conclusion for racism essay

Essays and Commentary

Reflections and analysis inspired by the killing of George Floyd and the nationwide wave of protests that followed.

My Mother’s Dreams for Her Son, and All Black Children

She longed for black people in America not to be forever refugees—confined by borders that they did not create and by a penal system that killed them before they died.

By Hilton Als

June 21, 2020

How do we change america.

The quest to transform this country cannot be limited to challenging its brutal police alone.

By Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor

June 8, 2020

The purpose of a house.

For my daughters, the pandemic was a relief from race-related stress at school. Then George Floyd was killed.

By Emily Bernard

June 25, 2020

The players’ revolt against racism, inequality, and police terror.

A group of athletes across various American professional sports have communicated the fear, frustration, and anger of most of Black America.

September 9, 2020, until black women are free, none of us will be free.

Barbara Smith and the Black feminist visionaries of the Combahee River Collective.

July 20, 2020, john lewis’s legacy and america’s redemption.

The civil-rights leader, who died Friday, acknowledged the darkest chapters of the country’s history, yet insisted that change was always possible.

By David Remnick

July 18, 2020

Europe in 1989, america in 2020, and the death of the lost cause.

A whole vision of history seems to be leaving the stage.

By David W. Blight

July 1, 2020

The messy politics of black voices—and “black voice”—in american animation.

Cartoons have often been considered exempt from the country’s prejudices. In fact, they form a genre built on the marble and mud of racial signification.

By Lauren Michele Jackson

June 30, 2020

After george floyd and juneteenth.

What’s ahead for the movement, the election, and the protesters?

June 20, 2020, juneteenth and the meaning of freedom.

Emancipation is a marker of progress for white Americans, not black ones.

By Jelani Cobb

June 19, 2020

A memory of solidarity day, on juneteenth, 1968.

The public outpouring over racism that has been taking place in America since George Floyd’s murder feels like a long-postponed renewal of the reckoning that shook the nation more than half a century ago.

By Jon Lee Anderson

June 18, 2020

Seeing police brutality then and now.

We still haven’t fully recognized the art made by twentieth-century black artists.

By Nell Painter

The History of the “Riot” Report

How government commissions became alibis for inaction.

By Jill Lepore

June 15, 2020

The trayvon generation.

For Solo, Simon, Robel, Maurice, Cameron, and Sekou.

By Elizabeth Alexander

So Brutal a Death

Nationwide outrage over George Floyd’s brutal killing by police officers resonates with immigrants, and with people around the world.

By Edwidge Danticat

An American Spring of Reckoning

In death, George Floyd’s name has become a metaphor for the stacked inequities of the society that produced them.

June 14, 2020, the mimetic power of d.c.’s black lives matter mural.

The pavement itself has become part of the protest.

By Kyle Chayka

June 9, 2020

Donald trump’s fascist performance.

To the President, power sounds like gunfire and helicopters; it sounds like the silence of men in uniform when they are asked who they are.

By Masha Gessen

June 3, 2020

• Books & Culture
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• Puzzles & Games

Measuring Racial Discrimination (2004)

Chapter: executive summary, executive summary.

M any racial and ethnic groups intheUnited States, including blacks, Hispanics, Asians, American Indians, and others, have historically faced severe discrimination—pervasive and open denial of civil, social, political, educational, and economic opportunities. Today, large differences in outcomes among racial and ethnic groups continue to exist in employment, income and wealth, housing, education, criminal justice, health, and other areas. Although many factors may contribute to such differences, their size and extent suggest that various forms of discriminatory treatment persist in U.S. society and serve to undercut the achievement of equal opportunity.

In these circumstances, it is critically important to identify where racial discrimination occurs and to measure the extent to which discrimination may contribute to racial and ethnic disparities. The Committee on National Statistics convened a panel of scholars to consider the definition of racial discrimination, assess current methodologies for measuring it, identify new approaches, and make recommendations about the best broad methodological approaches. Specifically, this panel was asked to carry out the following tasks:

Give the policy and scholarly communities new tools for assessing the extent to which discrimination continues to undermine the achievement of equal opportunity by suggesting additional means for measuring discrimination that can be applied not only to the racial question but in other important social arenas as well.

Conduct a thorough evaluation of current methodologies for measuring discrimination in a wide range of circumstances where it may occur.

Consider how analyses of data from other sources could contribute to findings from research experimentation, such as the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development paired tests.

Recommend further research as well as the development of data to complement research studies.

DEFINING RACE

There is no single concept of race. Rather, race is a complex concept, best viewed for social science purposes as a subjective social construct based on observed or ascribed characteristics that have acquired socially significant meaning. In the United States, ways in which different populations think about their own and others’ racial status have changed over time in response to changing patterns of immigration, changing social and economic situations, and changing societal norms and government policies. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, for example, some European Americans, such as Italians and Eastern European Jews, were regarded as distinct racial groups. Although these distinctions are no longer sanctioned by the U.S. government, some segments of the population may still act in ways that are consistent with such distinctions. For certain populations and in some situations, race may be difficult to define consistently; for example, many Hispanics consider themselves to be part of a distinct racial group, but many others hold no such perception. Because concepts of race and ethnicity are not clearly defined for many Hispanics and because of the discrimination they have faced, we include Hispanics, along with specific racial groups, in our discussion of racial discrimination.

The ambiguity involved in defining race has implications for how data on race are collected. The official federal government standards for data on race and ethnicity currently identify five major racial groups (black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, and white) and one ethnic group (Hispanic) that may be of any race. These categories are used by federal program and statistical agencies to collect data through self-reports (preferably) or by assigning individuals to one or more categories. The federal racial categories have changed over time, in part reflecting the changing conception of race in the United States. The government standards are not always consistent with scholarly concepts of race or with concepts held by individuals and groups; as a result, it may be difficult to obtain data on race and ethnicity that are comparable over time or across different surveys and administrative records. Comparability may also be affected by differences in the data collection

methods used. Yet given the salience of race in so many aspects of social, political, and economic life, it is important to continue collecting these data.

Conclusion: For the purpose of understanding and measuring racial discrimination, race should be viewed as a social construct that evolves over time. Despite measurement problems, data on race and ethnicity are necessary for monitoring and understanding evolving differences and trends in outcomes among groups in the U.S. population. (from Chapters 2 and 10 )

Recommendation: The federal government and, as appropriate, state and local governments should continue to collect data on race and ethnicity. Federal standards for racial categories should be responsive to changing concepts of race among groups in the U.S. population. Any resulting modifications to the standards should be implemented in ways that facilitate comparisons over time to the extent possible. (Recommendation 10.1) 1

Recommendation: Data collectors, researchers, and others should be cognizant of the effects of measurement methods on reporting of race and ethnicity, which may affect the comparability of data for analysis:

To facilitate understanding of reporting effects and to develop good measurement practices for data on race, federal agencies should seek ways to test the effects of such factors as data collection mode (e.g., telephone, personal interview), location (e.g., home, workplace), respondent (e.g., self, parent, employer, teacher), and question wording and ordering. Agencies should also collect and analyze longitudinal data to measure how reported perceptions of racial identification change over time for different groups (e.g., Hispanics and those of mixed race).

Because measurement of race can vary with the method used, reports on race should to the extent practical use multiple measurement methods and assess the variation in results across the methods. (Recommendation 10.2)

DEFINING RACIAL DISCRIMINATION

This report adopts a social science definition of racial discrimination that has two components:

differential treatment on the basis of race that disadvantages a racial group and

treatment on the basis of inadequately justified factors other than race that disadvantages a racial group (differential effect).

In this report, we focus on discrimination against disadvantaged racial minorities. The two components of our definition—differential treatment and differential effect discrimination—are related to but broader than the standards embodied in case law in the U.S. legal system, which are disparate treatment and disparate impact discrimination . An example of potentially unlawful disparate treatment discrimination would be when an individual is not hired for a job because of his or her race. An example of potentially unlawful disparate impact discrimination would be when an employer uses a test in selecting job applicants that is not a good predictor of performance on the job and results in proportionately fewer job offers being extended to members of disadvantaged racial groups compared with whites. 2

Because our intention in this report is to provide guidance to social science researchers interested in measuring discrimination, both components of our definition include a range of behaviors and processes that are not explicitly unlawful or easily measured. For example, many governmental actions that might fall within the legal definition of disparate impact discrimination would not be unlawful because the Supreme Court has interpreted the constitutional prohibition on denials of equal protection by government agencies to bar only cases of intentional discrimination—that is, disparate treatment discrimination. As a second example, discrimination would occur under our definition when interviewers of job applicants more frequently adopt behaviors (e.g., interrupting, asking fewer questions, using a hectoring tone) that result in poorer communication with and performance by disadvantaged minority applicants compared with other applicants. Even if such behaviors became the subject of a legal challenge, the difficulties in measurement and proof would likely mean that such behav-

iors would not be effectively constrained by law. Measuring them is important, however, to understand ways in which subtle forms of discrimination may affect important social and economic outcomes.

MEASURING RACIAL DISCRIMINATION

That racial disparities exist in a wide range of social and economic outcomes is not in question: They can be seen in higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and residential segregation and in lower levels of education and wealth accumulation for some racial groups compared with others. Large and persistent outcome differences, however, do not themselves provide direct evidence of the presence or magnitude of racial discrimination in any particular domain. Differential outcomes may indicate that discrimination is occurring, that the historical effects of racial exclusion and discrimination (cumulative disadvantage) continue to influence current outcomes, that other factors are at work, or that some combination of current and past discrimination and other factors is operating.

The panel evaluated four major methods used across different social and behavioral science disciplines to measure racial discrimination: laboratory experiments, field experiments, analysis of observational data and natural experiments, and analysis of survey and administrative record reports. Each method has strengths and weaknesses, particularly for drawing a causal inference that an adverse outcome is the result of race-based discriminatory behavior.

Because discriminatory behavior is rarely observed directly, researchers must infer its presence by trying to determine whether an observed adverse outcome for an individual would have been different had the individual been of a different race. In other words, researchers attempt to answer the following counterfactual question: What would have happened to a nonwhite individual if he or she had been white? Understanding the extent to which any study succeeds in answering that question requires rigorously assessing the logic and assumptions underlying the causal inferences drawn by the researchers. As was true in determining that smoking causes lung cancer, using a variety of methods implemented in a variety of settings is likely to be most helpful in measuring discrimination.

Conclusion: No single approach to measuring racial discrimination allows researchers to address all the important measurement issues or to answer all the questions of interest. Consistent patterns of results across studies and different approaches tend to provide the strongest argument. Public and private agencies—including the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, and private founda -

tions—and the research community should embrace a multidisciplinary, multimethod approach to the measurement of racial discrimination and seek improvements in all major methods employed. (from Chapter 5 )

Laboratory Experiments

Classically, laboratory experimentation in which a stimulus can be administered to research participants in a controlled environment and in which participants can be randomly assigned to an experimental condition or another (e.g., control) condition provides the best approach for inferring causation between a stimulus and a response. Such experiments come closest to addressing the above counterfactual question.

Laboratory experiments have uncovered many subtle yet powerful psychological mechanisms through which racial bias exists. Yet regardless of how well designed and executed they are, laboratory experiments cannot by themselves directly address how much race-based discrimination against disadvantaged groups contributes to adverse outcomes for those groups in society at large.

The major contributions of laboratory experiments are to identify those situations in which discriminatory attitudes and behaviors are more or less likely to occur, as well as the characteristics of people who are more or less likely to exhibit discriminatory attitudes and behaviors, and to provide models of people’s mental processes that may lead to racial discrimination. Such experiments can usefully suggest hypotheses to be tested with other methodologies and real-world data.

Recommendation: To enhance the contribution of laboratory experiments to measuring racial discrimination, public and private funding agencies and researchers should give priority to the following:

Laboratory experiments that examine not only racially discriminatory attitudes but also discriminatory behavior. The results of such experiments could provide the theoretical basis for more accurate and complete statistical models of racial discrimination fit to observational data.

Studies designed to test whether the results of laboratory experiments can be replicated in real-word settings with real-world data. Such studies can help establish the general applicability of laboratory findings. (Recommendation 6.1)

Field Experiments

Large-scale experiments in the field rely on random assignment of subjects to one or more experimental treatments or to no treatment, so that researchers can determine whether an experimental treatment (the stimulus) causes an observed response. Such experiments take longer and are more complex to manage and more costly to conduct than laboratory experiments, and their results are more easily confounded by factors in the environment that the researchers cannot control. However, their results are more readily generalizable to the population at large.

The most significant use of field studies to study discrimination to date has been in the area of housing, specifically seeking new apartments or houses. The results of audit or paired-testing studies—in which otherwise comparable pairs of, say, a black person and a white person are sent separately to realty offices to seek an apartment or house—have been used to measure discrimination in specific housing markets. Audit studies have also been conducted on job seeking. It is likely that audit studies of racial discrimination in other domains (e.g., schooling and health care) could produce useful results as well, even though their use will undoubtedly present methodological challenges specific to each domain.

Recommendation: Nationwide field audit studies of racially based housing discrimination, such as those implemented by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in 1977, 1989, and 2000, provide valuable data and should be continued. (Recommendation 6.2)

Recommendation: Because properly designed and executed field audit studies can provide an important and useful means of measuring discrimination in various domains, public and private funding agencies should explore appropriately designed experiments for this purpose. (Recommendation 6.3)

Statistical Analysis of Observational Data and Natural Experiments

Observational studies are currently the primary tool through which researchers explore issues of racial disparity and discrimination in the real world. The standard way to explore the difference in an outcome between racial groups is to develop a regression model that includes a variable for race and variables for other relevant observed characteristics. The effect of the former variable on the outcome difference is identified as discrimination.

To support a causal inference from observational data, however, substantial prior knowledge about the mechanisms that generated the data must be available to justify the necessary assumptions. There are two particularly common problems involved in using standard multiple regression models to analyze observational data on outcome differences between race groups: Omitted variables bias occurs whenever a data set contains only a limited number of the characteristics that may reasonably factor into the process under study; sample selection bias occurs when the research systematically excludes subjects from the sample whose characteristics vary from those of the individuals represented in the data. Should either bias be present, it is difficult to draw causal inferences from the coefficient on race (or any other variable) in a regression model, as the race coefficient may overestimate or underestimate the effect labeled as discrimination.

Nationally representative data sets containing rich measures of the variables that are the most important determinants of such outcomes as education, labor market success, and health status can help in estimating and understanding the sources of racial differences in outcomes. Panel data, which include observations over time, are particularly valuable in this regard. There is also an important role for focused studies that target particular settings (e.g., a firm or a school), whereby it is possible to learn a great deal about how decisions are made and to collect most of the information on which decisions are based.

Evaluations of natural experiments are another way to exploit observational data in the measurement of racial discrimination. Such evaluations analyze data before and after enactment of a new law or some other change that forces a reduction in or the complete elimination of discrimination for some groups. Despite limitations, natural experiments provide useful data for measuring the extent of discrimination prior to a policy change and for groups not affected by the change.

