what important points you’re trying to make.

A bulleted list is ideal for a typical list of items, such as people’s names and ingredients.

For example, you can have a recipe with the following listed items

Using Arabic numbers

Use Arabic numbers when you want to list things out of order. For example, if you wanted to write about the ingredients mentioned above, your list will look as follows

The Arabic numbers can be followed by a period, as shown, or by a parenthesis.

Using lowercase letters

Lowercase letters are another way to list items in an essay. The format follows the Arabic format, either a period or a parenthesis.

Using capital letters

Capital letters are another great way to list items in your essay. It entails using capital letters in alphabetical order, followed by a dot or parenthesis.

Using a numbered list

A numbered list involves listing your items using numbers. This method is effective if you are explaining the steps of a process.

As with any other method, you can write the numbers followed by a period or a parenthesis. For example, if you are writing about installing a specific software, your list will look as follows

  • Visit the software’s company download page or any other reliable page
  • Download the software
  • Run it on your computer and install

If you decide to use parenthesis, your list will look as follows.

In-text lists

Listing items within a text is another option for students and writers to list things. However, it is not apparent to every reader, but it is still considered a list.

For example, if your essay is on factors that cause environmental pollution, within a paragraph, you may write, ” motor vehicle fumes, greenhouse gases, industrial waste, and agricultural chemicals.”

  • Numbered in text

This is another option but similar to the in-text list. The only difference is that the list is numbered.

For example, factors that lead to environmental pollution are ” 1) motor vehicle fumes, 2) greenhouse gases, 3) industrial waste, and 4) agricultural chemicals.”

Dos and Don’ts in Lists

These are some rules to follow when listing things in an essay.

Ensure your items in a list belong together

This is the most fundamental principle to follow when listing items. Ideally, every list should include like-minded items.

For example, if listing steps to do something, do not include ingredients in the list as part of the steps.

Make the list easy to read

Essentially, lists are meant to make your essay easy to read and appealing. Therefore, if your list contains chunks of text, it does not serve the purpose.

Also, if there is a technical and complex aspect in the list, ensure it comes in the end. However, it does not mean it can’t start, but if it is possible, save it till the end to avoid confusing your readers.

Use a sentence to introduce a list

In most cases, lists, especially vertical ones, have a sentence introducing them. This is essential as it helps readers know a list will follow and also serves as a good transition.

For horizontal lists, a dash can suffice, although it is considered informal.

Use the right punctuation

Punctuation is a critical aspect of lists. And if you want to stand out, you must follow the required punctuation rules when listing items.

If you use a verticle list, your items must be introduced by a colon. However, in horizontal lists, it is not necessary.

Other exceptions to the colon requirement are if you use the words namely, including, and such as. Additionally, the colon is unnecessary if your list flows smoothly.

Semicolons are another punctuation used in lists. They are used if the list is complex and when an item has a comma within itself. Similarly, a comma is another standard list separator and is used in simple lists.

In addition, the semicolon and comma are used before the word ‘and’ and the last item on the list. This is commonly known as the serial comma, although it is not used in the British and Australian English dialects.

This post has highlighted several ways of listing things in an essay. But remember that one method is not necessarily better than another, but the best approach will often depend on the specific type of list involved and the specific criteria for each task.

In addition, the most critical element will always be your ability to identify what you are writing about and create a good list for the reader. Further, when listing things in your essay, it is essential to develop them effectively so that your professor will have no trouble understanding your ideas.

Nevertheless, it’s important to remember that not all essays need lists. And despite this, lists are useful when presenting more than one, explaining a process or if many different points need further explanations.

writing a list in an essay

How to List Things in an Essay?

In general, written essays follow a set structure. Something occasionally complicates the structure, however, and students must compensate. Your teacher may assign an essay that includes a list. These lists mess with the layout, design, and even grammar of your paper. That said, lists make it easier for your readers to understand different points and how everything fits together.

Lists help explain subtopics, recommendations, individual components in an item, or the steps to reach a conclusion. The critical element to making lists part of your paper is knowing how to list things in your essay. You have to use appropriate grammar and punctuation and still follow the essay’s grammatical style guidelines.

