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• Exploratory Research | Definition, Guide, & Examples

Exploratory Research | Definition, Guide, & Examples

Published on December 6, 2021 by Tegan George . Revised on November 20, 2023.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that investigates research questions that have not previously been studied in depth.

Exploratory research is often qualitative and primary in nature. However, a study with a large sample conducted in an exploratory manner can be quantitative as well. It is also often referred to as interpretive research or a grounded theory approach due to its flexible and open-ended nature.

Table of contents

When to use exploratory research, exploratory research questions, exploratory research data collection, step-by-step example of exploratory research, exploratory vs. explanatory research, advantages and disadvantages of exploratory research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about exploratory research.

Exploratory research is often used when the issue you’re studying is new or when the data collection process is challenging for some reason.

You can use this type of research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

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Exploratory research questions are designed to help you understand more about a particular topic of interest. They can help you connect ideas to understand the groundwork of your analysis without adding any preconceived notions or assumptions yet.

Here are some examples:

• What effect does using a digital notebook have on the attention span of middle schoolers?
• What factors influence mental health in undergraduates?
• What outcomes are associated with an authoritative parenting style?
• In what ways does the presence of a non-native accent affect intelligibility?
• How can the use of a grocery delivery service reduce food waste in single-person households?

Collecting information on a previously unexplored topic can be challenging. Exploratory research can help you narrow down your topic and formulate a clear hypothesis and problem statement , as well as giving you the “lay of the land” on your topic.

Data collection using exploratory research is often divided into primary and secondary research methods, with data analysis following the same model.

Primary research

In primary research, your data is collected directly from primary sources : your participants. There is a variety of ways to collect primary data.

Some examples include:

• Survey methodology: Sending a survey out to the student body asking them if they would eat vegan meals
• Focus groups: Compiling groups of 8–10 students and discussing what they think of vegan options for dining hall food
• Interviews: Interviewing students entering and exiting the dining hall, asking if they would eat vegan meals

Secondary research

In secondary research, your data is collected from preexisting primary research, such as experiments or surveys.

Some other examples include:

• Case studies : Health of an all-vegan diet
• Literature reviews : Preexisting research about students’ eating habits and how they have changed over time
• Online polls, surveys, blog posts, or interviews; social media: Have other schools done something similar?

For some subjects, it’s possible to use large- n government data, such as the decennial census or yearly American Community Survey (ACS) open-source data.

How you proceed with your exploratory research design depends on the research method you choose to collect your data. In most cases, you will follow five steps.

We’ll walk you through the steps using the following example.

Therefore, you would like to focus on improving intelligibility instead of reducing the learner’s accent.

Step 1: Identify your problem

The first step in conducting exploratory research is identifying what the problem is and whether this type of research is the right avenue for you to pursue. Remember that exploratory research is most advantageous when you are investigating a previously unexplored problem.

Step 2: Hypothesize a solution

The next step is to come up with a solution to the problem you’re investigating. Formulate a hypothetical statement to guide your research.

Step 3. Design your methodology

Next, conceptualize your data collection and data analysis methods and write them up in a research design.

Step 4: Collect and analyze data

Next, you proceed with collecting and analyzing your data so you can determine whether your preliminary results are in line with your hypothesis.

In most types of research, you should formulate your hypotheses a priori and refrain from changing them due to the increased risk of Type I errors and data integrity issues. However, in exploratory research, you are allowed to change your hypothesis based on your findings, since you are exploring a previously unexplained phenomenon that could have many explanations.

Step 5: Avenues for future research

Decide if you would like to continue studying your topic. If so, it is likely that you will need to change to another type of research. As exploratory research is often qualitative in nature, you may need to conduct quantitative research with a larger sample size to achieve more generalizable results.

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It can be easy to confuse exploratory research with explanatory research. To understand the relationship, it can help to remember that exploratory research lays the groundwork for later explanatory research.

Exploratory research investigates research questions that have not been studied in depth. The preliminary results often lay the groundwork for future analysis.

Explanatory research questions tend to start with “why” or “how”, and the goal is to explain why or how a previously studied phenomenon takes place.

Like any other research design , exploratory studies have their trade-offs: they provide a unique set of benefits but also come with downsides.

• It can be very helpful in narrowing down a challenging or nebulous problem that has not been previously studied.
• It can serve as a great guide for future research, whether your own or another researcher’s. With new and challenging research problems, adding to the body of research in the early stages can be very fulfilling.
• It is very flexible, cost-effective, and open-ended. You are free to proceed however you think is best.

Disadvantages

• It usually lacks conclusive results, and results can be biased or subjective due to a lack of preexisting knowledge on your topic.
• It’s typically not externally valid and generalizable, and it suffers from many of the challenges of qualitative research .
• Since you are not operating within an existing research paradigm, this type of research can be very labor-intensive.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that explores research questions that have not previously been studied in depth. It is often used when the issue you’re studying is new, or the data collection process is challenging in some way.

Exploratory research aims to explore the main aspects of an under-researched problem, while explanatory research aims to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem.