Conclusion: The statistical decomposition of racial gaps in social outcomes using multivariate regression and related techniques is a valuable tool for understanding the sources of racial differences. However, such decompositions using data sets with limited numbers of explanatory variables, such as the Current Population Survey or the decennial census, do not accurately measure the portion of those differences that is due to current discrimination. Matching and related techniques provide a useful alternative to race gap decompositions based on multivariate regression in some circumstances. (from Chapter 7 )

Conclusion: The use of statistical models, such as multiple regressions, to draw valid inferences about discriminatory behavior requires appropriate data and methods, coupled with a sufficient understanding

of the process being studied to justify the necessary assumptions. (from Chapter 7 )

Recommendation: Public and private funding agencies should support focused studies of decision processes, such as the behavior of firms in hiring, training, and promoting employees. The results of such studies can guide the development of improved models and data for statistical analysis of differential outcomes for racial and ethnic groups in employment and other areas. (Recommendation 7.1)

Recommendation: Public agencies should assist in the evaluation of natural experiments by collecting data that can be used to evaluate the effect of antidiscrimination policy changes on groups covered by the changes as well as groups not covered. (Recommendation 7.2)

Indicators of Discrimination from Surveys and Administrative Records

Both self-reports of racial attitudes and perceived experiences of discrimination in surveys and reports of discriminatory events in administrative records can contribute to understanding the extent of racial discrimination. Survey data typically cannot directly measure the prevalence of actual discrimination as opposed to reports of perceived discrimination, but they can provide useful supporting evidence. Perceived discrimination may overreport or underreport discrimination assessed by other methods. As expressions of prejudice and discriminatory behavior change over time and become more subtle, new or revised survey questions on racial attitudes and perceived experiences of discrimination may be necessary. Longitudinal and repeated cross-sectional data, including continuous and new measures, are important to illuminate trends and changes in patterns of racially discriminatory attitudes and behaviors among and toward various groups. Such data are also vital for studies of cumulative disadvantage. Administrative reports of discrimination (e.g., equal employment opportunity complaints) may also be useful for research, although the lack of completeness and reliability of such reports can limit their usefulness.

Recommendation: To understand changes in racial attitudes and reported perceptions of discrimination over time, public and private funding agencies should continue to support the collection of rich survey data:

The General Social Survey, which since 1972 has been the leading source of repeated cross-sectional data on trends in racial attitudes and perceptions of racial discrimination, merits continued support

for measurement of important dimensions of discrimination over time and among population groups.

Major longitudinal surveys, such as the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, and others, merit support as data sources for studies of cumulative disadvantage across time, domains, generations, and population groups. To further enhance their usefulness, questions on perceived experiences of racial discrimination and racial attitudes should be added to these surveys.

Data collection sponsors should support research on question wording and survey design that can lead to improvements in survey-based measures relating to perceived experiences of racial discrimination. (Recommendation 8.1)

Recommendation: Agencies that collect administrative record reports of racial discrimination should seek ways to allow researchers to use these data for analyzing discrimination where appropriate. They should also identify ways to improve the completeness, reliability, and usefulness of reports of particular types of discriminatory events for both administrative and research purposes. (Recommendation 8.2)

Racial Profiling as an Illustrative Example

To provide a specific example of an area for which research on discriminatory treatment is needed but difficult to carry out, we discuss methodological issues in profiling. Racial or ethnic profiling is a screening process in which some individuals in a population (e.g., automobile drivers or people boarding an airplane) are selected on the basis of their race or ethnicity (and, typically, other observable characteristics) and investigated to determine whether they have committed or intend to commit a criminal act (e.g., smuggle drugs or blow up an airplane) or other act of interest. This definition excludes cases of identified individuals for whom race or ethnicity is part of their individual description. Many recent public statements (e.g., those made by police officials and legislative bodies since 2001) have recognized the unacceptability of racial profiling in police work. Even when such profiling is not explicitly racial, to the extent that it relies on characteristics that are distributed differently for different racial groups, the result may be a racially disparate impact.

Inferring the presence of discriminatory racial profiling from data on disparate outcomes is difficult for the same reasons that it is difficult to infer causation from any statistical model with observational data. We ex-

plore specific methodological concerns for improving the estimation of outcome rates (e.g., traffic stops for whites and minorities) and developing good statistical models for determining the contribution of discriminatory profiling as compared with other factors to differences in rates. Because of renewed interest in the United States in the use of profiling to identify and apprehend potential terrorists before they commit violent acts, we also examine briefly the challenges of identifying screening factors that could potentially select would-be terrorists with a significantly higher probability than purely random selection, as well as issues that must factor into the public debate if race or ethnicity (or factors that correlate highly with race or ethnicity) are considered as potential screening factors.

CUMULATIVE DISCRIMINATION

Much of the discussion about the presence of racial discrimination and the effects of antidiscrimination policies assumes discrimination to be a phenomenon that occurs at one point in time in a particular process or stage of a particular domain (e.g., initial hires by employers). This episodic view of discrimination is likely inadequate. Discrimination may well have cumulative effects, and it is therefore better viewed as a dynamic process that functions throughout the stages within a domain, across domains, across individual lifetimes, and even across generations. For example, discrimination involving teachers’ expectations during schooling may affect students’ later educational experiences or job opportunities; likewise, discrimination against prior generations may diminish opportunities for present generations even in the absence of current discriminatory practices.

Several theories of the processes by which discrimination may have cumulative effects have been developed, including (1) life-course theory of cumulative disadvantage in criminal justice research, which posits that such behavior as juvenile delinquency can affect certain social outcomes, such as failure in school or poor job stability, and thereby facilitate criminal behavior as an adult; (2) ecosocial theory in public health research (similar to the life-course concept), in which health status at a given age for a given birth cohort reflects not only current conditions but also prior living circumstances from conception onward; and (3) feedback models in labor market research. In such a model, for example, people who anticipate lower future returns to skills—possibly as a result of racial discrimination—might invest less in acquiring those skills. In turn, lower investment could perpetuate prejudice, limit opportunities, and sustain racial disparities in the labor market.

Only very limited research has been conducted, however, to test empirically the various theories of cumulative disadvantage and to measure the importance of cumulative effects over time and across domains. Longitudi-

nal data are a necessity for such research, as are methods for credibly identifying initial and subsequent incidents of discrimination.

Conclusion: Measures of discrimination from one point in time and in one domain may be insufficient to identify the overall impact of discrimination on individuals. Further research is needed to model and analyze longitudinal and other data and to study how effects of discrimination may accumulate across domains and over time in ways that perpetuate racial inequality. (from Chapter 11 )

Recommendation: Major longitudinal surveys, such as the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, and others, merit support as data sources for studies of cumulative disadvantage across time, domains, generations, and population groups. Furthermore, consideration should be given to incorporating into these surveys additional variables or special topical modules that might enhance the utility of the data for studying the long-term effects of discrimination. Consideration should also be given to including questions in new longitudinal surveys that would help researchers identify experiences of discrimination and their effects. (Recommendation 11.1)

Our report emphasizes the challenges of measuring racial discrimination in various social and economic domains. Establishing that discriminatory treatment or impact has occurred and measuring its effects on outcomes requires very careful analysis to rule out alternative explanatory factors. In some research to date, the data and analytical methods used are not sufficient to justify the assumptions of the underlying theoretical model. Moreover, many analyses never articulate an explicit model, which makes it difficult to judge the adequacy of the data and analysis to support the study findings.

Just because it is challenging to measure discrimination does not mean that sound, adequate research in this area is not possible. To the contrary, existing methods and data have produced useful results on particular types of discrimination in particular aspects of a domain or process. To make further progress, we believe it will be necessary for funding and program agencies to support research that cuts across disciplinary boundaries, makes use of multiple methods and types of data, and studies racial discrimination as a dynamic process. To be cost-effective, such research should be focused and designed to maximize the analytical value of existing bodies of knowledge and ongoing surveys and administrative records data collections.

Agencies with programmatic responsibilities (e.g., to monitor discrimination, investigate complaints, and operate programs that may be affected by the presence of discrimination and by antidiscrimination laws and regulations) will need to single out priority areas of concern and develop detailed research plans for them. This may require studies of key decision-making processes, combined with theoretical models of the ways in which discrimination might occur. For this purpose, the existing literature of laboratory experiments about the kinds of situations in which discriminatory attitudes are most likely to lead to race-based discriminatory treatment should be reviewed and additional experiments commissioned, if the laboratory results are not sufficiently revealing about the decision processes of interest (e.g., employer decisions about job training and promotion, to take a labor market example). In turn, experimental results can help guide focused case studies of decision processes that may be needed to provide the requisite depth of understanding to permit subsequent statistical analysis with appropriate data and methods. To facilitate data availability and use, program agencies can not only support the addition of relevant questions to ongoing cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys but also work to improve the research potential of agency administrative records data.

Research agencies, both public and private, can best leverage their resources by addressing important areas of research on racial discrimination that are less apt to be considered by program agencies. In particular, they are better positioned to support innovative, cross-disciplinary, multimethod research on cumulative disadvantage. They can also usefully consider ways to augment ongoing and new panel surveys to provide relevant data for basic research on racial discrimination, particularly over long periods of time. The kinds of multifaceted studies that have been conducted in recent years of changes in the well-being of low-income populations following major changes in welfare policies may offer useful guidance for discrimination research, which could similarly make use of multiple data sources and perspectives from economics, psychology, ethnography, survey research, and other relevant disciplines. Such complex research will be difficult to conceptualize and carry out, but it offers the promise to expand knowledge about the role that current and past discrimination may play in shaping American society today.

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Many racial and ethnic groups in the United States, including blacks, Hispanics, Asians, American Indians, and others, have historically faced severe discrimination—pervasive and open denial of civil, social, political, educational, and economic opportunities. Today, large differences among racial and ethnic groups continue to exist in employment, income and wealth, housing, education, criminal justice, health, and other areas. While many factors may contribute to such differences, their size and extent suggest that various forms of discriminatory treatment persist in U.S. society and serve to undercut the achievement of equal opportunity.

Measuring Racial Discrimination considers the definition of race and racial discrimination, reviews the existing techniques used to measure racial discrimination, and identifies new tools and areas for future research. The book conducts a thorough evaluation of current methodologies for a wide range of circumstances in which racial discrimination may occur, and makes recommendations on how to better assess the presence and effects of discrimination.

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Chapter Five: Essays for Discussion- What is Racism? In A Nutshell

Sometimes it is difficult for White people to truly understand racism. The main reason is because they do not want to learn about this country’s ugly past. They don’t want to hear about slavery, Jim Crow, lynching or the civil rights movements. They certainly don’t want to hear about how they are currently prospering from all the horrible things that happened to Black people and people of color in the past, or the things currently happening. Unfortunately, the problem is, until White people truly understand racism, they can do nothing to stop it. Therefore, racism will continue until the end of time. Just saying that gives me the creeps! However, I know it to be true. As you read my writings you will begin to understand why I put the power of stopping racism squarely on the shoulders of White people.

Racism in America started as a financial arrangement. Africans were merely property used to produce financial wealth for White people. Don’t forget many people already had or understood the concept of indentured servitude. So, the idea of having someone else do your hard work was not a new concept. In America racism became an attitude, labeled and tagged by skin color. The African had the most distinguishable skin color. The Native Indians knew the land too well. It was difficult to capture and keep them. White indentured servants could escape to another town and mix in with all the other whites. The owners didn’t have the technology to put out an all-points bulletin on a white male or female. There was no place for black-skinned people to hide. Often, if you were a breathing Black person, you belonged to someone. Escaping this was difficult to do. This made black-skinned people prime, permanent slavery prospects.

Slavery didn’t have to become what it became, but like the old saying goes, absolute power corrupts absolutely. The greed for power and the corruption of power led to the demonization of Black people. To keep their slavery enterprises up and running the slave owners had to get into the heads of other whites. They did this by convincing whites that the slaves weren’t completely human. This meant that Black slaves must be part animal. This mentally gave slave owners a psychological out, regarding the mistreatment of Black people. If Black people weren’t humans, slave owners felt they could do anything they wish to them. However, classifying slaves as animals was an evil mind trick. One of the main reasons there are light-skinned Black people in this country has to do with White slave masters having sex with Black slave women. So, were the White slave masters purposely having sex with animals? No. The main reason for declaring Africans only part humans was to be able to count them and treat them as animals. The African male presented a different problem, even though some males were sexually assaulted. This was an act to belittle their manhood. The slave owners had to control him from the outside in. Other times, he was beaten to submission and then his mind was ready to be worked on. It was sort of the opposite of Jesus’ way of teaching the five thousand. He fed their stomachs, in order to feed their souls. The slave owners beat the black male physically, so he could enslave and control him mentally.

The mental aspect of enslaving the Black man affected the White man. He began to truly believe that he was superior. He passed that superior attitude to his kids, generation after generation. After slavery was abolished and even until this day, the attitude of white superiority remains. My overall opinion from living amongst White people is that in general, they truly believe they are superior to anyone who isn’t white, but this is especially true when it comes to Black people. As a Black man, to understand this is the first step to understanding the true effects of racism. By understanding their superiority complex I can show most White people where they lost their identity, culture and heritage. Once they understand what they have lost, I can show them how they are still taking advantage of their whiteness. I can show them how by using their whiteness to their advantage, they are continuing to contribute to racism.

Don’t get me wrong, I know many White people who do not have a racist bone in their bodies. Still, a lot of them unknowingly use their white superiority. I see it all the time when it comes to dealing with the poor and disadvantaged. In my own personal life, I’m able to use white folks’ white superiority against them. Because I’m a big Black man, with a loud voice, they don’t see me as someone who has an above average-education (doctorate level). In the field of education, I get talked down to almost every day of my life. I’ll say this right now. Next to religion, education is one of the most racist institutions in America! After I earned my doctorate, I was having a conversation with a White guy I knew. He told me that I would probably not get a position at the university we worked at, because I went and got a degree that put me on the same level as the White men in the good ole boys club. They were already afraid of my experience but saw themselves better than me because my experience didn’t equal up to their education. At age fifty, I got the education (doctorate) to complement my experience. This White guy told me that with both experience and education I scare the White men at our university. To this day I have never held a position at this university, which would be considered commensurate to my education and experience level. This is one covert manner in which racism continues. The very people who consider themselves to be non-racists, do more harm than good because they need to move to the next level–anti-racist.

From Racist to Non-Racist to Anti-Racist: Becoming a Part of the Solution Copyright © 2001, 2020 by Keith L. Anderson, PhD is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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(page 161) p. 161 Conclusions: prospects for a post-racial future

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The Conclusion argues that conflicts between geo-cultural groups have been a perennial part of human history, and a combination of ethnic, linguistic, and religious boundaries has been crucial in creating prejudice and hostility. Each group, bound by geography and culture, has proved to be prone to see the world and ‘strangers’ through its own ethnocentric frame. However, it is important to remember that these frames are subject to internal fracturing along economic, cultural, gender, and smaller geo-political fault lines. But historical, anthropological, and psychological evidence shows that there is no necessary translation of group loyalty into hostility. How can we move beyond racism?

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398 Racism Essay Titles & Writing Examples

• 🔖 Secrets of Powerful Racism Essay

🏆 Best Racism Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

🥇 most interesting racism topics to write about, 🎓 simple & easy racism essay titles, ⚡ shocking essay topics on racism, 👍 good essay topics on racism, 💡 interesting essay titles about racism, ❓ racism questions for essay.

Looking for powerful racism essay topics? You will find them here! This list contains a great variety of titles for racism-themed papers. We’ve also included useful tips and plenty of racism essay examples to help you write an outstanding paper.