How to Write a Standard List in an Essay

Start the list with a new independent clause or sentence. How long is the list? Let readers know the list is going to be longer by starting it with a colon. You can use commas for listing objects into a shorter list. Don’t forget to use a semicolon to split items with more than three words or things with commas. This helps to keep the list organized and easy to read.

If you have an even shorter list, you could start the list in the middle of a sentence. Use a dash to transition into a list. Dashes are an informal punctuation mark used to indicate sudden shifts in the sentence. We’ll take a look at a quick example;

No matter the species, eyes all have similar features – pupils, retinas, and optic nerves. If you can’t decide between using dashes or colons, we recommend using a colon. Colons look better and more professional, but using a dash works fine if the list isn’t too long.

How to Write Numbered Lists in an Essay

Writing a numbered list is a little bit different than a standard list. These lists start with a new sentence to introduce the topic, followed by numbers and periods to indicate individual items (steps) in the list. Here is our example;

How to Make Tea:

  • Add water to kettle and heat it
  • Put the teabag in a cup
  • Pour hot water into the cup

You can use bullet points instead of numbers if they don’t have to be numbered in a set way. The main point of numbered lists is that you include your introductory sentence/paragraph explaining the list. These numbered lists eat up more room in an essay, so they should justify using up space. Readers might assume you used a numbered list to make the paper look longer than it is if your list is long and doesn’t add any value.

How to Include Lists For MLA Essays

You may put a numbered list into your MLA essay. However, we recommend against doing that. There are several ways to write lists into MLA essays, so be sure to talk to your professor first. Please find out how they prefer students present lists.

In the Sentence:

You can include your list in an MLA essay by writing it into the sentence. Similar to before, introduce your list with a colon. Use semicolons and commas to separate items in the list. You can also number the objects with parentheses. Here’s an example of this in action:

British actors play many American characters: (1) Hugh Laurie played Doctor House; (2) Gary Oldman played Lee Harvey Oswald; (3) Daniel Day-Lewis played Daniel Plainview.

As a Block:

Writing a list as blockquote is a great way to add a longer list to an MLA essay. Here’s how you can use include a list in your essay with blockquotes:

Many literary classics were published posthumously:

  • Billy Bud, Sailor, by Merman Melville
  • The Silmarillion, by J.R.R Tolkien
  • The Ivory Tower, by Henry James

Use a colon to start the list and indent items in the list. Items should be indented further than standard indentation. Be sure to add a period after each number and space between the number and item in the list. Don’t forget to include closing punctuation if an article is a complete sentence.

Anything is possible with academic writing, even breaking down complicated subjects into manageable lists. When your assignment requires you to use research publications or list things, it’s good to know how to do that. We hope the information in our article helps you write lists in your papers, even MLA-formatted papers.

Ensure that all letters and numerals are used efficiently across the list. Also, ensure there is a smooth transition between sentences and paragraphs and lists in each essay. Essay authors use lists to go into detail on complex information in a presentable and structured manner. Make fair use of lists in your pieces to clearly present information while keeping everything neat and tidy.

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Reference List: Basic Rules

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This resourse, revised according to the 7 th  edition APA Publication Manual, offers basic guidelines for formatting the reference list at the end of a standard APA research paper. Most sources follow fairly straightforward rules. However, because sources obtained from academic journals  carry special weight in research writing, these sources are subject to special rules . Thus, this page presents basic guidelines for citing academic journals separate from its "ordinary" basic guidelines. This distinction is made clear below.

Note:  Because the information on this page pertains to virtually all citations, we've highlighted one important difference between APA 6 and APA 7 with an underlined note written in red.  For more information, please consult the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , (7 th  ed.).

Formatting a Reference List

Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text.

Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page "References" in bold, centered at the top of the page (do NOT underline or use quotation marks for the title). All text should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay.