You can use exploratory research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

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Home » Exploratory Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Exploratory Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Exploratory Research

Definition:

Exploratory research is a type of research design that is used to investigate a research question when the researcher has limited knowledge or understanding of the topic or phenomenon under study.

The primary objective of exploratory research is to gain insights and gather preliminary information that can help the researcher better define the research problem and develop hypotheses or research questions for further investigation.

Exploratory Research Methods

There are several types of exploratory research, including:

Literature Review

This involves conducting a comprehensive review of existing published research, scholarly articles, and other relevant literature on the research topic or problem. It helps to identify the gaps in the existing knowledge and to develop new research questions or hypotheses.

Pilot Study

A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary study that helps the researcher to test research procedures, instruments, and data collection methods. This type of research can be useful in identifying any potential problems or issues with the research design and refining the research procedures for a larger-scale study.

This involves an in-depth analysis of a particular case or situation to gain insights into the underlying causes, processes, and dynamics of the issue under investigation. It can be used to develop a more comprehensive understanding of a complex problem, and to identify potential research questions or hypotheses.

Focus Groups

Focus groups involve a group discussion that is conducted to gather opinions, attitudes, and perceptions from a small group of individuals about a particular topic. This type of research can be useful in exploring the range of opinions and attitudes towards a topic, identifying common themes or patterns, and generating ideas for further research.

Expert Opinion

This involves consulting with experts or professionals in the field to gain their insights, expertise, and opinions on the research topic. This type of research can be useful in identifying the key issues and concerns related to the topic, and in generating ideas for further research.

Observational Research

Observational research involves gathering data by observing people, events, or phenomena in their natural settings to gain insights into behavior and interactions. This type of research can be useful in identifying patterns of behavior and interactions, and in generating hypotheses or research questions for further investigation.

Open-ended Surveys

Open-ended surveys allow respondents to provide detailed and unrestricted responses to questions, providing valuable insights into their attitudes, opinions, and perceptions. This type of research can be useful in identifying common themes or patterns, and in generating ideas for further research.

Data Analysis Methods

Exploratory Research Data Analysis Methods are as follows:

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing text or other forms of data to identify common themes, patterns, and trends. It can be useful in identifying patterns in the data and developing hypotheses or research questions. For example, if the researcher is analyzing social media posts related to a particular topic, content analysis can help identify the most frequently used words, hashtags, and topics.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying and analyzing patterns or themes in qualitative data such as interviews or focus groups. The researcher identifies recurring themes or patterns in the data and then categorizes them into different themes. This can be helpful in identifying common patterns or themes in the data and developing hypotheses or research questions. For example, a thematic analysis of interviews with healthcare professionals about patient care may identify themes related to communication, patient satisfaction, and quality of care.

Cluster Analysis

This method involves grouping data points into clusters based on their similarities or differences. It can be useful in identifying patterns in large datasets and grouping similar data points together. For example, if the researcher is analyzing customer data to identify different customer segments, cluster analysis can be used to group similar customers together based on their demographic, purchasing behavior, or preferences.

Network Analysis

This method involves analyzing the relationships and connections between data points. It can be useful in identifying patterns in complex datasets with many interrelated variables. For example, if the researcher is analyzing social network data, network analysis can help identify the most influential users and their connections to other users.

Grounded Theory

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected during the exploratory research process. The researcher develops a theory or explanation that is grounded in the data, rather than relying on pre-existing theories or assumptions. This can be helpful in developing new theories or explanations that are supported by the data.

Applications of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research has many practical applications across various fields. Here are a few examples:

• Marketing Research : In marketing research, exploratory research can be used to identify consumer needs, preferences, and behavior. It can also help businesses understand market trends and identify new market opportunities.
• Product Development: In product development, exploratory research can be used to identify customer needs and preferences, as well as potential design flaws or issues. This can help companies improve their product offerings and develop new products that better meet customer needs.
• Social Science Research: In social science research, exploratory research can be used to identify new areas of study, as well as develop new theories and hypotheses. It can also be used to identify potential research methods and approaches.
• Healthcare Research : In healthcare research, exploratory research can be used to identify new treatments, therapies, and interventions. It can also be used to identify potential risk factors or causes of health problems.
• Education Research: In education research, exploratory research can be used to identify new teaching methods and approaches, as well as identify potential areas of study for further research. It can also be used to identify potential barriers to learning or achievement.

Examples of Exploratory Research

Here are some more examples of exploratory research from different fields:

• Social Science : A researcher wants to study the experience of being a refugee, but there is limited existing research on this topic. The researcher conducts exploratory research by conducting in-depth interviews with refugees to better understand their experiences, challenges, and needs.
• Healthcare : A medical researcher wants to identify potential risk factors for a rare disease but there is limited information available. The researcher conducts exploratory research by reviewing medical records and interviewing patients and their families to identify potential risk factors.
• Education : A teacher wants to develop a new teaching method to improve student engagement, but there is limited information on effective teaching methods. The teacher conducts exploratory research by reviewing existing literature and interviewing other teachers to identify potential approaches.
• Technology : A software developer wants to develop a new app, but is unsure about the features that users would find most useful. The developer conducts exploratory research by conducting surveys and focus groups to identify user preferences and needs.
• Environmental Science : An environmental scientist wants to study the impact of a new industrial plant on the surrounding environment, but there is limited existing research. The scientist conducts exploratory research by collecting and analyzing soil and water samples, and conducting interviews with residents to better understand the impact of the plant on the environment and the community.