🔖 Secrets of a Powerful Racism Essay

Writing an essay on racism may seem easy at first. However, because racism is such a popular subject in social sciences, politics, and history, your piece needs to be truly powerful to receive a high mark. Here are the best tips to help make your racism essay stand out:

• Consider the historical causes of racism. Papers on racism often focus on discrimination and equality in modern society. Digging a bit deeper and highlighting the origins of racism will make your essay more impressive. Check academic resources on the subject to see how racism was connected to the slave trade, politics, and social development in Europe. Explore these ideas in your paper to make it more compelling!
• Show critical thinking. Racism essay titles often focus on the effects of racism on the population. To make your essay more powerful, you will need to discuss the things that are often left out. Think about why racial discrimination is still prevalent in modern society and who benefits from racist policies. This will show your tutor that you understand the topic in great depth.
• Look for examples of racism in art. One of the reasons as to why racism spread so quickly is because artists and authors supported the narratives of race. If you explore paintings by European artists created in 17-18 centuries, you will find that they often highlighted the differences between black and white people to make the former seem less human. In various literary works, such as Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Shakespeare’s Othello, racism plays a vital role. In contrast, more recent works of art consider racism from a critical viewpoint. Examining how racism is reflected in the art will help you to earn an excellent mark for your analysis of the subject.
• Discuss the influences of racism. Of course, one of the key racism essay topics is the impact of racism on black populations in various countries. It is true that discrimination plays an essential role in the lives of black people, and reflecting this in your paper will help you to make it influential. You can discuss various themes here, from police brutality to healthcare access. Support your claims with high-quality data from official sources. If appropriate, you can also show how racism affected your life or the lives of your friends and loved ones.
• Show the correlation between racism and other social issues. Racism is connected to many different types of discrimination, including sexism and homophobia. This allows you to expand your paper by showing these links and explaining them. For instance, you could write an essay on racism and xenophobia, or find other topics that interest you.

Finally, structure your essay well. Write an outline first to determine the sequence of key points. You can check out a racism essay example on this website to see how other people structure their work.

Racism Thesis Statement, Main Body, & Conclusion

A typical essay should have an introduction, the main body, and a conclusion. Each paragraph of the main body should start with a topic sentence. Here’s what a topic sentence for racism-themed essay can look like:

Racism continues to be a pervasive issue in society, with deep-rooted prejudices and discrimination that impact individuals and communities across the globe.

Don’t forget to include a racism essay thesis statement at the end of your introduction to identify the focus of the paper! Check out these racism thesis statements for inspiration:

Racism is pervasive social problem that manifests in various forms, perpetuating systemic inequalities and marginalizing minority groups. Through an examination of racism’s history and its psychological impact on individuals, it becomes evident that this pressing issue demands collective action for meaningful change.

In your essay’s conclusion, you can simply paraphrase the thesis and add a couple of additional remarks.