Basic Rules for Most Sources

  • All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation.
  • All authors' names should be inverted (i.e., last names should be provided first).
  • For example, the reference entry for a source written by Jane Marie Smith would begin with "Smith, J. M."
  • If a middle name isn't available, just initialize the author's first name: "Smith, J."
  • Give the last name and first/middle initials for all authors of a particular work up to and including 20 authors ( this is a new rule, as APA 6 only required the first six authors ). Separate each author’s initials from the next author in the list with a comma. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name. If there are 21 or more authors, use an ellipsis (but no ampersand) after the 19th author, and then add the final author’s name.
  • Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work.
  • For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in chronological order, from earliest to most recent.
  • Note again that the titles of academic journals are subject to special rules. See section below.
  • Italicize titles of longer works (e.g., books, edited collections, names of newspapers, and so on).
  • Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as chapters in books or essays in edited collections.

Basic Rules for Articles in Academic Journals

  • Present journal titles in full.
  • Italicize journal titles.
  • For example, you should use  PhiloSOPHIA  instead of  Philosophia,  or  Past & Present   instead of  Past and Present.
  • This distinction is based on the type of source being cited. Academic journal titles have all major words capitalized, while other sources' titles do not.
  • Capitalize   the first word of the titles and subtitles of   journal articles , as well as the   first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and   any proper nouns .
  • Do not italicize or underline the article title.
  • Deep blue: The mysteries of the Marianas Trench.
  • Oceanographic Study: A Peer-Reviewed Publication

Please note:  While the APA manual provides examples of how to cite common types of sources, it does not cover all conceivable sources. If you must cite a source that APA does not address, the APA suggests finding an example that is similar to your source and using that format. For more information, see page 282 of the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7 th  ed.

EU AI Act: first regulation on artificial intelligence

The use of artificial intelligence in the EU will be regulated by the AI Act, the world’s first comprehensive AI law. Find out how it will protect you.

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As part of its digital strategy , the EU wants to regulate artificial intelligence (AI) to ensure better conditions for the development and use of this innovative technology. AI can create many benefits , such as better healthcare; safer and cleaner transport; more efficient manufacturing; and cheaper and more sustainable energy.

In April 2021, the European Commission proposed the first EU regulatory framework for AI. It says that AI systems that can be used in different applications are analysed and classified according to the risk they pose to users. The different risk levels will mean more or less regulation. Once approved, these will be the world’s first rules on AI.

Learn more about what artificial intelligence is and how it is used

What Parliament wants in AI legislation

Parliament’s priority is to make sure that AI systems used in the EU are safe, transparent, traceable, non-discriminatory and environmentally friendly. AI systems should be overseen by people, rather than by automation, to prevent harmful outcomes.

Parliament also wants to establish a technology-neutral, uniform definition for AI that could be applied to future AI systems.

Learn more about Parliament’s work on AI and its vision for AI’s future

AI Act: different rules for different risk levels

The new rules establish obligations for providers and users depending on the level of risk from artificial intelligence. While many AI systems pose minimal risk, they need to be assessed.

Unacceptable risk

Unacceptable risk AI systems are systems considered a threat to people and will be banned. They include:

  • Cognitive behavioural manipulation of people or specific vulnerable groups: for example voice-activated toys that encourage dangerous behaviour in children
  • Social scoring: classifying people based on behaviour, socio-economic status or personal characteristics
  • Biometric identification and categorisation of people
  • Real-time and remote biometric identification systems, such as facial recognition

Some exceptions may be allowed for law enforcement purposes. “Real-time” remote biometric identification systems will be allowed in a limited number of serious cases, while “post” remote biometric identification systems, where identification occurs after a significant delay, will be allowed to prosecute serious crimes and only after court approval.

AI systems that negatively affect safety or fundamental rights will be considered high risk and will be divided into two categories:

1) AI systems that are used in products falling under the EU’s product safety legislation . This includes toys, aviation, cars, medical devices and lifts.

2) AI systems falling into specific areas that will have to be registered in an EU database:

  • Management and operation of critical infrastructure
  • Education and vocational training
  • Employment, worker management and access to self-employment
  • Access to and enjoyment of essential private services and public services and benefits
  • Law enforcement
  • Migration, asylum and border control management
  • Assistance in legal interpretation and application of the law.

All high-risk AI systems will be assessed before being put on the market and also throughout their lifecycle.

General purpose and generative AI

Generative AI, like ChatGPT, would have to comply with transparency requirements:

  • Disclosing that the content was generated by AI
  • Designing the model to prevent it from generating illegal content
  • Publishing summaries of copyrighted data used for training

High-impact general-purpose AI models that might pose systemic risk, such as the more advanced AI model GPT-4, would have to undergo thorough evaluations and any serious incidents would have to be reported to the European Commission.

Limited risk

Limited risk AI systems should comply with minimal transparency requirements that would allow users to make informed decisions. After interacting with the applications, the user can then decide whether they want to continue using it. Users should be made aware when they are interacting with AI. This includes AI systems that generate or manipulate image, audio or video content, for example deepfakes.

On December 9 2023, Parliament reached a provisional agreement with the Council on the AI act . The agreed text will now have to be formally adopted by both Parliament and Council to become EU law. Before all MEPs have their say on the agreement, Parliament’s internal market and civil liberties committees will vote on it.

More on the EU’s digital measures

  • Cryptocurrency dangers and the benefits of EU legislation
  • Fighting cybercrime: new EU cybersecurity laws explained
  • Boosting data sharing in the EU: what are the benefits?
  • EU Digital Markets Act and Digital Services Act
  • Five ways the European Parliament wants to protect online gamers
  • Artificial Intelligence Act

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Opinion: We know how voters feel about Trump and Biden. But how do the experts rank their presidencies?

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Presidents Day occurs at a crucial moment this year, with the presidency on the cusp of crisis as we inexorably shuffle toward a rematch between the incumbent and his predecessor. It’s the sort of contest we haven’t seen since the 19th century, and judging by public opinion of President Biden and former President Trump, most Americans would have preferred to keep it that way.

But the third installment of our Presidential Greatness Project , a poll of presidential experts released this weekend, shows that scholars don’t share American voters’ roughly equal distaste for both candidates.

Biden, in fact, makes his debut in our rankings at No. 14, putting him in the top third of American presidents. Trump, meanwhile, maintains the position he held six years ago: dead last, trailing such historically calamitous chief executives as James Buchanan and Andrew Johnson. In that and other respects, Trump’s radical departure from political, institutional and legal norms has affected knowledgeable assessments not just of him but also of Biden and several other presidents.

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump greets supporters as he arrives at a campaign stop in Londonderry, N.H., Tuesday, Jan. 23, 2024. (AP Photo/Matt Rourke)

Opinion: Panicking over polls showing Donald Trump ahead of President Biden? Please stop

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Jan. 24, 2024

The overall survey results reveal stability as well as change in the way scholars assess our nation’s most important and controversial political office. Great presidents have traditionally been viewed as those who presided over moments of national transformation, led the country through major crises and expanded the institution of the presidency. Military victories, economic growth, assassinations and scandals also affect expert assessments of presidential performance.

The presidents at the top of our rankings, and others like ours, reflect this. Hallowed leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Franklin Delano Roosevelt and George Washington consistently lead the list.

Our latest rankings also show that the experts’ assessments are driven not only by traditional notions of greatness but also by the evolving values of our time.

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Op-Ed: Worst. President. Ever.

President Trump’s final grade will be in the hands of scholars. It doesn’t look good.

Jan. 13, 2021

One example is the continuing decline in esteem for two important presidents, Andrew Jackson and Woodrow Wilson. Their reputations have consistently suffered in recent years as modern politics lead scholars to assess their early 19th and 20th century presidencies ever more harshly, especially their unacceptable treatment of marginalized people.

More acutely, this survey has seen a pronounced partisan dynamic emerge, arguably in response to the Trump presidency and the Trumpification of presidential politics.

Proponents of the Biden presidency have strong arguments in their arsenal, but his high placement within the top 15 suggests a powerful anti-Trump factor at work. So far, Biden’s record does not include the military victories or institutional expansion that have typically driven higher rankings, and a family scandal such as the one involving his son Hunter normally diminishes a president’s ranking.