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• The Challenges of Racism Influential for the Life of Frederick Douglass and Barack Obama However, Douglass became an influential anti-slavery and human rights activist because in the early childhood he learnt the power of education to fight inequality with the help of his literary and public speaking skills to […]
• Racism in “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” by Mark Twain The character of Pap is used to advance the theme of racism in the book. In the closing chapters of the book, Huck and Tom come to the realization that Jim is not property but […]
• Racism in the “Dutchman” by Amiri Baraka Generally, one is to keep in mind that Baraka is recognized to be one of the most important representatives of the black community, and the theme of racism in The Dutchman has, therefore, some historical […]
• Racism in Music: “(What Did I Do to Be So) Black and Blue” The extreme popularity of the song among the black population can be explained with references to the fact that Armstrong changed the original lyrics to accentuate the social meaning of the composition and elaborated the […]
• Maya Angelou: Racism and Segregation in “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings” An example is that, as she fails to recite her poem in church, she notes that her dress is probably a handout from a white woman.
• Racial Discrimination in “A Raisin in the Sun” Racial discrimination is the main theme of the book, strongly reflecting the situation that prevailed during the 1950s in the United States, a time when the story’s Younger family lived in Chicago’s South Side ghetto.
• Racism and Motherhood Themes in Grimke’s “Rachel” In addition, her mother kept the cause of the deaths of Rachel’s father and brother secret. In essence, the play Rachel is educative and addresses some of the challenges people face in society.
• Racism in “The Black Table Is Still There” by Graham The black table, as he calls it, is a table, that was and still is, present in his school’s cafeteria, that accommodated the black students only depicting no more than racism in schools.
• The Anatomy of Scientific Racism: Racialist Responses to Black Athletic Achievement Miller is of the view that it is the white scholars that are responsible for impeding the success of black athletes and performers.
• Imperialism and Racism in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness He lauds “the book’s anti-imperialist theme…a stinging indictment of the callous and genocidal treatment of the Africans, and other nationals, at the hands of the British and the European imperial powers,” and also details the […]
• Racism and Discrimination as Social Constructs This is because the concept of race has a negative connotation in the society. For example in some societies, especially the western society; the concept of race implies un-fair treatment and discrimination of a particular […]
• Racial Discrimination Effects in Coming of Age in Mississippi by Anne Moody The vivid description of events from the beginning gives the reader a clear picture of a girl who was born in problems and in spite of her intelligence she always became a victim of circumstances.
• Contrast Between Tituba and John Indian and Countering Racism The declaration suggests that Conde believed the story of Tituba’s maltreatment needed to be told to expose the truth she had been denied due to her skin color and gender.
• Sexism, Racism, Ableism, Ageism, Classism The absurdity and blatant sexism of this issue made me angry at how the United States is unable to resolve and overcome the lack of gender equality.
• Cause and Effect of Racial Discrimination Irrespective of massive efforts to emphasize the role of diversity and equality in society, it is still impossible to state that the United States is free from racial discrimination.
• Racism and Gender in Beyoncé’s Lemonade The album Lemonade by an American singer Beyonce is one of the brightest examples when an artist portrays the elements of her culture in her music. Along with music videos, the album features a number […]
• Racism in Play “Othello” by William Shakespeare Since Othello is dark-skinned, the society is against his marriage to the daughter of the senator of Venice. In summary, the play Othello is captivating and presents racism as it was.
• Colonialism and Racism in Foe by J. M. Coetzee and Small Island by Andrea Levy This paper will try to expound on the relevance of real-life politics, of colonialism and racism, with regards to two popular works of fiction that used as themes or backdrop colonialism and racism.
• Racism in Shakespeare’s “Othello” and Dick’s “Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?” The formalist analysis of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep repeats the same mistake, as it focuses on the plot devices and tropes presented in the story.
• Root Causes and Solutions to Racism Media is meant to eradicate racism and maintain unity among people but the case is different in some situations. Also, it is vital to make children understand nothing is amusing in the use of stereotypes […]
• The Problem of Racism in Brazilian Football Skidmore describes it as the relationships that could result into conflict and consciousness and determination of the people’s status in a community or a particular group. In football, racism damages pride of the players and […]
• Black or White Racism When one listens to the “Black or White” song, it is clear that Michael Jackson is not expecting his audience to be either white or black people to listen and learn the message he is […]
• Racial Discrimination Through the Cosmetics Industry The variety of preconceptions such as the hypersexuality of black women and the perception of their beauty as an unideal version of whites’ one also indicates racism.
• How Racism Makes Us Sick: Public Talk That Matters As a developing learner, I find this speech as a good example of how to raise such provocative themes as racism in the United States and not to be obsessed with prejudice.
• Does Racism and Discrimination Still Exist Today? This fact explains why racism and discrimination are inseparable in many parts of the globe. Sex discrimination continues to affect the goals and expectations of many women in our society.
• Racism and Intolerance: The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre: Crafting a Legacy by Messer elaborates on the legacy of the event and its repercussions and offers a profound analysis of the issue, which strengthened my focus of the research.
• The Roma Problems and the Causes of Racism 3 Is it any wonder that the insular, superstitious, monolithically Catholic or Orthodox communities of Europe and Eastern Europe, eager to recapture the civil order and peace of the golden age of the Roman Empire […]
• Racism: US v. The Amistad and Dred Scott v. Sandford In legal terms, the key difference between the two was that the Africans from Amistad were freeborn and enslaved in violation of the international agreements, while Dred Scott, despite his sojourn in Illinois, was born […]
• Racism Effects on the Premier League Players This work aims to provide a full picture of the real issue, and it is fundamental to understand the essence of the problem through the investigation of the players’ personal opinions and their experiences.
• Islam and Racism: Malcolm X’s Letter From Mecca Malcolm’s experience of the pilgrimage has made him believe that real unity and understanding actually can exist between people regardless of their country of birth, the color of skin, or the language they speak.
• Racism: De Brahm’s Map and the Casta Paintings However, De Brahm’s map is one of the most striking pieces of evidence of the conquest of space and the entrenchment of the idea of land and people as titular property.
• Racism and Inequality in Society The idea of race as a social construct is examined in the first episode of the documentary series “The Power of an Illusion”.
• Anti-Racism: Marginalization and Exclusion in Healthcare This essay examines the course’s impact and the concepts of marginalization and exclusion in healthcare. Marginalization is a concept that has profoundly influenced the understanding of race and racism in healthcare.
• The Issue of Racism in the United States The entire history of the United States is permeated with the evolution of the ideas of racism. Turning to history, we can see that the U.S.moved from slavery to using the Black population to solve […]
• History of Racial Discrimination in Haiti and America The choice of topic, racial discrimination in Haiti and America, was influenced by beliefs, values, and assumptions emphasizing the importance of equality and justice for all races.
• Racism and History of Discrimination As a result, advocacy should be aimed at creating new models in criminal justice that will ensure the protection of all minority groups and due process.
• Racial Discrimination and Color Blindness Of the three ideologies, racial harmony is considered the most appropriate for coping with problems of racism and racial injustice due to various reasons.
• Race, Racism, and Dangers of Race Thinking While it is true that some forms of race thinking can be used to justify and perpetuate racism, it is not necessarily the case that all forms of race thinking are inherently racist. Race thinking […]
• Racial Discrimination in American Literature In this way, the author denies the difference between people of color and whites and, therefore, the concept of racism in general.
• Racism in the US: Settler Imperialism They prove that colonial imperialism is a structure, not a contextual phenomenon and that, as such, it propagates the marginalization of native people.
• Why Empathy in Racism Should Be Avoided Empathy is the capacity to comprehend and experience the emotions and ideas of others. Moreover, empathic emotions are essential to social and interpersonal life since they allow individuals to adapt their cognitive processes to their […]
• Racial Discrimination in High Education This peer-reviewed scholar article was found in the JSTOR database through entering key words “race affirmative action” and marking the publication period between 2017 and 2022.
• Social Sciences: Racism Through Different Lenses A thorough analysis of diversity adds value to social interactions by informing human behavior through a deeper understanding of racism and its impacts on society. Using the humanities lens leads to a better understanding of […]
• Racial Discrimination in Dormitory Discrimination is considered to be behavior that restricts the rights and freedoms of the individual. Therefore, it is essential to investigate discrimination in dormitories and propose solutions to this problem, such as disseminating knowledge about […]
• Racism and Its Impact on Populations and Society The ignorance of many individuals about other people’s cultures and ethnicities is one of the causes of racism. One can examine the various components of society and how they relate to the issue of racism […]
• Institutionalized Racism and Individualistic Racism Excellent examples of individualistic racism include the belief in white supremacy, racial jokes, employment discrimination, and personal prejudices against black people. Overall, institutionalized and individualistic racism is a perversive issue that affects racial relations in […]
• Community Engagement with Racism To enhance the population’s degree of involvement in racism, the study calls for collaboration; this can be seen as a community effort to foster a sense of teamwork.
• Racism Detection with Implicit Association Test Racial bias is deeply rooted in human society and propelled by norms and stereotypic ideologies that lead to implicit bias and the unfair treatment of minority groups.
• Identity and Belonging: Racism and Ethnicity In the documentary Afro Germany – Being Black and German, several individuals share their stories of feeling mistreated and excluded because of their skin color.
• Policies to Eliminate Racial Disparities and Discrimination The solution to exclusion is to build social inclusion in the classroom and within the school by encouraging peer acceptance, cross-group friendships, and built-in prevention.
• Causes, Facilitators, and Solutions to Racism These theories suggest that racism serves a particular function in society, occurs due to the interactions of individuals from dominant groups, and results from a human culture of prejudice and discrimination.
• Racial Discrimination and Justice in Education An example is the complaint of the parents of one of the black students that, during the passage of civilizations, the Greeks, Romans, and Incas were discussed in the lessons, but nothing was said about […]
• Empathy and Racism in Stockett’s The Help and Li’s To Kill a Mockingbird To start with, the first approach to racism and promoting empathy is to confront prevalent discrimination and racism, which was often shown in The Help. Another solution to racism and the possibility of promoting empathy […]
• Is Troy Maxson (Wilson’s Fences) a Victim of Racism? As a black American, Troy’s childhood experiences have been passed on to his children, making him a victim of an oppressive culture. Therefore, this makes Troy a victim of racism and culture, contributing to his […]
• Racism in the Healthcare Sector In 2020, the cases and instances of racism in healthcare rose by 16% from 2018; there were notable instances of racism in various spheres of health. 9% of blacks have been protected from discrimination and […]
• Racism in Healthcare and Education The mission should emphasize that it promotes diversity and equality of all students and seeks to eliminate racial bias. It is necessary to modify the mission to include the concept of inclusiveness and equality.
• Institutional Racism in the Workplace Despite countless efforts to offer African-Americans the same rights and opportunities as Whites, the situation cannot be resolved due to the emergence of new factors and challenges.
• Racism in Education in the United States Such racial disparities in the educational workforce confirm the problem of structural racism and barrier to implementing diversity in higher medical education. Structural racism has a long history and continues to affect the growth of […]
• Rhetoric in Obama’s 2008 Speech on Racism When the audience became excited, it was Obama’s responsibility to convey his message in a more accessible form. To conclude, Obama’s speech in 2008 facilitated his election as the first African American President in history.
• How to Talk to Children About Racism The text begins by referring to recent events that were related to race-based discrimination and hatred, such as the murder of George Floyd and the protests dedicated to the matter.
• Care for Real: Racism and Food Insecurity Care for Real relies on the generosity of residents, donation campaigns, and business owners to collect and deliver these supplies. The research article discusses some of the factors that contribute to the creation of racism […]
• Racism Towards Just and Holistic Health Therefore, the critical content of the event was to determine the steps covered so far in the fight for racial equality in the provision of care and what can be done to improve the status […]
• Racism and Related Issues in Canadian Society The first issue is that it does not review the systemic and structural aspects of racism and how it affects various institutions and society as a whole.
• Systemic Racism and Discrimination Thus, exploring the concept of race from a sociological perspective emphasizes the initial aspect of inequality in the foundation of the concept and provides valuable insight into the reasons of racial discrimination in modern society.
• The Racism Problem and Its Relevance The images demonstrate how deeply racism is rooted in our society and the role the media plays in spreading and combating racism.
• Aspects of Socio-Economic Sides of Racism And the answer is given in Dorothy Brown’s article for CNN “Whites who escape the attention of the police benefit because of slavery’s long reach”.. This shows that the problem of racism is actual in […]
• Tackling Racism in the Workplace It means that reporting racism to HR does not have the expected positive effect on workplace relations, and employees may not feel secure to notify HR about the incidences of racism.
• Issue of Racism Around the World One of the instances of racism around the world is the manifestations of violence against indigenous women, which threatens the safety of this vulnerable group and should be mitigated.
• The Racism Problem and How to Fight It Racism is one of the common problems of the modern world which might not allow several individuals to feel a valuable part of society due to their skin color, gender, or social status.
• Environmental Racism: The Water Crisis in Flint, Michigan The situation is a manifestation of environmental racism and classism since most of the city’s population is people of color and poor. Thus, the water crisis in Flint, Michigan, is a manifestation of environmental racism […]
• The “Racism and Discrimination” Documentary The documentary “Racism and Discrimination” is about an anti-racist teacher Jane Elliot who attempts to show the white people the feeling of discrimination. The central argument of the documentary is diversity training to seize the […]
• Abortion-Related Racial Discrimination in the US In spite of being a numerical minority, Black women in the U.S.resort to abortion services rather often compared to the White population.
• Social Problems Surrounding Racism, Prejudice and Discrimination This kind of discrimination makes the students lose their self-esteem and the traumas experienced affects the mental health of these students in the long term.
• The Unethical Practice of Racism in a Doctor’s Case The involvement of Barrett in the protest is both unethical for the university’s image and immoral for the community. However, the school would likely face tougher court fines and a direct order to reinstate Barrett’s […]
• The Problem of Racism in America One explanation of racism by feminist thinkers is that racism is a manifestation of the agency and power of people of a particular racial identity over others.
• Racism: “The Sum of Us” Article by McGhee The economic analysis and sociological findings in America have drawn a detailed picture of the cost of racism in America and how to overcome it together.
• Contemporary Sociological Theories and American Racism The central intention of this theory paper is to apply modern theoretical concepts from the humanities discipline of sociology to the topic of racism in the United States.
• A Cause-and-Effect Analysis of Racism and Discrimination As a result, it is vital to conduct a cause-and-effect analysis to determine the key immediate and hidden causes of racism to be able to address them in a proper manner.
• Institutional Racism Through the Lenses of Housing Policy While not being allowed to buy property because of the racial covenants, the discriminated people had to house in other areas.
• Role of Racism in Contemporary US Public Opinion This source is useful because it defines racism, describes its forms, and presents the survey results about the prevalence of five types of racial bias.
• The Mutation of Racism into New Subtle Forms The trend reflects the ability of racism to respond to the rising sensitivity of the people and the widespread rejection of prejudice.
• Racism: Healthcare Crisis and the Nurses Role The diminished admittance to mind is because of the impacts of fundamental bigotry, going from doubt of the medical care framework to coordinate racial segregation by medical care suppliers.
• Origins of Racial Discrimination Despite such limitations as statistical data being left out, I will use this article to support the historical evaluation of racism in the United States and add ineffective policing to the origins of racism.
• Beverly Greene Life and View of Racism The plot of the biography, identified and formed by the Ackerman Institute for the Family in the life of the heroine, consists of dynamics, personality development and its patterns.
• Historical Racism in South Africa and the US One of the major differences between the US and South Africa is the fact that in the case of the former, an African American minority was brought to the continent to serve the White majority.
• Capitalism and Racism in Past and Present Racism includes social and economic inequalities due to racial identity and is represented through dispossession, colonialism, and slavery in the past and lynching, criminalization, and incarceration in the present.
• Minstrels’ Influence on the Spread of Racism The negative caricatures and disturbing artifacts developed to portray Black people within the museum were crucial in raising awareness on the existence of racism.
• How Parents of Color Transcend Nightmare of Racism Even after President Abraham Lincoln outlawed enslavement and won the American Civil War in 1965, prejudice toward black people remained engrained in both the northern and southern cultural structures of the United States.
• A Problem of Racial Discrimination in the Modern World This minor case suggests the greater problem that is unjustly treating people in the context of the criminal justice system. In the book, Stevenson writes about groups of people who are vulnerable to being victimized […]
• Beverly Tatum’s Monolog About Injustice of Racism Furthermore, the author’s point is to define the state of discrimination in the country and the world nowadays and explore what steps need to be taken to develop identity.
• Issue of Institutional Racism Systemic and structural racisms are a form of prejudice that is prevalent and deeply ingrained in structures, legislation, documented or unpublished guidelines, and entrenched customs and rituals.
• Racism in America Today: Problems of Today Even though racism and practices of racial discrimination had been banned in the 1960s after the mass protests and the changes to the laws that banned racial discrimination institutionally.
• Evidence of Existence of Modern Racism It would be wrong to claim that currently, the prevalence and extent of manifestations of racism are at the same level as in the middle of the last century.
• Culture Play in Prejudices, Stereotyping, and Racism However, cognitive and social aspects are significant dimensions that determine in-group members and the constituents of a threat in a global religious view hence the relationship between religion and prejudices.
• Latin-African Philosophical Wars on Racism in US Hooker juxtaposition Vasconcelos’ ‘Cosmic Race’ theory to Douglass’s account of ethnicity-based segregation in the U.S.as a way of showing the similarities between the racial versions of the two Americas.
• Confronting Stereotypes, Racism and Microaggression Stereotypes are established thought forms rooted in the minds of particular groups of people, in the social environment, and in the perception of other nations.
• Racial Discrimination in Dallas-Fort Worth Region Thus, there is a historical imbalance in the political representation of racial minorities in the Dallas-Fort Worth area. Nonetheless, the Black population is reported to thrive best in the suburban areas of DFW, where this […]
• Healthcare Call to Action: Racism in Medicine To start the fight, it is necessary to identify the main manifestations of discrimination in health care, the reasons for the emergence of the location of social superiority and discrimination, and the scale.
• White Counselors Broaching Race and Racism Study The essence of the verbal behavior of the consultants is the ways of their reaction in the process of interaction with the client – the basic skills of counseling, accessibly including race and racism topics.
• British Colonial Racism for Aboriginal Australians Precisely this colonial racism and genocide can be considered to be the cruelest in the history of the world and may have influenced the ideas and plans of Adolf Hitler, who got inspired by the […]
• American Culture and Its Racism Roots However, the discrimination seems not to be justified since many shreds of evidence show that many Americans are thought to be immigrants to the continent, with the first immigrants being the Spanish and the French.
• The Black People: Sexuality and Racial Discrimination Nevertheless, the author does not provide practical solutions to the issue of racism and discrimination of the LGBTQ community. The purpose of this interview is to demonstrate the author’s attitude to the sexuality of black […]
• Racism Evolution: Experience of African Diaspora As a result, distinct foundations fostered the necessity of inequality to establish effectiveness of inferiority and superiority complexes. To determine the effect of slavery and racism to modern society.
• The Problem of Explicit Racism The murder of George Floyd was one example of the police’s brutal racism, and there are many more cases of horrible discrimination that takes people’s lives.
• Racial Discrimination and Residential Segregation Despite the end of segregation policies and the passing of Fair Housing laws and numerous subsidy measures, people of color cannot access wealthy areas, facing unofficial exclusion into poorer parts of the city.
• Significance of Perceived Racism:Ethnic Group Disparities in Health Coates points out that a sign of the gulf between blacks and whites manifests in the context where there is expectation for him to enlighten his opinions while in mind the essential indication lies in […]
• Racism as Origin of Enslavement Some ideas are mentioned in the video, for example, the enslavement of Black people and their children. The most shocking fact mentioned by the speaker of the video is that children of enslaved people were […]
• Colorblind Racism and Its Minimization Colorblind racism is a practice that people use to defend themselves against accusations of racism and deny the significance of the problem.
• Legacy of Racism Against African American Women and Men This was a movie called The Birth of A Nation which supposedly tells ‘the American history.’ The white men who praised the Ku Klux Klan were shown as superior and intelligent.
• The Bill H.R.666 Anti-Racism in Public Health Act of 2021 That is why the given paper will identify a current and health-related bill and comment on it. This information demonstrates that it is not reasonable to oppose passing the bill under consideration.
• Summary of the Issue About Racism In schools in the United States, with the advent of the new president, a critical racial theory began to be taught.
• How the Prison Industrial Complex Perpetuate Racism In the United States, the system is a normalization of various dynamics, such as historical, cultural, and interpersonal, that routinely benefit the whites while causing negative impacts for the people of color.
• Battling Racism in the Modern World Racism and racial discrimination undermine the foundations of the dignity of an individual, as they aim to divide the human family, to which all peoples and people belong, into different categories, marking some of them […]
• Indian Youth Against Racism: Photo Analysis The main cause of racism within American societies is the high superiority complex possessed by the white individuals living with the Asian American in the society.
• Racism: Do We Need More Stringent Laws? The Civil Rights Division of the Department of Justice is worried that national origin discrimination in the U.S.may go undetected because victims of prejudice are unaware of their legal rights or are hesitant to complain […]
• Problem of Racism in Schools Overview Racism should be discouraged by all means and the government should do its best to educate citizens on the importance of unity and the disadvantages of racism.
• US Immigration Policy and Its Correlation to Structural Racism That may create breaches in the immigration policy and cause social instability that could endanger the status of immigrants and even negatively affect the lives of the nationals.
• America: Racism, Terrorism, and Ethno-Culturalism The myth of the frontier is one of the strongest and long-lived myths of America that animates the imagination of the Americans even to this day.
• Racism in Healthcare and Its Implications Generally, the presence of racism in the medical sphere affects not only the relationship between the a professional and their patient, but also the quality of care people receive and the severity of their outcomes.
• Issue of Racism in Healthcare The theory would question whether racism in healthcare is ethical and whether it facilitates the provision of care in a manner that is centered on values such as compassion, fairness, and integrity.
• Racism and Statistical & Pure Discrimination For employers, the residents of the inner city are likely to be associated with criminal activity, as well as a lack of education and skills.
• Solving Racial Discrimination in the US: The Best Strategies The Hollywood representation of a black woman is often a magical hero who “is a virtuous black character who serves to better the lives of white people…and asks nothing for herself”.
• Popular Music at the Times of Racism and Segregation The following work will compare and contrast the compositions of Louis Armstrong and Scott Joplin and examine the impact of racism on popular music.
• Temporary Aid Program: Racism in Child Welfare The purpose of this paper is to analyze the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program in the context of child welfare disparities.
• The Problem of Racism in the Police Force Atiba argues that the problem of racism, especially in the police force, is solvable. In most of the cases, it is often interpreted as lack of love and compassion towards people of the other race.
• Western Scientific Approach as a Cause of Racism This paper will highlight the main methods of refuting the works of racist anthropologists and how they influenced the emergence of stereotypes about people of color.
• How Does Racism Affect Health? Many people of color experience internalized racism, which can lead to anxiety and depression that can be the cause of physical issues.
• Citizen: An American Lyric and Systemic Racism In essence, the primary objective of the author is to trigger the readers’ thoughts towards the devastating racism situation in America and the world in general.
• The Reflection of Twain’s Views on Racism in Huck Finn One of the most problematic aspects in the novel that potentially can make readers think that Twain’s attitude toward slavery and racism is not laudable is the excessive usage of the n-word by all sorts […]
• Black as a Label: Racial Discrimination People are so used to identifying African Americans as black that they refuse to accept the possibility of the artificiality of labeling.
• The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and Racial Discrimination The author argues that despite increasing the overall prosperity of the local communities, the policies and projects of the Tennessee Valley Authority did not address the well-being of the white population and Afro-American citizens equally.
• Flint Water Crisis: Environmental Racism and Racial Capitalism The Flint crisis is a result of the neoliberal approach of the local state as opposed to the typical factors of environmental injustice; a polluter or a reckless emitter cutting costs. The two main factors […]
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism One of the sources under study is valuable, as it examines the current situation of the coronavirus and the impact of pollution on human health.
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism in the US Bentlyewski and Juhn argue that the environmental racism in the country has been the result of aligning the public environmental policy and industrial activity to benefit the white majority and, at the same time, shifting […]
• American Healthcare in the Context of Racism According to the researchers, the fundamental issue of racism in health care is the practitioners and public health representatives’ lack of desire to recognize the health specifics of racial and ethnic minorities, which results in […]
• Origins of Modern Racism and Ancient Slavery The diversity of African kingdoms and the empires were engaged in the slave trade for hundreds of years prior to the beginnings of the Atlantic slave trade. The working and living condition of slaves were […]
• Contribution of Racism to Economic Recession Due to COVID-19 The historical injustice accounts for unequal employment opportunities and the economic profile of the minority groups. Therefore, economic recovery for the older Latinos and Blacks is limited due to the lack of flexible occupational benefits.
• What Stories Can Teach Us About Racism On top of this before the establishment of the school there was no public education for the Negro children and this made it more difficult for the children to access education just like the other […]
• Racism in Canadian Medical System The difference in the treatment of indigenous and non-indigenous individuals in Canada is a result of racism in the medical facility.
• Profit and Racism in the Prisons of the United States As an argument for the work of prisoners, the prison of Angola makes the argument that work is a way of rehabilitation for the prisoner.
• Rio Tinto: Case Study About Racism and Discrimination The repercussions of this situation for the preservation of cultural heritage may be considerable, as the expert community was denied an opportunity to research the artifacts.
• Critical Social Problems Research: Racism and Racial Domination According to his opinion, which is proven today by many examples including the attitude of the authorities, people of color are treated as if they are worthless and not destined to achieve success.
• Criminal Justice: Racial Prejudice and Racial Discrimination Souryal takes the reader through the racial prejudice and racial discrimination issues ranging from the temperament of racism, the fundamental premise of unfairness, the racial biasness and the causes of racial unfairness to ethical practices […]
• Gonzalez v. Abercrombie & Fitch Discrimination Racism Lawsuit: An Analysis The case was filed in June 2003, and the claim was that this company has grossly violated the rights of the citizens as provided for in the constitution of the country.
• The History of Racial Discrimination and Its Effects on the American Races The saddest part of it all is that our Indian American brothers are discussed in public and used as examples in a manner that makes it seem like they exist only as a mere caricature […]
• Racial Discrimination in the US Criminal Justice System This report argues that when one studies the proportion of blacks in the Cincinnati community and the number of times that they have been stopped for traffic violations, one finds that there is a large […]
• Policing in America: The Issue of Violence and Racism While the former proposition has various negative aspects to be considered, the latter appears to be the appropriate reaction to the challenges posed for the United States’ society in 2020.
• Institutional and Interpersonal Racism, White Privilege One should be aware of the fact that issues such as institutional and interpersonal racism, privilege, power, and bias are complex problems, which need a thorough analysis and consideration of all the facts.
• Anti-Racism in Shakespeare’s Othello For Shakespeare, Brabantio’s views are representative of the racial prejudice of the society in general, rather than of his personal feelings towards the protagonist. On the other hand, Othello’s story is cohesive and believable; he […]
• Racism and Sexism as a Threat Women suffer from sexism, people of color are affected by racism, and women of color are victims of both phenomena. Prejudices spread in families, communities, and are difficult to break down as they become part […]
• The Development of a Measure to Assess Symbolic Racism The originators of the concept applied it only to the African-American race, while other scientists engaged in researching and applying the construct of symbolic racism to other races and cultures.
• Racism and Tokenism in Bon Appetit: Leadership and Ethical Perspective Leadership is defined as a set of actions and beliefs of a manager who directs and controls the followers to achieve a common goal.
• From “Scientific” Racism to Local Histories of Lynching Both chapters serve as a premise to the following arguments in the book, arguing that White power is still dominant in the contemporary world, and give context to the broader scale of oppression worldwide.
• Subjective Assumptions and Medicine: Racism The given supposition demonstrates that Allen believed in the superiority of white southerners over Black Americans because the latter ones were made responsible for the deteriorated health of the former.
• Racism Experiences in the Workplace in the UK This research paper provides the background of racism in the UK, particularly in the area of employment. The UK struggles against racial discrimination and paves the way to equity and inclusion in the area of […]
• The History of Immigration to the United States and the Nature of Racism The development of the idea of race and ethnicity along with the idea of racial antagonism has two main stages in the history of the United States.
• Race and Racism in the USA: The Origins and the Future In conclusion, the author suggests that the possible solution to the problem of racial conflicts is the amalgamation of different races and ethnics.
• Racially Insensitive Name-Calling in Classroom Probably, the teacher had to initiate the lesson devoted to the topic of racial discrimination and to think over all the stages of the discussion, to organize it in a polite and friendly manner.
• Environmental Racism in the United States: Concept, Solution to the Problem With regards to this definition, a row of issues connected to social justice and the equality in the rights of people which is firmly established in the Constitution of the United States are to be […]
• Protecting George Wallace’s Organized Racism Instead of claiming that segregation was a necessary evil or that it benefited the minorities, he claimed that it is the only way to protect the freedom of the white people.
• How Can the World Unite to Fight Racism?
• Racism in America and Its Literature
• Race, Class and Gender. Racism on Practice
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New Right, New Racism pp 263–273 Cite as

Conclusion: Challenging the New Racism; Combating the New Right

• Amy Elizabeth Ansell 2  

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Race has not declined in significance in the United States or Britain; rather its significance has changed. Race remains an important lens through which current issues and events are perceived and explained, as well as a fundamental dimension of institutional relations of inequality. Although the assertion of the biological inequality of different races is an ideology which has fallen largely into disrepute, race-based symbolism nevertheless remains an important explanatory framework for many present-day issues and challenges, as well as a legitimating ideology for elites.

• Racial Inequality
• Institutional Relation
• Subordinate Group
• Discursive Form
• Racial Ideology

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Ansell, A.E. (1997). Conclusion: Challenging the New Racism; Combating the New Right. In: New Right, New Racism. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-13927-9_7

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Essay About Racial Discrimination

Racial discrimination has been ranked as one the most pervasive issue in the world around today. Anyone judged by the skin colour, nationality, religion rather than by the content of character can be very dehumanizing experience that can have lasting effects on an individual’s life (Fischer 2008). Racism disturbs both individual and the learning environment in schools. It generates tension that alter cultural understanding and narrow the educational experiences of all students. According to (Berlak 2009) discrimination occurs in any stage of education from preschool through college and can be practiced by teachers or students. Racism occur in various forms such as teasing, name calling, teasing, verbal abuse and bullying. Therefore this literature review, discusses the types, effects and solution to this unstoppable issue in education system.

Types of Racial Discrimination

Racism is frequently thought of as individual demonstrations of inclination. While discrimination is still particularly a reality, concentrating on individual demonstrations of prejudice can darken the substances that make and keep up racial disparity all the more comprehensively. According to De la luz, there are three types of racial discrimination which are individual racism, instituinal racism and systematic racism. To completely address the effects of racism it is essential to address all parts of racial disparity. Individual racism, likewise called personal racism, is the sort of prejudice that a great many people consider when they consider “racism.” Individual prejudice happens when a man’s convictions, states of mind, and activities depend on inclinations, generalizations, or preferences against another race. Institutional racism refers to an establishment settling on decisions that deliberately single out or hurt ethnic minorities. Systematic racism, is maybe the most upsetting and slightest examined type of racism. It systematizes individual, social, and different sorts of prejudice in ceaseless frameworks. Like institutional prejudice, basic racism centre around associations instead of individuals. However, while institutional racism may intentionally attempt to single out a specific gathering, auxiliary bigotry is unbiased all over. This impartiality makes basic prejudice hard to gauge and significantly more hard to end.

Effects of Racial Discrimination

It is believed that racism is one term that describes the whole issue, however it is a complex system that describes many types of biased behaviours and systems (Jonnes 2018).According to the Human Rights Commission (2017), racism as an act that humiliates human behaviour and affects the life of an individual physically, mentally and socially. It takes various forms such as name calling, comments, jokes, verbal abuse, harassment, bullying or commentary in the media that inflames hostility towards certain groups. In serious case, it results in physical abuse and violence. Racial discrimination is a deadly virus that affects all, individual, families, communities and the learning and working environment. Racism can unpleasantly affect the educational outcomes, individual happiness and self-confidence, cultural identity, school and community relations and most commonly is the student’s behaviour and academic achievements (Kohli, 2017). Hence if it is unaddressed than racism can generate tensions within the school communities and these will affect the educational experiences of all students. It can demoralise students self -confidence and can result in students displaying a range of negative behaviours Students who are disaffected with school are less likely to attend school regularly and more likely to drop out of school earlier than other groups of students. The increase rate of the incidence of absenteeism and stress is due to racism been link to diminished morale and lower productivity (Fields 2014),The presence of racism in schools affects the educational outcomes due to lower participation rates, behavioural problems and feelings of alienation. Hence the educational success depends on the regular sustained attendance of each students and the ability to participate in the classroom. With racism in the learning environment, the balance is disrupted and educational outcomes maybe limited as a result (Triaki 2017).

Moreover, racism could be minimised even though it will decade to erase it from our beautiful world. Advancing positive ethnic and racial character decreases sentiments of detachment or prohibition and enhance students capacity to focus in the classroom. Teachers can enable students to create positive opinions about their ethnic and racial personality by presenting them to assorted good examples, and making a sheltered space for them to commend their disparities. A definitive answer for this issue is diminishing understudy introduction to racial separation and enhancing race relations in the U.S. In the interim, there are ways minding and concerned grown-ups can enable understudies to manage the pressure be minimised even though it will take time to prevent it from being practiced in schools. (Collins 2015).Racism has been around everlastingly however it can be diminished, just with a lot of exertion. Education is the key for some muddled issues we look in this world. Education can change the manner in which people think and lead us to a superior world. We can battle racism with education (Hwang 2008). On the off chance that we instruct and show sympathy, at that point there will be less need to discuss how we can stop racism. It will be difficult to stop racism if racist considerations are still with us. It is dependent upon us to get ready for the future by teaching our family and others on the difficulties of racial discrimination. At exactly that point will we overcome racial discrimination in our societies and schools.

Racial discrimination could be described as a weapon that destroys the society and the education system as whole. It affects the students in various ways that hinder their academic achievement and also affects them mentally, physically and socially. It was also stated that racial discrimination can occur at any stage either preschool, high schools or even tertiary institution. Hence there are possible ways where racism could be minimized even though it will take time to be erased. Therefore education is an important tool in everyone’s life since it can change the world and every individual.        

Home — Blog — Topic Ideas — Essay Topics on Racism: 150 Ideas for Analysis and Discussion

Essay Topics on Racism: 150 Ideas for Analysis and Discussion

Here’s a list of 150 essay ideas on racism to help you ace a perfect paper. The subjects are divided based on what you require!

Before we continue with the list of essay topics on racism, let's remember the definition of racism. In brief, it's a complex prejudice and a form of discrimination based on race. It can be done by an individual, a group, or an institution. If you belong to a racial or ethnic group, you are facing being in the minority. As it's usually caused by the group in power, there are many types of racism, including socio-cultural racism, internal racism, legal racism, systematic racism, interpersonal racism, institutional racism, and historical racism. You can also find educational or economic racism as there are many sub-sections that one can encounter.

150 Essay Topics on Racism to Help You Ace a Perfect Essay

General Recommendations

The subject of racism is one of the most popular among college students today because you can discuss it regardless of your academic discipline. Even though we are dealing with technical progress and the Internet, the problem of racism is still there. The world may go further and talk about philosophical matters, yet we still have to face them and explore the challenges. It makes it even more difficult to find a good topic that would be unique and inspiring. As a way to help you out, we have collected 150 racism essay topics that have been chosen by our experts. We recommend you choose something that motivates you and narrow things down a little bit to make your writing easier.

Why Choose a Topic on Racial Issues? 

When we explore racial issues, we are not only seeking the most efficient solutions but also reminding ourselves about the past and the mistakes that we should never make again. It is an inspirational type of work as we all can change the world. If you cannot choose a topic that inspires you, think about recent events, talk about your friend, or discuss something that has happened in your local area. Just take your time and think about how you can make the world a safer and better place.

The Secrets of a Good Essay About Racism 

The secret to writing a good essay on racism is not only stating that racism is bad but by exploring the origins and finding a solution. You can choose a discipline and start from there. For example, if you are a nursing student, talk about the medical principles and responsibilities where every person is the same. Talk about how it has not always been this way and discuss the methods and the famous theorists who have done their best to bring equality to our society. Keep your tone inspiring, explore, and tell a story with a moral lesson in the end. Now let’s explore the topic ideas on racism!

General Essay Topics On Racism 

As we know, no person is born a racist since we are not born this way and it cannot be considered a biological phenomenon. Since it is a practice that is learned and a social issue, the general topics related to racism may include socio-cultural, philosophical, and political aspects as you can see below. Here are the ideas that you should consider as you plan to write an essay on racial issues:

• Are we born with racial prejudice? 
• Can racism be unlearned? 
• The political constituent of the racial prejudice and the colonial past? 
• The humiliation of the African continent and the control of power. 
• The heritage of the Black Lives Matter movement and its historical origins. 
• The skin color issue and the cultural perceptions of the African Americans vs Mexican Americans. 
• The role of social media in the prevention of racial conflicts in 2022 . 
• Martin Luther King Jr. and his role in modern education. 
• Konrad Lorenz and the biological perception of the human race. 
• The relation of racial issues to nazism and chauvinism.

The Best Racism Essay Topics 

School and college learners often ask about what can be considered the best essay subject when asked to write on racial issues. Essentially, you have to talk about the origins of racism and provide a moral lesson with a solution as every person can be a solid contribution to the prevention of hatred and racial discrimination.

• The schoolchildren's example and the attitude to the racial conflicts. 
• Perception of racism in the United States versus Germany. 
• The role of the scouting movement as a way to promote equality in our society. 
•  Social justice and the range of opportunities that African American individuals could receive during the 1960s.
•  The workplace equality and the negative perception of the race when the documents are being filed. 
•  The institutional racism and the sources of the legislation that has paved the way for injustice. 
•  Why should we talk to the children about racial prejudice and set good examples ? 
•  The role of anthropology in racial research during the 1990s in the USA. 
•  The Black Poverty phenomenon and the origins of the Black Culture across the globe. 
•  The controversy of Malcolm X’s personality and his transition from anger to peacemaking.

Shocking Racism Essay Ideas 

Unfortunately, there are many subjects that are not easy to deal with when you are talking about the most horrible sides of racism. Since these subjects are sensitive, dealing with the shocking aspects of this problem should be approached with a warning in your introduction part so your readers know what to expect. As a rule, many medical and forensic students will dive into the issue, so these topic ideas are still relevant:

• The prejudice against wearing a hoodie. 
•  The racial violence in Western Africa and the crimes by the Belgian government. 
•  The comparison of homophobic beliefs and the link to racial prejudice. 
•  Domestic violence and the bias towards the cases based on race. 
•  Racial discrimination in the field of the sex industry. 
•  Slavery in the Middle East and the modern cultural perceptions. 
•  Internal racism in the United States: why the black communities keep silent. 
•  Racism in the American schools: the bias among the teachers. 
•  Cyberbullying and the distorted image of the typical racists . 
•  The prisons of Apartheid in South Africa.

Light and Simple Ideas Regarding Racism

If you are a high-school learner or a first-year college student, your essay on racism may not have to represent complex research with a dozen of sources. Here are some good ideas that are light and simple enough to provide you with inspiration and the basic points to follow:

• My first encounter with racial prejudice. 
•  Why do college students are always in the vanguard of social campaigns? 
•  How are the racial issues addressed by my school? 
•  The promotion of the African-American culture is a method to challenge prejudice and stereotypes. 
• The history of blues music and the Black culture of the blues in the United States.
• The role of slavery in the Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain. 
•  School segregation in the United States during the 1960s. 
•  The negative effect of racism on the mental health of a person. 
•  The advocacy of racism in modern society . 
•  The heritage of “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” and the modern perception of the historical issues.

Interesting Topics on Racism For an Essay 

Contrary to the popular belief, when you have to talk about the cases of racial prejudice, you will also encounter many interesting essay topic ideas. As long as these are related to your main academic course, you can explore them. Here are some great ideas to consider:

• Has the perception of Michael Jackson changed because of his skin transition? 
•  The perception of racial problems by the British Broadcasting Corporation. 
•  The role of the African American influencers on Instagram. 
•  The comparison between the Asian students and the Mexican learners in the USA. 
•  Latin culture and the similarities when compared to the Black culture with its peculiarities. 
•  The racial impact in the “Boy In The Stripped Pajamas”. 
•  Can we eliminate racism completely and how exactly, considering the answer is “Yes”? 
•  Scientific research of modern racism and social media campaigns. 
•  Why do some people believe that the Black Lives Matter movement is controversial? 
• Male vs female challenges in relation to racial attitudes.

Argumentative Essay Topics About Race 

An argumentative type of writing requires making a clear statement or posing an assumption that will deal with a particular question. As we are dealing with racial prejudice or theories, it is essential to support your writing with at least one piece of evidence to make sure that you can support your opinion and stand for it as you write. Here are some good African American argumentative essay examples of topics and other ideas to consider:

•  Racism is a mental disorder and cannot be treated with words alone. 
•  Analysis of the traumatic experiences based on racial prejudice. 
•  African-American communities and the sense of being inferior are caused by poverty. 
•  Reading the memoirs of famous people that describe racial issues often provides a distorted image through the lens of a single person. 
•  There is no academic explanation of racism since every case is different and is often based on personal perceptions. 
•  The negatives of the post-racial perception as the latent system that advocates racism. 
•  The link of racial origins to the concept of feminism and gender inequality. 
•  The military bias and the merits that are earned by the African-American soldiers. 
•  The media causes a negative image of the Latin and Mexican youth in the United States. 
•  Does racism exist in kindergarten and why the youngsters do not think about racial prejudice?

Racism Research Paper Topics 

Dealing with The Black Lives Matter essay , you should focus on those aspects of racism that are not often discussed or researched by the media. You can take a particular case study or talk about the reasons why the BLM social campaign has started and whether the timing has been right. Here are some interesting racism topics for research paper that you should consider:

• The link of criminal offenses to race is an example of the primary injustice .  
• The socio-emotional burdens of slavery that one can trace among the representatives of the African-American population. 
• Study of the cardio-vascular diseases among the American youth: a comparison of the Caucasian and Latin representatives. 
• The race and the politics: dealing with the racial issues and the Trump administration analysis. 
• The best methods to achieve medical equality for all people: where race has no place to be. 
• The perception of racism by the young children: the negative side of trying to educate the youngsters. 
• Racial prejudice in the UK vs the United States: analysis of the core differences. 
• The prisons in the United States: why do the Blacks constitute the majority? 
• The culture of Voodoo and the slavery: the link between the occult practices.
• The native American people and the African Americans: the common woes they share.

Racism in Culture Topics 

Racism topics for essay in culture are always upon the surface because we can encounter them in books, popular political shows, movies, social media, and more. The majority of college students often ignore this aspect because things easily become confusing since one has to take a stand and explain the point. As a way to help you a little bit, we have collected several cultural racism topic ideas to help you start:

• The perception of wealth by the Black community: why it differs when researched through the lens of past poverty?  
• The rap music and the cultural constituent of the African-American community. 
• The moral constituent of the political shows where racial jargon is being used. 
• Why the racial jokes on television are against the freedom of speech?  
• The ways how the modern media promotes racism by stirring up the conflict and actually doing harm. 
• The isolated cases of racism and police violence in the United States as portrayed by the movies. 
• Playing with the Black musicians: the history of jazz in the United States. 
• The social distancing and the perception of isolation by the different races. 
• The cultural multitude in the cartoons by the Disney Corporations: the pros and cons.
• From assimilation to genocide: can the African American child make it big without living through the cultural bias?