Biden’s most important achievements may be that he rescued the presidency from Trump, resumed a more traditional style of presidential leadership and is gearing up to keep the office out of his predecessor’s hands this fall.

Trump’s position at the bottom of our rankings, meanwhile, puts him behind not only Buchanan and Johnson but also such lowlights as Franklin Pierce, Warren Harding and William Henry Harrison, who died a mere 31 days after taking office.

Trump’s impact goes well beyond his own ranking and Biden’s. Every contemporary Democratic president has moved up in the ranks — Barack Obama (No. 7), Bill Clinton (No. 12) and even Jimmy Carter (No. 22).

Yes, these presidents had great accomplishments such as expanding healthcare access and working to end conflict in the Middle East, and they have two Nobel Prizes among them. But given their shortcomings and failures, their rise seems to be less about reassessments of their administrations than it is a bonus for being neither Trump nor a member of his party.

Indeed, every modern Republican president has dropped in the survey, including the transformational Ronald Reagan (No. 16) and George H.W. Bush (No. 19), who led the nation’s last decisive military victory.

Academics do lean left, but that hasn’t changed since our previous surveys. What these results suggest is not just an added emphasis on a president’s political affiliation, but also the emergence of a president’s fealty to political and institutional norms as a criterion for what makes a president “great” to the scholars who study them.

As for the Americans casting a ballot for the next president, they are in the historically rare position of knowing how both candidates have performed in the job. Whether they will consider each president’s commitment to the norms of presidential leadership, and come to rate them as differently as our experts, remains to be seen.

Justin Vaughn is an associate professor of political science at Coastal Carolina University. Brandon Rottinghaus is a professor of political science at the University of Houston.

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Black History Month 2024: African Americans and the Arts 

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The national theme for Black History Month 2024 is “ African Americans and the Arts .”  

Black History Month 2024 is a time to recognize and highlight the achievements of Black artists and creators, and the role they played in U.S. history and in shaping our country today.  

To commemorate this year’s theme, we’ve gathered powerful quotes about learning, culture and equality from five historic Black American authors, teachers and artists who made a significant impact in the Arts, education ― and the nation.  

  Making history  

“Real education means to inspire people to live more abundantly, to learn to begin with life as they find it and make it better.” – Carter G. Woodson, Author, Journalist, Historian and Educator, 1875-1950  

Known as the “Father of Black History,” Carter G. Woodson was primarily self-taught in most subjects. In 1912, he became the second Black person to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard.   

He is the author of more than 30 books, including “T he Mis-Education of the Negro. ”  

Carter G. Woodson dedicated his life to teaching Black History and incorporating the subject of Black History in schools. He co-founded what is now the Association for the Study of African American Life and History, Inc. (ASALH) . In February 1926, Woodson launched the first Negro History Week , which has since been expanded into Black History Month.  

Carter G. Woodson

Providing a platform  

“I have created nothing really beautiful, really lasting, but if I can inspire one of these youngsters to develop the talent.” – Augusta Savage, Sculptor, 1892-1962  

An acclaimed and influential sculptor of the Harlem Renaissance, Augusta Savage was a teacher and an activist who fought for African American rights in the Arts. She was one out of only four women, and the only Black woman, commissioned for the 1939 New York World’s Fair. She exhibited one of her most famous works, “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” which she named after the hymn by James Weldon Johnson, sometimes referred to as the Black National Anthem. Her sculpture is also known as “ The Harp, ” renamed by the fair’s organizers.  

Photograph of Augusta Savage

Raising a voice  

“My mother said to me ‘My child listen, whatever you do in this world no matter how good it is you will never be able to please everybody. But what one should strive for is to do the very best humanly possible.’” – Marian Anderson, American Contralto, 1897-1993  

Marian Anderson broke barriers in the opera world. In 1939, she performed at the Lincoln Memorial in front of a crowd of 75,000 after the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) denied her access to the DAR Constitution Hall because of her race. And in 1955, Marian Anderson became the first African American to perform at the Metropolitan Opera. She sang the leading role as Ulrica in Verdi’s Un Ballo in Maschera.  