Racism Essay Ideas in Literature 

One of the best ways to study racism is by reading the books by those who have been through it on their own or by studying the explorations by those who can write emotionally and fight for racial equality where racism has no place to be. Keeping all of these challenges in mind, our experts suggest turning to the books as you can explore racism in the literature by focusing on those who are against it and discussing the cases in the classic literature that are quite controversial.

• The racial controversy of Ernest Hemingway's writing.  
• The personal attitude of Mark Twain towards slavery and the cultural peculiarities of the times. 
• The reasons why "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee book has been banned in libraries. 
• The "Hate You Give" by Angie Thomas and the analysis of the justified and "legit" racism. 
• Is the poetry by the gangsta rap an example of hidden racism? 
• Maya Angelou and her timeless poetry. 
• The portrayal of xenophobia in modern English language literature. 
• What can we learn from the "Schilder's List" screenplay as we discuss the subject of genocide? 
• Are there racial elements in "Othello" or Shakespeare's creation is beyond the subject?
• Kate Chopin's perception of inequality in "Desiree's Baby".

Racism in Science Essay Ideas 

Racism is often studied by scientists because it's not only a cultural point or a social agenda that is driven by personal inferiority and similar factors of mental distortion. Since we can talk about police violence and social campaigns, it is also possible to discuss things through different disciplines. Think over these racism thesis statement ideas by taking a scientific approach and getting a common idea explained:

• Can physical trauma become a cause for a different perception of race? 
• Do we inherit racial intolerance from our family members and friends? 
• Can a white person assimilate and become a part of the primarily Black community? 
• The people behind the concept of Apartheid: analysis of the critical factors. 
• Can one prove the fact of the physical damage of the racial injustice that lasted through the years? 
• The bond between mental diseases and the slavery heritage among the Black people. 
• Should people carry the blame for the years of social injustice? 
• How can we explain the metaphysics of race? 
• What do the different religions tell us about race and the best ways to deal with it? 
• Ethnic prejudices based on age, gender, and social status vs general racism.

Cinema and Race Topics to Write About 

As a rule, the movies are also a great source for writing an essay on racial issues. Remember to provide the basic information about the movie or include examples with the quotations to help your readers understand all the major points that you make. Here are some ideas that are worth your attention:

• The negative aspect of the portrayal of racial issues by Hollywood.  
• Should the disturbing facts and the graphic violence be included in the movies about slavery? 
• Analysis of the "Green Mile" movie and the perception of equality in our society.  
• The role of music and culture in the "Django Unchained" movie. 
• The "Ghosts of Mississippi" and the social aspect of the American South compared to how we perceive it today. 
• What can we learn from the "Malcolm X" movie created by Spike Lee? 
• "I am Not Your Negro" movie and the role of education through the movies. 
• "And the Children Shall Lead" the movie as an example that we are not born racist. 
• Do we really have the "Black Hollywood" concept in reality? 
• Do the movies about racial issues only cause even more racial prejudice?

Race and Ethnic Relations 

Another challenging problem is the internal racism and race and ethnicity essay topics that we can observe not only in the United States but all over the world as well. For example, the Black people in the United States and the representatives of the rap music culture will divide themselves between the East Coast and the West Coast where far more than cultural differences exist. The same can be encountered in Afghanistan or in Belgium. Here are some essay topics on race and ethnicity idea samples to consider:

• The racial or the ethnic conflict? What can we learn from Afghan society? 
• Religious beliefs divide us based on ethnicity . 
• What are the major differences between ethnic and racial conflicts? 
• Why we are able to identify the European Black person and the Black coming from the United States? 
• Racism and ethnicity's role in sports. 
• How can an ethnic conflict be resolved with the help of anti-racial methods? 
• The medical aspect of being an Asian in the United States. 
• The challenges of learning as an African American person during the 1950s. 
• The role of the African American people in the Vietnam war and their perception by the locals. 
• Ethnicity's role in South Africa as the concept of Apartheid has been formed.

Biology and Racial Issues 

If you are majoring in Biology or would like to research this side of the general issue of race, it is essential to think about how we can fight racism in practice by turning to healthcare or the concepts that are historical in their nature. Although we cannot explain slavery per se other than by turning to economics and the rule of power that has no justification, biologists believe that racial challenges can be approached by their core beliefs as well.

• Can we create an isolated non-racist society in 2022? 
• If we assume that a social group has never heard of racism, can it occur? 
• The physical versus cultural differences in the racial inequality cases? 
• The biological peculiarities of the different races? 
• Do we carry the cultural heritage of our race? 
• Interracial marriage through the lens of Biology. 
• The origins of the racial concept and its evolution. 
• The core ways how slavery has changed the African-American population. 
• The linguistic peculiarities of the Latin people. 
• The resistance of the different races towards vaccination.

Modern Racism Topics to Consider 

In case you would like to deal with a modern subject that deals with racism, you can go beyond the famous Black Lives Matter movement by focusing on the cases of racism in sports or talking about the peacemakers or the famous celebrities who have made a solid difference in the elimination of racism.

• The Global Citizen campaign is a way to eliminate racial differences. 
• The heritage of Aretha Franklin and her take on the racial challenges. 
• The role of the Black Stars in modern society: the pros and cons. 
• Martin Luther King Day in the modern schools. 
• How can Instagram help to eliminate racism? 
• The personality of Michelle Obama as a fighter for peace. 
• Is a society without racism a utopian idea? 
• How can comic books help youngsters understand equality? 
• The controversy in the death of George Floyd. 
• How can we break down the stereotypes about Mexicans in the United States?

Racial Discrimination Essay Ideas 

If your essay should focus on racial discrimination, you should think about the environment and the type of prejudice that you are facing. For example, it can be in school or at the workplace, at the hospital, or in a movie that you have attended. Here are some discrimination topics research paper ideas that will help you to get started:

• How can a schoolchild report the case of racism while being a minor?  
• The discrimination against women's rights during the 1960s. 
• The employment problem and the chances of the Latin, Asian, and African American applicants. 
• Do colleges implement a certain selection process against different races? 
• How can discrimination be eliminated via education? 
• African-American challenges in sports. 
• The perception of discrimination, based on racial principles and the laws in the United States. 
• How can one report racial comments on social media? 
• Is there discrimination against white people in our society? 
• Covid-19 and racial discrimination: the lessons we have learned.

Find Even More Essay Topics On Racism by Visiting Our Site 

If you are unsure about what to write about, you can always find an essay on racism by visiting our website. Offering over 150 topic ideas, you can always get in touch with our experts and find another one!

5 Tips to Make Your Essay Perfect

• Start your essay on racial issues by narrowing things down after you choose the general topic. 
• Get your facts straight by checking the dates, the names, opinions from both sides of an issue, etc. 
• Provide examples if you are talking about the general aspects of racism. 
• Do not use profanity and show due respect even if you are talking about shocking things. The same relates to race and ethnic relations essay topics that are based on religious conflicts. Stay respectful! 
• Provide references and citations to avoid plagiarism and to keep your ideas supported by at least one piece of evidence.

Recommendations to Help You Get Inspired

Speaking of recommended books and articles to help you start with this subject, you should check " The Ideology of Racism: Misusing Science to Justify Racial Discrimination " by William H. Tucker who is a professor of social sciences at Rutgers University. Once you read this great article, think about the poetry by Maya Angelou as one of the best examples to see the practical side of things.

The other recommendations worth checking include:

- How to be Anti-Racist by Ibram X. Kendi . - White Fragility by Robin Diangelo . - So You Want to Talk About Race by Ijeoma Oluo .

The Final Word 

We sincerely believe that our article has helped you to choose the perfect essay subject to stir your writing skills. If you are still feeling stuck and need additional help, our team of writers can assist you in the creation of any essay based on what you would like to explore. You can get in touch with our skilled experts anytime by contacting our essay service for any race and ethnicity topics. Always confidential and plagiarism-free, we can assist you and help you get over the stress!

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Good Example Of Racism Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Racism , Social Issues , People , Race , Family , Children , Color , Sociology

Words: 2250

Published: 12/05/2021

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Racism has occurred throughout history and has been remaining an important problem from now and always. It has a negative impact on selected groups of people, discriminates their rights, and gives rise to social distract and disrespect. Despite the fact the most critical rasism manifestations in the United States of America has been left in the past, the modern world full of immigrants is still given to its influence, what, in turn, becomes an important problem of society. The goal of this paper is to look at manifestations of racism in the modern world, study its reasons and explain negative consequences, and try to find a response for a question how the problem of racism could be possibly solved. What would it take to solve the question of racism and to become color-blind? To rid the world of racism the one must acknowledge the racism, hate and discrimination they have learned and choose to no longer give those thoughts and feelings any power than educate others, especially the young generation. For a start, it is necessary to understand that racism is a clash of different cultures. It is often difficult for one people to appreciate and embrace ideals and beliefs of other ones. This conflict has reflected in land settlements and conquests in different historical times, such as Anti-Semitism, slavery times in the United States, Spanish settlement in the Philippines, etc. Nowadays, in the age of immigration, migration, and interracial collaboration, relationship between white and colored people became an essential part of everyday life, and at the same time they became a key to increase of common ground between people of different skin color and to solving an issue of racism. However, colored people still face some conflicts during their assimilation into Western society. Quoting Mead, Hall states that Western people possess strong sense of self (Hall, 28). Imitating them, colored people begin to alienate themselves from their ancestry and culture, and to adopt Western ideas about who people of other races should be and what place should come in. Hall says that the more non-Western people incorporate a negative image of their races into their individuality, the more they will be dishonored in the cognitive of who they are (Hall, 28). This leads to decrease of self-esteem and taking the fact colored people could never be the same as the white ones. Quoting Maslow, Hall writes that desire of self-developing is common and natural for every person (Hall, 28). But, influenced by Western society convictions, colored people lose this desire; in their minds it becomes expressed less and less. They start to expend fewer efforts and, thus, cannot achieve their goals. Of course, those colored people who got lots of family love and leant how to respect themselves in childhood, can face these difficulties and proudly wend their way through life, but not everybody can do this. Lack of self-belief is widespread even among Western people, especially teenagers, and naturally becomes usual practice for living in Western countries colored ones. However, visual manifestations of racism and existence of aggressively disposed racists are not the only problem. Another important part of this detraction of colored people is aversive racism. Pearson states that aversive racism is developed indirectly and reflexively (Pearson, 1). Together with his colleagues, he underlines that the challenge of aversive racism lies in a fundamental disagreement between mind and action (Pearson, 19). In other words, aversive racism means that some people are sure they are not racists, but their thoughts are remote from their actions. Quoting Dovidio, Person states, “Aversive racists are characterized as having egalitarian conscious, or explicit, attitudes but negative unconscious, or implicit, racial attitudes” (Pearson 4). Bright examples of aversive racism are seen in social politics, from health indices to disparities in medical treatment, level of wages and salaries, to access to basic services like education, housing, employment, etc. Also, Blacks and Whites have different opinions about the importance of race in American society. National surveys show that about 75% of Blacks and only 30% of Whites hold that racial discrimination is a major factor appointing disparities in income and education levels, and remaining 70% of Whites say they are satisfied with how Blacks are treated (Pearson, 2). The roots of aversive racism lie in history; social categorization is a largely automatic process nowadays. As it was mentioned above, Westerns have strong sense of self; this results in automatic recognition of similar to them people as intelligent, educated, and successful, while Blacks are considered to be lazy, aggressive, and impulsive (Blair, 2001). According to Sidanius, it also should be mentioned that another partials of negative racial attitudes are intergroup processes and perceived competition over material resources (Sidanius, 1999). The main danger of aversive rasism lies in hypocrisy; deeds of aversive racists usually are latent. They will never do something people around could see and judge, but their acts will harm colored ones while aversive racists themselves still remain non-prejudiced for others. Thus, the consequences of aversive racism can be more severe than the ones from its simple, or dominative variation. In order to understand the consequences of racial discrimination, it is necessary to overlook its impact on colored people in modern society. Discrimination of colored people exists in all life spheres: health, education, employment, the media, the administration of justice, etc. Talking about racism, Boyle states that negative meanings to differences seem natural, but are not natural at all; it is just the thing people learn and is therefore the thing they can unlearn (Boyle, 1). Racism and anti-racism, first of all, are battle of ideas. Diene notices that interconnectedness of the world and high speed of globalization are not able to demise racism but, on the contrary, can give it a boost (Boyle, 3). He also underlines an importance of terrorist offenses in suspicious and anxious relations to colored people and their part in growth of racism (Boyle, 3). Indeed, the problem of growth of global terrorism and increasing of different terror groups are due in no small part to the question of racism and just activate additional racist movements. Racism highly influences on mental health of colored people. Williams and Mohammed state that racism is one of the main health determinants, and it has an impact in social status, proximal pathways, and responses to them (Williams, 1157). Living under the pressure of racism is always stressful; it is an everyday battle, everyday resistance and self-esteem examination resulted in affecting central nervous system and immune, causing anxiety, depression, fear, and panic attacks. In conditions of Western supremacy, colored people start to think about how it would be if they had been born with white skin and how much better then would their life be. However, not only going throw manifestations of racism hurts people but anticipating of it also. Sawyer et al. studied that expectation of being discriminated causes heightened vigilance that can lead to activation of nervousness, negative emotional state, increasing of blood pressure, and sympathetic nervous system activation (Sawyer et al., 1026). Colored teenagers have the largest risk of appearing of health consequences caused by racism, but the co-occurrence of multiple diseases increases with age. Williams and Mohammed argue that throughout history racial variations in heath have been explained as biological and genetic, but indeed institutional and cultural forms of racism have always been and continued to be main contributors to initiating racial inequalities in a broad range of social outcomes that, in turn, lead to creating inequalities in health (Williams, 1166). In order to solve the problem of racism it is necessary for parents to explain their children racial differences and to teach them that people with other skin color are not better or worse than Whites. Children start to ask questions in early years, but rather often their parents do not give them proper answers. Derman-Sparks states that adults often think that children are color-blind and non-prejudiced, and they will grow with the same view if nobody tells them about racism (Derman-Sparks, 2). However, denial and avoidance are not the best decisions. Children in the United States start to understand that they differ from their comrades with another skin color at an early age, even at a very early age. Ignorance of racism and importance of being anti-racist can lead to intellectual damage and dehumanization of children. Quoting Katz, Derman-Sparks states, “Racism and ethnocentrism envelop them so that they are unable to experience themselves and their culture as [they are]” (Derman-Sparks, 2). And an understanding of racism is necessary not only for Western children, but for Third World ones also. Colored children should learn how to respect themselves, grow self-esteem, how to value traditions and culture of their ethnicity. They should accept that nature made them different, but it is not bad; it is not a sentence and they should live their lives the way they would like to without being pinched or despised. In solving the problem of racism, it is hard to underestimate the role of education and laws. According to January-Bardill, the United States adopted bigger amount laws aimed to solve the problem of racism than any other human rights issue (Boyle, 4). But it is known that the question of racism in the United States is more critical than in any other countries. Interracial conflicts here appear more often, and sometimes without serious reasons, and interracial relations are tenser. Becoming color-blind, respecting each other and people of other races is a very pressing problem for Americans. Tomasevski offers to integrate learning of human rights into academic programs in schools, colleges, and universities (Boyle, 4). In her opinion, this can significantly decrease racial prejudices and intolerance. If children are begirded with the idea of equal rights for everybody, color-blindness, and, hence, anti-racism not only, for example, in their families but also in social environment where they spend a lot of time, it could lead to upbringing in them tolerance to colored people and understanding of their culture and beliefs. This, also, will help children, whose parents are racists, to make a right decision; their view on races will be dual, with benefits and implications of each position, its reasons and consequences. The problem of racism is discussed on a worldwide basis. On the one hand, such careful attention to problems of discrimination is laudable, but, on the contrary, all these anti-racism laws and politics people can see nowadays bring too much notice to difference between races. Most talks and discussions about racism are needless, and they hamper acceptance of white and colored people as equal every time underlining their distinctions again and again. Solving the problem of racism requires tolerance and understanding, maybe knowing biological reasons of why people on the Earth are so different, and agreement with them. The basics of being color-blind should be learnt from an early childhood, engrained by parents in their children, without any additional news about interracial occurrences of no importance and additional attention to race stratification existing in the modern world. In conclusion, it is necessary to say that racism is the global problem of humanity, one of the most important ones. It affects not only the social life of colored people, but at the same time their health and self-esteem, and the only reason of such their detraction is belonging to race and culture different from Western. Nobody can choose of what race and with what skin color he or she will be born, and, naturally, nobody should suffer because of something he or she could not have an impact on. People should comprehend this and get to be more large-hearted and broad-minded, should learn how to become color-blind and to judge people by their deeds, not ideals and skin. They should get clear sight of what racism is, how proved its reasons are, and how significant are its consequences for people with other skin color literally for nothing special. And, what is more important, they should teach these simple principles their children, both in family and at school. Then the problem of racism could be solved.

Derman-Sparks, L., Higa, C. T., and Sparks, B. (1980). Children, Race and Racism: How Race Awareness Develops. Interracial Books for Children Bulletin, 11, 3-4. Blair, I. V. (2001). Implicit stereotypes and prejudice. In G. B. Moskowitz (Ed.), Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton Symposium on the Legacy and Future of Social Cognition. pp. 359–374. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Boyle, K. (ed.) (2005). Dimensions of Racism. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). New York and Geneva. Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/DimensionsRacismen.pdf Pearson, A. R., Dovidio, J. F., and Gaertner S. L. (2009). The Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: Insights from Aversive Racism. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 1-25. Racism in the 21st Century: An Empirical Analysis of Skin Color. Edited by Ronald E. Hall (2010). Berlin: Springer. Sawyer, P. J., Major, B., Casad, B. J., Townsend, S. S. M., & Mendes, W. B. (2012). Discrimination and the stress response: Psychological and physiological consequences of anticipating prejudice in interethnic interactions. American Journal of Public Health, 102 (5), 1020-1026. Sidanius, J., and Pratto, F. (1999). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Williams, David R. and Mohammed, Selina A. (2013). Racism and Health I: Pathways and Scientific Evidence. American Behavioral Scientist, 57(8), 1152-1173.

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Racism: A Cause and Effect Essay Sample

Talking about the widespread topic of racism, there is a need to involve an official word that is referred to in many essays. It states: Racism is the process by which systems, policies, and attitudes create inequitable opportunities and outcomes for people based on race. Racism is more than just prejudice in thought or action. It occurs when it – whether individual or institutional – is accompanied by the power to discriminate against, oppress, or limit the civil rights of others.

The essence of racism is in the interpretation of differences as natural, as well as in establishing the connection between difference and domination. Racism first interprets differences as “natural” and then links them to existing relations of domination. Groups that are higher than others in the hierarchy are thereby “natural” right of superiority. Describing racism with the help of the cause and effect of racism essay is a brilliant idea. Get sure of it yourself by reading further!

If you need more in-deep research on a similar subject, feel free to use Edusson’s professional custom essay writing help . Racism is a scourge that has been present in societies around the world since antiquity, and it is still present today. Despite many efforts to eradicate it, its effects still remain, which is why it is necessary to understand the cause and effects of racism in order to combat it. This can help you with homework if you’re writing a racism cause and effect essay, as understanding the causes of racism can help you determine the most effective solutions for its eradication.

Cause and Effect of Racism

The phenomenon of modern racism is neither a recent invention of history nor purely European and was actively developing in the United States. As a form of xenophobia, racism has been inherent in people since ancient times. Racism has its own forms in different countries because of specific features: historical, cultural, and other factors. Use this cause and effect essay writing example to get information through the essays on how slavery causes racism, and racial discrimination in general: what causes racism, the effects of racism, and how African-Americans lives were neglected throughout history.

Cause 1 – Xenophobia

The leading cause of racism as a phenomenon is stated to be xenophobia. This topic is greatly researched in related books or different scientific essays and works. Racism is, to a large extent, xenophobia based on the visible difference in appearance. As a type of xenophobia, racism is an irrational but natural reaction of people to the foreign and unknown. However, racism is by no means exhausted by xenophobia alone. The level of rejection and intolerance in society directly depends on the development of a particular country. In the most developed countries, where the intellectual level of the population allows rejecting stupid superstitions about the differences between people, xenophobic attitudes are separate cases and take place as an exception.

Cause 2 – Straightforward Conclusions

Another cause of racial inequality is the destructive ability of many people to jump to quick conclusions, especially judging others because of their appearance, apparel, speech, and other visible traits. Mainly, it intensifies that because of the media representations of races, creating specific racial beliefs. Such cliches aren’t always harmful, like how Asian people are stereotyped as intelligent. But in the minds of undereducated people, quick judgments can play a bad thing and significantly influence how people are perceived.

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Cause 3 – Keeping the Status Quo

Keeping the status quo means, in simple words, the desire to keep the peace, avoid conflicts and clashes, and maintain law and order. Research from viral essays shows that when people believe in racial ideas, e.g., that blacks are inherently more violent and dangerous – they aren’t disturbed by police brutality or mass incarceration. “Keeping the peace” becomes more important than justice and equality.

Cause 4 – Media Impact

How modern media (TV, music industry, cinematography, etc.) describes race has a big influence on society’s race perception. As far as the media shows us our culture from an exaggerated point of view, it keeps racial stereotypes alive and well and therefore fuels racism. Racism cases appear in the media in a very subtle manner, without negative intent, but unfortunately, work the opposite. The most common thing for American society in this matter is representing a black person as a perpetrator of violent crimes or giving examples of stories related to theft and poverty. Such generalizations have a bad influence on society, as the perception of specific circles of people is formed according to the wrong representation.

Cause 5 – Blaming Others for Our Problems

Last but not least, the subjective reason for racism is that we blame others for our problems. When individuals feel mad or miserable, they often want to shift the problem to someone else’s shoulders and blame anyone but them for their problems. As a society, we act the same. Members of each race who look or behave differently from us are easy targets. You should have heard phrases like ‘Mexicans take all our workplaces’. This statement is absolutely false, though it sounds like a perfect justification for those who cannot find a job for a while and feel anger which translates to insecure people.

Writing essays on such a topic is challenging and demands a good understanding of a problem and statement of thought. If you like the structure of this article, check other cause and effect essay ideas to develop the skill of writing qualitative essays. The main part – the effects of racism – is ahead. Keep reading!

Racism and Its Effects

Racism and its effects can appear in different ways. There are many essays by the victims, who were either facing racism on a daily basis or had a frightening experience once in a lifetime. We have highlighted 5 effects of racism.

Physical Impacts of Racism

The physical threat is among the worst effects of racism. If an individual ever becomes a victim of racist aggression, he could have serious physical injuries that can end up with a disability, which in fact, is a common thing. This is a superior case of all the spectrum of racial issues today, because views, roles in society, or simply belonging to different races cannot be the causes of racism.

Effect on Mental Health

As we can see from the previous paragraph, racism can have a deeply no good effect on people’s mental health and health commonly. Experiencing discrimination can lead to feelings of humiliation when others make you feel like you are less worthy. Racism can sabotage people’s dignity, forcing them to adjust their usual behavior to the norms of another group of people who consider themselves better or higher. Such effects of racism lead from infrequent situations to changing whole daily routines ( for example, bypassing particular places or skipping activities, being afraid of leaving the house or traveling alone, changing clothes, etc. ). It can also lead to other emotional impacts such as distress, PTSD, insomnia, depression, fear, a sense of isolation, and a lack of trust in people.

When a person gets into a stressful situation, his body prepares to respond. The heart begins to beat faster, blood pressure rises, and breathing quickens as the body releases stress hormones. It is a natural way of preparing the body to deal with stress. But when a stressor, such as structural racism, never goes away, the body can remain in that tense state.

Social Consequences of Racism

Handling racism can lead to feeling inferior, isolated, of less worth, and even having questions about own existence in this world. Such an effect of racism – having less trust in other people – explains the reasons why African-Americans feel so insecure in any social circle where some whites belong too. So, if a person faces repeated harassment in any form, like skin color racism in schools, it can affect their social circles and add more challenges to it. Such an issue can prevent us from building a circle of friends or settling down for a family. Other effects of racism are institutional racism (where all of the ongoing advantages are given to white people) and housing discrimination can also create obstacles to free and healthy life in society.

Effect on Economy and Personal Finances

Discrimination has financial consequences too. It has been proved that people encountering racism tend to face obstacles to employment, fair payment levels, and discrimination when trying to access housing or financial help, especially with a child today. The same thing with discrimination from landlords and an issue with transportation. Many people who can be discriminated against by any visual sign tend to avoid public places or take walks to get places due to frequent incidents in transport, which affect their financial status too. Racial discrimination hurts those it affects. It also costs money. A recent study estimated the economic influence of racism at nearly $2 trillion a year in the United States alone.

How Does Racism Affect Families, Communities, and Society?

Racial belief can have a no good influence not only on a person who directly experienced it but also on his family, the community, or even the whole world. Racism cases lead to anxiety and stress spreading through the community every day, especially when there is no good response from the leaders or local people. And sometimes, even governmental structures stop defending the civil rights of African Americans in favor of other time-consuming questions. As a result, people in communities that have gotten used to being held together can become isolated and torn apart. Such a break of social bounds can more likely lead to criminal actions than racial differences.

To understand the white American racial theories, there should be solid essays review on the topic. And even after that, you will probably decide on the side of equal rights of all people independently on any features.

Racism has become one of the most burning social issues of our time, so it’s often the topic of discussion in educational institutions. As a result, more and more students have to write a college essay on racism, exploring its causes and effects. One of the most common sources of racism is a lack of understanding and communication between different cultural groups. To tackle this, it’s essential to have someone write a college essay that covers different perspectives on racism and helps to bridge the gap between different cultures and ethnic groups. To do this, many students find essay writers for hire to ensure their paper is well-written and engaging. Writing an essay about racism can be difficult, as there are many sensitive topics to address. It is important to be mindful when writing a racism cause and effect essay, as the writer must acknowledge all sides of the argument.

European Convention on Human Rights states: ‘The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in the Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, color, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or another status.’ and these words seem to be right.

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40+ Argumentative Essay Topics on Racism Worth Exploring

by  Antony W

April 21, 2023

The first step to write an essay on racism is to select the right topic to explore.

You then have to take a stance based on your research and use evidence to defend your position.

Even in a sensitive issue of racial discrimination, you have to consider the counterarguments highly likely to arise and address them accordingly. 

The goal of this list post is to give you some topic ideas that you can consider and explore.   We’ve put together 30+ topic ideas, so it should be easy to find an interesting issue to explore.

What is Racism?  

Racism is the conviction that we can credit capacities and qualities to individuals based on their race, color, ethnicity, or national origin. It can take the form of prejudice, hatred, and discrimination, and it can happen in any place and at any time.

Racism goes beyond the act of harassment and abuse. It stretches further to violence, intimidation, and exclusion from important group activities.

This act of judgment, prejudice, and discrimination easily reveal itself in the way we interact with people and our attitude towards them.

Some forms of racism , like looking at a person’s place of origin through a list of job applications, may not be obvious, but they play a part in preventing people or particular group from enjoying the dignity and equality of the benefits of life simply because they are different.

Argumentative Essay Topics on Racism  

• Is racism a type of mental illness in the modern society?
• Barrack Obama’s legacy hasn’t helped to improve the situation of racism in the United States of America
• The women’s movement of the 1960s did NOT unite black and white women
• Will racism eventually disappear on its own?
• Is there a cure for racism?
• There’s no sufficient evidence to prove that Mexicans are racists
• Is the difference in skin color the cause of racism in the western world?
• Racism isn’t in everyone’s heart
• Racism is a toxic global disease
• Will the human race ever overcome racial prejudice and discrimination?
• Can a racist be equally cruel?
• Should racism be a criminal offense punishable by death without the possibility of parole?
• Are racists more principled than those who are not?
• Can poor upbringing cause a person to become a racist?
• Is it a crime if you’re a racist?
• Can racism lead to another World War?
• The government can’t stop people from being racists
• Cultural diversity can cure racism
• All racists in the world have psychological problems and therefore need medical attention
• Can the government put effective measures in place to stop its citizens from promoting racism?
• Can a racist president rule a country better than a president who is not a racist?
• Should white and black people have equal rights?
• Can cultural diversity breed racism?
• Is racism a bigger threat to the human race?
• Racism is common among adults than it is among children
• Should white people enjoy more human rights than black people should?
• Is the disparity in the healthcare system a form of racial discrimination?
• Racial discrimination is a common thing in the United States of America
• Film industries should be regulated to help mitigate racism
• Disney movies should be banned for promoting racism
• Should schools teach students to stand against racism?
• Should parents punish their children for manifesting racist traits?
• Is racism the root of all evil?
• Can dialogue resolve the issue of racism?
• Is the seed of racism sown in our children during childhood?
• Do anti-racist movements help to unite people of different colors and race to fight racism?
• Do religious doctrines promote racism?
• There are no psychological health risks associated with racism
• Can movements such as Black Lives Matter stop racism in America?
• Do anti-racist movements help people to improve their self-esteem?
• Racism is against religious beliefs
• Can teaching children to treat each other equally help to promote an anti-racist world?

We understand that racism is such a controversial topic. However, it’s equally an interesting area to explore. If you wish to write an essay on racism but you have no idea where to start, you can pay for argumentative essay from Help for Assessment to do some custom writing for you.

If you hire Help for Assessment, our team will choose the most suitable topic based on your preference. In addition to conducting extensive research, we’ll choose a stance we can defend, and use strong evidence to demonstrate why your view on the subject is right. Get up to 15% discount here .

Is it Easy to Write an Argumentative Essay on Racism?

Racism is traumatic and a bad idea, and there must never be an excuse for it.

As controversial as the issue is, you can write an essay that explores this aspect and bring out a clear picture on why racism is such a bad idea altogether.

With that said, here’s a list of some argumentative essay topics on racism that you might want to consider for your next essay assignment.

How to Make Your Argumentative Essay on Racism Great 

The following are some useful writing tips that you can use to make your argumentative essay on racism stand out:

Examine the Historical Causes of Racism 

Try to dig deeper into the topic of racism by looking at historical causes of racial discrimination and prejudices.

Look at a number of credible sources to explore the connection between racism and salve trade, social developments, and politics.

Include these highlights in your essay to demonstrate that you researched widely on the topic before making your conclusion.

Demonstrate Critical Thinking 

Go the extra mile and talk about the things you believe people often leave out when writing argumentative essays on racism.