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Influencing the world  

“The artist’s role is to challenge convention, to push boundaries, and to open new doors of perception.” – Henry Ossawa Tanner, Painter, 1859-1937  

Henry Ossawa Tanner is known to be the first Black artist to gain world-wide fame and acclaim. In 1877, he enrolled at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts , where he was the only Black student. In 1891, Tanner moved to Paris to escape the racism he was confronted with in America. Here, he painted two of his most recognized works, “ The Banjo Lesson” and “ The Thankful Poor of 1894. ”    

In 1923, Henry O. Tanner was awarded the Chevalier of the Legion of Honor by the French government, France’s highest honor.  

Henry Ossawa Tanner

Rising up  

“Wisdom is higher than a fool can reach.” – Phillis Wheatley, Poet, 1753-1784  

At about seven years old, Phillis Wheatley was kidnapped from her home in West Africa and sold into slavery in Boston. She started writing poetry around the age of 12 and published her first poem, “ Messrs. Hussey and Coffin ,” in Rhode Island’s Newport Mercury newspaper in 1767.   

While her poetry spread in popularity ― so did the skepticism. Some did not believe an enslaved woman could have authored the poems. She defended her work to a panel of town leaders and became the first African American woman to publish a book of poetry. The panel’s attestation was included in the preface of her book.  

Phillis Wheatley corresponded with many artists, writers and activists, including a well-known 1 774 letter to Reverand Samson Occom about freedom and equality.  

Phillis Wheatley with pen and paper

Honoring Black History Month 2024  

Art plays a powerful role in helping us learn and evolve. Not only does it introduce us to a world of diverse experiences, but it helps us form stronger connections. These are just a few of the many Black creators who shaped U.S. history ― whose expressions opened many doors and minds.  

Black History Month is observed each year in February. To continue your learning, go on a journey with Dr. Jewrell Rivers, as he guides you through Black History in higher education. Read his article, “A Brief History: Black Americans in Higher Education.”  

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  • The four main types of essay | Quick guide with examples

The Four Main Types of Essay | Quick Guide with Examples

Published on September 4, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade. There are many different types of essay, but they are often defined in four categories: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive essays.

Argumentative and expository essays are focused on conveying information and making clear points, while narrative and descriptive essays are about exercising creativity and writing in an interesting way. At university level, argumentative essays are the most common type. 

In high school and college, you will also often have to write textual analysis essays, which test your skills in close reading and interpretation.

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Table of contents

Argumentative essays, expository essays, narrative essays, descriptive essays, textual analysis essays, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of essays.

An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a strong thesis statement —a clearly defined stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince the reader of your thesis using evidence (such as quotations ) and analysis.

Argumentative essays test your ability to research and present your own position on a topic. This is the most common type of essay at college level—most papers you write will involve some kind of argumentation.

The essay is divided into an introduction, body, and conclusion:

  • The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement
  • The body presents your evidence and arguments
  • The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its importance

The example below is a paragraph from the body of an argumentative essay about the effects of the internet on education. Mouse over it to learn more.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic.

Expository essays test your familiarity with a topic and your ability to organize and convey information. They are commonly assigned at high school or in exam questions at college level.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides some general background, the body presents the details, and the conclusion summarizes the information presented.

A typical body paragraph from an expository essay about the invention of the printing press is shown below. Mouse over it to learn more.

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you have not experienced.

Narrative essays test your ability to build up a narrative in an engaging, well-structured way. They are much more personal and creative than other kinds of academic writing . Writing a personal statement for an application requires the same skills as a narrative essay.

A narrative essay isn’t strictly divided into introduction, body, and conclusion, but it should still begin by setting up the narrative and finish by expressing the point of the story—what you learned from your experience, or why it made an impression on you.

Mouse over the example below, a short narrative essay responding to the prompt “Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself,” to explore its structure.

Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the humanities. My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious than classes like English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But recently I had an experience that taught me my academic interests are more flexible than I had thought: I took my first philosophy class.

Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students and wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined something pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But what I got was something quite different.

A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-haired, buttoned-up old man I had half-expected. And rather than pulling us into pedantic arguments about obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us on our level. To talk free will, we looked at our own choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas we had faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d discovered that questions with no right answer can turn out to be the most interesting ones.

The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not just because it was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I can actually get a lot out of subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me—in more ways than one—to look at things with an open mind.

A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative essays, they allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are more tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or object, rather than telling a whole story.

Descriptive essays test your ability to use language creatively, making striking word choices to convey a memorable picture of what you’re describing.

A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should usually begin by introducing the object of your description and end by drawing an overall picture of it. The important thing is to use careful word choices and figurative language to create an original description of your object.

Mouse over the example below, a response to the prompt “Describe a place you love to spend time in,” to learn more about descriptive essays.

On Sunday afternoons I like to spend my time in the garden behind my house. The garden is narrow but long, a corridor of green extending from the back of the house, and I sit on a lawn chair at the far end to read and relax. I am in my small peaceful paradise: the shade of the tree, the feel of the grass on my feet, the gentle activity of the fish in the pond beside me.

My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above. From his perch he can watch over his little kingdom and keep an eye on the neighbours. He does this until the barking of next door’s dog scares him from his post and he bolts for the cat flap to govern from the safety of the kitchen.

With that, I am left alone with the fish, whose whole world is the pond by my feet. The fish explore the pond every day as if for the first time, prodding and inspecting every stone. I sometimes feel the same about sitting here in the garden; I know the place better than anyone, but whenever I return I still feel compelled to pay attention to all its details and novelties—a new bird perched in the tree, the growth of the grass, and the movement of the insects it shelters…

Sitting out in the garden, I feel serene. I feel at home. And yet I always feel there is more to discover. The bounds of my garden may be small, but there is a whole world contained within it, and it is one I will never get tired of inhabiting.

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Though every essay type tests your writing skills, some essays also test your ability to read carefully and critically. In a textual analysis essay, you don’t just present information on a topic, but closely analyze a text to explain how it achieves certain effects.

Rhetorical analysis

A rhetorical analysis looks at a persuasive text (e.g. a speech, an essay, a political cartoon) in terms of the rhetorical devices it uses, and evaluates their effectiveness.

The goal is not to state whether you agree with the author’s argument but to look at how they have constructed it.

The introduction of a rhetorical analysis presents the text, some background information, and your thesis statement; the body comprises the analysis itself; and the conclusion wraps up your analysis of the text, emphasizing its relevance to broader concerns.

The example below is from a rhetorical analysis of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech . Mouse over it to learn more.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

Literary analysis

A literary analysis essay presents a close reading of a work of literature—e.g. a poem or novel—to explore the choices made by the author and how they help to convey the text’s theme. It is not simply a book report or a review, but an in-depth interpretation of the text.

Literary analysis looks at things like setting, characters, themes, and figurative language. The goal is to closely analyze what the author conveys and how.

The introduction of a literary analysis essay presents the text and background, and provides your thesis statement; the body consists of close readings of the text with quotations and analysis in support of your argument; and the conclusion emphasizes what your approach tells us about the text.

Mouse over the example below, the introduction to a literary analysis essay on Frankenstein , to learn more.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

  • In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
  • In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
  • In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

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  1. How To List Things in an Essay (APA and MLA)

    Ways to List Things in Your Essay 1. Listing with bullets Bulleted lists aid in the organization of texts and project ideas by eliminating the necessity for a chronological order of events or concepts. Maintain a consistent listing style throughout.

  2. Lists

    Home Style and Grammar Guidelines Lists Just as heading structure alerts readers to the order of ideas in a paper, lists help readers understand a related set of key points within a sentence or paragraph. When writing a list, ensure all items are syntactically and conceptually parallel.