Consider why racial discrimination and prejudices are common in the society, their negative effects, and who benefits the most from racial policies.

Adding such information not only shows your instructor that you did your research but also understand the topic better.

Show the Relationship between Racism and Social Issues 

There’s no denying that racism has a strong connection with many types of social issues, including homophobia, slavery, and sexism.

Including these links, where necessary, and explaining them in details can make your essay more comprehensive and therefore worth reading.

related resources

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About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

Racism Sample Essay, with Outline

Published by gudwriter on January 4, 2021 January 4, 2021

Racism in the past and racism today -This is another interesting topic on racism. It offers some interesting insights into how racism was perceived and manifested in various social spheres during the 19th century and how it is different today. You can explore how racism is changing its face. (3 pages)

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Racism Essay Outline

Introduction

Thesis: Racism always has and is still one of the most prevalent social problems affecting the American population and other European countries. It is essential to evaluate how racism has transformed since the 19th century to modern-day forms.

Paragraph 1:

Racism was openly accepted in the 19th century.

• The whites were superior to the people of color.
• People of color were slaves to the whites.
• Slave trade was a legal business.

Paragraph 2:

Modern day racism is hidden but very prevalent in the society.

• Laws were put in place to end slavery and stop racial discrimination, but no efforts have been made to implement them.
• American laws favor the whites.

Paragraph 3:

In the 19th century, people of no color had no rights.

• They were the property of white merchants.
• They were highly mistreated.
• They had no freedom of movement.

White people had the right to kill people of color.

Paragraph 4:

Today, there are laws aimed at giving people of color fair treatment, but these laws are ways of justifying the end of racial discrimination.

• The American criminal justice system treats the whites more reasonably than the people of color.

Paragraph 5:

In the 19th century, people of color had no rights to own property.

• Today people of color have the right to own property but only in areas free of the white population.
• People of own color property in areas with low value, while whites own property in valuable areas.

Paragraph 6:

Brutality on people of color was acceptable in the 19th century, but there laws prohibiting the practice today.

• The police have continued to subject people of color to brutal treatment without facing the wrath of the law.
• Police brutality is an act of modern racism.

Paragraph 7: 

Even though there are laws protecting the rights of people of color to equal employment and treatment at the workplace, such laws are hardly applied.

• There still exists workplace discrimination, especially in the United States.
• Workplace discrimination can take many forms and can take place in various settings.
• A restate of the thesis statement
• A summary of the main points
• A take-away  statement made based on presented facts or information 

Read an essay on Rhetorical Analysis of “Civil Disobedience,” by Henry D. Thoreau .

Racism Essay –  Racism in the Past and Racism Today

Racism has always been and still is one of the most prevalent social problems in the United States and across Europe. It is a social vice that has powerful roots in society, and its elimination has almost proven impossible. Many believe that the world society has worked towards ending this vice, but there is still evidence of racial discrimination in interactions between whites and people of color. The reason that pushes people into believing that racism has ended is that it has changed over the years and taken new forms. It is thus essential to evaluate how racism has transformed since the 19th century to modern-day forms.

In the 19th century, racism was open and acceptable in the American society. During this time, the whites were treated as superiors to people of color (Jahoda, 2009). People of color were a source of labor and servants to the whites. The acceptable name for people of color in the 19th century was slaves (Jahoda, 2009). Slave trade was a multimillion-dollar business that was practiced freely in most parts of the world in the 19th century (Jahoda, 2009). Even people of color themselves knew that they were treated as being inferior to the whites. They could however not oppose this treatment as governments were in support of the situation. As such, racism was an ordinary and acceptable practice during the 19th century.

However, today racism is hidden but very prevalent in the society. After civil rights movements rose in the 19th and 20th centuries and pushed for the emancipation of people of color from slavery, governments acted and ended the practice. Laws were put in place to end it. Policies were made to ensure that people of color had equal rights as whites (Brown, 2004). However, fewer efforts if any have been made to ensure that indeed people of color enjoy the same rights as the whites. The American law still favors whites over people of color (Brown, 2004). In the past, racism was an open practice. However, today it is hidden, and one has to look deep inside social interactions to spot racial discrimination.

In the 19th century, people of color had no rights as they were considered as property of their masters. They were exposed to inhumane treatment such as being beaten overworked (Mosse, 1995). They were not allowed to own property and had no freedom to do as they pleased. During these years, the lives of people of color were dependent on the choices of their owners (Mosse, 1995). Whites had the right to kill people of color who went against their rules. People of color were aware of what would happen to them if they acted against the command of their masters.

In the modern day world, people of color have rights that warrant them equal treatment as whites, but these laws are just a way to justify the end of racial discrimination. In the past, no laws prohibited racial discrimination, and therefore people of color had no issues with the treatment they received from whites (Brown, 2004). However today, with such laws in place, people of color would expect fair treatment, but this has not happened since the 19th century. The American criminal justice system evidences this unfortunate reality. People of color are still treated more harshly by the law than their white counterparts (Brown, 2004). In case a white and black person commits murder, they will be given different sentences with the white person getting a fair one.

In the 19th century, people of color had no rights to own property as they were regarded as property of whites. However, when slavery came to an end, they were given the right to own property. However, these laws allowing for property ownership by people of color did not bring an end to racial discrimination in property ownership (Jahoda, 2009). Whites could not allow people of color to own property in areas where they (whites) resided. History shows that whites cautioned real estate dealers from allowing people of color to own homes in such areas (Jahoda, 2009). The value of land or property owned by people of color would fall, while that of property owned by whites would rise. Today, there are residential areas owned by whites only and people of color can never be allowed to own property in such areas.

Brutality on people of color was a common practice in the 19th century. However, laws were later put in place to stop such treatment (Mosse, 1995). In spite of this, brutality on people of color has continued to spread not just among ordinary white persons but also through the police force. Today, African-American men die as a result of police brutality than from attacks by average white persons, the now famous May 2020 George Floyd’s case being a good example. The American justice system exonerates all-white officers suspected of killing innocent black men (Bonilla, Dietrich & Hall, 2008). Most African-American men live in fear of the police, who are supposed to protect them than they fear white supremacists. Police brutality is one of the most common forms of modern racism.

In yet another reality, even though there are laws protecting the rights of people of color to equal employment and treatment at the workplace, such laws are hardly applied. There still exists workplace discrimination, especially in the United States. Workplace discrimination can take many forms and can take place in various settings, including office buildings in city centers as well as offices in rural villages. Both men and women can suffer from workplace discrimination based on their sex, political opinions, religion, social origin, national extraction, skin color, or race. Noteworthy, discrimination at work denies people opportunities and prevents society from benefitting from what these people could do. In this respect, elimination of workplace discrimination contributes to a better working environment.

Racism continues to be a social threat to people of color in the United States and European countries. Laws put in place to protect these people from racial discrimination are hardly implemented. The police and the justice system are the number one perpetrators of racial discrimination. The only difference between racism in the 19th century and modern-day racism is in the way that it manifests itself.

Bonilla, E., Dietrich, D. R., & Hall, R. E. (2008). Racism in the 21st Century R .

Brown, D. A. (2004). Fighting racism in the twenty-first century.  Wash. & Lee L. Rev. ,  61 , 1485.

Jahoda, G. (2009). Intra‐European racism in nineteenth‐century anthropology.  History and Anthropology ,  20 (1), 37-56.

Mosse, G. L. (1995). Racism and nationalism.  Nations and Nationalism ,  1 (2), 163-173.

Explore a list of the trendy to the most interesting human resources topics .

Racism in the Workplace Essay Outline

Thesis: Racism in the workplace occurs in the form of direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment, victimization, intersectional discrimination, and multicultural discrimination.

Direct discrimination is when a person is treated less favorably as a result of their race, their perceived race, or the race of another person they are related to.

• Discriminating against someone because of their perceived race is known as discrimination by perception.
• Discriminating against someone because they are related to another person of a given race is known as discrimination by association.

Indirect racial discrimination is when a working rule, policy, or procedure affects everyone yet disadvantages one group or person owing to their race.

• It may be less visible than direct discrimination.
• It applies to any workplace policy, practice, or procedure.
• Examples are dress code standards and work arrangements.

Racial harassment is when a person encounters offensive behavior based on race.

• Racist language is the most typical instance of racial harassment in the workplace.
• It generates an unpleasant, intimidating, demeaning, humiliating, or insulting environment.
• A person is also considered harassed if they witness a racial harassment incident aimed at someone else.

Victimization occurs when someone receives unfavorable treatment because of their involvement in a discrimination complaint.

• A person might suffer victimization because they complained of racial prejudice.
• The vice may also happen to someone gathering data in anticipation of filing a complaint.
• They could also be victimized because they backed up another person’s complaint.

Intersectional discrimination is discrimination against a person’s personal traits or identity.

• Examples of the traits include gender, sex, color, class, sexual orientation, religion, ability, and physical appearance.
• Working Black women have fewer opportunities to meet with senior executives, receive less sponsorship and mentorship, and have fewer training opportunities.
• Only 4 percent of U.S. C-suite female executives are women of color, and only 1 percent are Black women.

Multiracial persons may encounter microaggressions and/or discrimination related to their ethnic and racial mix.

• Microaggressions are unintentional, implicit social behaviors or utterances that offend and prejudice others.

Take a look at this informational  death penalty essay .

Racism in the Workplace Essay

Discrimination is the denial of equitable treatment to people based on group membership. Racial discrimination, or racism, is a system of oppression and dominance with a long history that divides and organizes society in a manner that structurally disadvantages particular minority groups based on their assigned race or ethnicity. It is critical to distinguish between racism and other types of discrimination and prejudice that do not stem from the mistreatment of ethnic or racial minority groups. Even though the Civil Rights Act’s Title VII illegalizes workplace discrimination based on national origin, religion, sex, color, and race, racial discrimination still plagues the workplace. Racism in the workplace occurs in the form of direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment, victimization, intersectional discrimination, and multicultural discrimination.

Direct discrimination is when a person is disadvantaged and given less favorable treatment as a result of their race, their perceived race, or the race of another person they are related to. Discriminating against someone because of their perceived race is known as discrimination by perception (Triana et al., 2015). For instance, a racist customer may be served by a Korean-born employee after which the customer may mistake the employee for a Chinese. The customer may, unfortunately, later complain to the leadership organization not to be served by a Chinese again. This constitutes a serious case of discrimination by perception. It is because of the customer’s skewed perception that they racially discriminate against the otherwise innocent employee. Discriminating against someone because they are related to another person of a given race is known as discrimination by association (Triana et al., 2015). This other person could be a colleague, friend, or family member of the racism victim.

Indirect racial discrimination is when a working rule, policy, or procedure affects everyone yet disadvantages one group or person owing to their race. ‘Everyone’ could refer to all employees in an organization or any other set of employees, such as all employees in a specific job or team. Indirect discrimination may be less visible than direct, and may not be intentional in some instances. It applies to any workplace policy, practice, or procedure, whether documented or not. Examples may include dress code standards, work arrangements such as working remotely, the criteria used in hiring, terms, and conditions, and how employees are chosen for layoffs (Colella & King, 2017). A practical example of indirect discrimination is when a cleaning company lists “good written English skills” as one of its criteria for layoffs despite the job not requiring writing. Here, people would get unfairly laid off for lacking English writing skills despite impressive job performance.

Racial harassment is when a person encounters offensive behavior based on race. Racist language is the most typical instance of racial harassment in the workplace. For an act to qualify as harassment, it must have either generated an unpleasant, intimidating, demeaning, humiliating, or insulting environment for the person or violated their dignity (Conley, 2016). A behavior can be considered harassment if it yields one of these outcomes even if that was not the intention. It is also harassment if it never resulted in one of these outcomes but it was intended to (Conley, 2016). The legislation against harassment also applies in situations whereby an individual is harassed because they are perceived to belong to a race they do not belong to. In the same breath, a person is considered harassed if they witness a racial harassment incident aimed at someone else, but ends up harassing them as well.

Victimization occurs when someone receives unfavorable treatment because of their involvement in a discrimination complaint. The legislation also shields a person from victimization when another person believes they are connected to a complaint. A person might suffer victimization because they complained of racial prejudice or they are gathering data in anticipation of filing a complaint. They could also be victimized because they backed up another person’s complaint, made a statement, or provided proof that refuted another person’s complaint, or someone else believes that they have carried out or are considering any of the aforementioned actions (Colella & King, 2017). Being labeled a troublemaker, being excluded, or not being permitted to do certain things are examples of how someone could be victimized. Practically, victimization could involve an employee receiving warning emails from their boss to stop supporting another employee’s racial discrimination complaints. That employee would be muzzled into withdrawing his choice to speak against racial discrimination at their place of work.

Intersectional discrimination is discrimination against a person’s personal traits or identity. Examples of the distinguishing factors here may include gender, sex, color, class, sexual orientation, religion, ability, and physical appearance. For instance, research reveals that working Black women have fewer opportunities to meet with senior executives, receive less sponsorship and mentorship, and have fewer training opportunities (Bagalini, 2020). Compared to their white counterparts, these all lead to fewer opportunities for them to advance their careers. Because of this, while only 21 percent of C-suite executives in the United States are female, only 4 percent are women of color, and only 1 percent are Black women (Bagalini, 2020). This example has two implications. One, the world of work still does not give equal leadership opportunities to men and women. Two, of the few leadership opportunities accorded to women, over 95 percent are occupied by white women, leaving women of color and Black women at a significant disadvantage.

Multiracial persons may encounter microaggressions and/or discrimination related to their ethnic and racial mix. Often, microaggressions are unintentional, implicit social behaviors or utterances that offend and prejudice others. Compared to direct verbal discrimination, they are less explicit (Greig, 2015). Microaggressions are not easy to identify and when they happen, the victim is often chided as being overly sensitive or touchy. That is, microaggressions are often considered “harmless” by those involved when in reality, they cause as much harm as other forms of racial discrimination. Multiracial microaggressions can take many different forms, such as invalidating one’s race, excluding and isolating them, objectifying them, assuming that multiracial persons are monoracial, denying the existence of the multiracial phenomenon, and pathologizing multiracial identity (Greig, 2015).

Workplace racism may occur in many different ways, including directly, indirectly, in the form of harassment, and through victimization. It could also be intersectional or multicultural. Direct discrimination is when someone is explicitly denied equal privileges as others due to their race. Indirect discrimination is when someone is disadvantaged by organizational policy or rule. Harassment is when someone is racially offended or abused based on his race. A person could also be victimized for speaking up against cases of discrimination. On its part, intersectional discrimination is when a person’s attributes are used to prejudice him. In multicultural discrimination, a person may be racially discriminated against due to being of a mixed race. Whatever the form, workplace discrimination is harmful both to victims and organizational success. It should thus be adequately addressed.    

Bagalini, A. (2020, July 22). 5 ways intersectionality affects diversity and inclusion at work . World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/07/diversity-inclusion-equality-intersectionality/

Colella, A., & King, E. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of workplace discrimination . Oxford University Press.

Conley, H. (2016). Gower Handbook of discrimination at work . Taylor & Francis.

Greig, A. (2015). Understanding the stressors and types of discrimination that can affect multiracial individuals: Things to address and avoid in psychotherapy practice. Psychotherapy Bulletin, 50 (2), 56-60.

Triana, M. Jayasinghe, M., & Pieper, J. R. (2015). Perceived workplace racial discrimination and its correlates: A meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 36 (4), 491-513.

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