  3. How to Write a List in an Essay

    Step 1 Introduce the list with an independent clause or a sentence with a colon before the list. In punctuation, the colon signals that a long list follows. If the list contains a series of one-word items, separate items with commas.

  4. How to Structure an Essay

    Parts of an essay The three parts that make up all essays are described in the table below. Order of information You'll also have to consider how to present information within the body. There are a few general principles that can guide you here. The first is that your argument should move from the simplest claim to the most complex.

  5. How to Write an Essay Outline

    Revised on July 23, 2023. An essay outline is a way of planning the structure of your essay before you start writing. It involves writing quick summary sentences or phrases for every point you will cover in each paragraph, giving you a picture of how your argument will unfold. You'll sometimes be asked to submit an essay outline as a separate ...

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  7. Academic Guides: More APA Style Guidelines: Lists

    End each sentence with appropriate final punctuation. List items should be double-spaced and indented .5 inch. Bulleted Lists (APA 7, Section 6.52) Bulleted lists are appropriate when presenting a list of items in no particular order. Bulleted list items can be complete sentences or phrases or sentence fragments.

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    One of the most important skills to develop is writing strong essays efficiently. And the foundation of that skill is knowing how to structure an essay. With a template for the basic essay structure in hand, you can focus on what really matters when you're writing essays: your arguments and the evidence you're using to support them.

  10. Strategies for Essay Writing

    Counterargument. Conclusions. Strategies for Essay Writing: Downloadable PDFs. Brief Guides to Writing in the Disciplines. The links below provide concise advice on some fundamental elements of academic writing.

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    understand why it's worth writing that essay. A strong thesis will be arguable rather than descriptive, and it will be the right scope for the essay you are writing. If your thesis is descriptive, then you will not need to convince your readers of anything—you will be naming or summarizing something your readers can already see for themselves.

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    All lists must conform to a set of rules of construction and formatting. Learning to use the Paragraph formatting tool in Word (see Figure 3.3.1) is crucial to designing effective lists. Figure 3.3.1 Screenshot of Paragraph tools in Word 2010; you can auto-create lists using the top left buttons.

  13. How to Write a List Essay

    You might start out with: "1. Decide to book a flight to India. Change your mind. Change it back. Ask your friends if you're making the right decision. Listen to your husband telling you, 'Just go. It's not that big of a deal." As you can see, this type of essay is written in the second person.

  14. How to Incorporate a List As a Paragraph

    Writer Bio Did you find this page helpful? How to Incorporate a List As a Paragraph. While many lists are presented in a bulleted or numbered format, writing lists into a paragraph can allow for better flow to your paper. Lists are often used to introduce a series of topics within one paragraph.

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    What is the Best Way to Write a List? When jotting down some quick list items for your eyes only (such as a simple grocery list), you probably don't care what your lists look like. But list format matters when you have an audience. Listing things in a sentence can contain simple items, such as what you might pick up from a store.

  16. MLA Formatting Lists

    SET VERTICALLY There are a number of ways to properly format a vertically set list. Numbered lists should only be used when the nature of the list necessitates a specific order. LISTS INTRODUCED BY A COMPLETE SENTENCE Lists can be introduced by a sentence in the body, which should end with a colon. The items can be complete sentences or fragments.

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  18. How do I incorporate lists into my essay in MLA style?

    In humanities essays, lists are generally run into the text rather than set vertically. A colon is often used to introduce a run-in list: Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie has written four novels: Purple Hibiscus, Half a Yellow Sun, The Thing around Your Neck, and Americanah.

  19. How to List Things in an Essay

    Listing things in an essay helps you prioritize and make your strong points first, then finish with less crucial points. This is because you can easily follow through on listed points rather than in a paragraph. This is also true for readers because you want to convince them at the start rather than wait until the end.

  20. How to List Things in an Essay?

    Writing a list as blockquote is a great way to add a longer list to an MLA essay. Here's how you can use include a list in your essay with blockquotes: Many literary classics were published posthumously: Billy Bud, Sailor, by Merman Melville; The Silmarillion, by J.R.R Tolkien; The Ivory Tower, by Henry James

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