How to Conduct Exploratory Research

Here are the general steps to conduct exploratory research:

• Define the research problem: Identify the research problem or question that you want to explore. Be clear about the objective and scope of the research.
• Review existing literature: Conduct a review of existing literature and research on the topic to identify what is already known and where gaps in knowledge exist.
• Determine the research design : Decide on the appropriate research design, which will depend on the nature of the research problem and the available resources. Common exploratory research designs include case studies, focus groups, interviews, and surveys.
• Collect data: Collect data using the chosen research design. This may involve conducting interviews, surveys, or observations, or collecting data from existing sources such as archives or databases.
• Analyze data: Analyze the data collected using appropriate qualitative or quantitative techniques. This may include coding and categorizing qualitative data, or running descriptive statistics on quantitative data.
• I nterpret and report findings: Interpret the findings of the analysis and report them in a way that is clear and understandable. The report should summarize the findings, discuss their implications, and make recommendations for further research or action.
• Iterate : If necessary, refine the research question and repeat the process of data collection and analysis to further explore the topic.

When to use Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is appropriate in situations where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of a topic, and where the goal is to generate insights and ideas that can guide further research. Here are some specific situations where exploratory research may be particularly useful:

• New product development: When developing a new product, exploratory research can be used to identify consumer needs and preferences, as well as potential design flaws or issues.
• Emerging technologies: When exploring emerging technologies, exploratory research can be used to identify potential uses and applications, as well as potential challenges or limitations.
• Developing research hypotheses: When developing research hypotheses, exploratory research can be used to identify potential relationships or patterns that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Understanding complex phenomena: When trying to understand complex phenomena, such as human behavior or societal trends, exploratory research can be used to identify underlying patterns or factors that may be influencing the phenomenon.
• Developing research methods : When developing new research methods, exploratory research can be used to identify potential issues or limitations with existing methods, and to develop new methods that better capture the phenomena of interest.

Purpose of Exploratory Research

The purpose of exploratory research is to gain insights and understanding of a research problem or question where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding. The objective is to explore and generate ideas that can guide further research, rather than to test specific hypotheses or make definitive conclusions.

Exploratory research can be used to:

• Identify new research questions: Exploratory research can help to identify new research questions and areas of inquiry, by providing initial insights and understanding of a topic.
• Develop hypotheses: Exploratory research can help to develop hypotheses and testable propositions that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Identify patterns and trends : Exploratory research can help to identify patterns and trends in data, which can be used to guide further research or decision-making.
• Understand complex phenomena: Exploratory research can help to provide a deeper understanding of complex phenomena, such as human behavior or societal trends, by identifying underlying patterns or factors that may be influencing the phenomena.
• Generate ideas: Exploratory research can help to generate new ideas and insights that can be used to guide further research, innovation, or decision-making.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research

The following are the main characteristics of exploratory research:

• Flexible and open-ended : Exploratory research is characterized by its flexible and open-ended nature, which allows researchers to explore a wide range of ideas and perspectives without being constrained by specific research questions or hypotheses.
• Qualitative in nature : Exploratory research typically relies on qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observation, to gather rich and detailed data on the research problem.
• Limited scope: Exploratory research is generally limited in scope, focusing on a specific research problem or question, rather than attempting to provide a comprehensive analysis of a broader phenomenon.
• Preliminary in nature : Exploratory research is preliminary in nature, providing initial insights and understanding of a research problem, rather than testing specific hypotheses or making definitive conclusions.
• I terative process : Exploratory research is often an iterative process, where the research design and methods may be refined and adjusted as new insights and understanding are gained.
• I nductive approach : Exploratory research typically takes an inductive approach to data analysis, seeking to identify patterns and relationships in the data that can guide further research or hypothesis development.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

The following are some advantages of exploratory research:

• Provides initial insights: Exploratory research is useful for providing initial insights and understanding of a research problem or question where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding. It can help to identify patterns, relationships, and potential hypotheses that can guide further research.
• Flexible and adaptable : Exploratory research is flexible and adaptable, allowing researchers to adjust their methods and approach as they gain new insights and understanding of the research problem.
• Qualitative methods : Exploratory research typically relies on qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, which can provide rich and detailed data that is useful for gaining insights into complex phenomena.
• Cost-effective : Exploratory research is often less costly than other research methods, such as large-scale surveys or experiments. It is typically conducted on a smaller scale, using fewer resources and participants.
• Useful for hypothesis generation : Exploratory research can be useful for generating hypotheses and testable propositions that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Provides a foundation for further research: Exploratory research can provide a foundation for further research by identifying potential research questions and areas of inquiry, as well as providing initial insights and understanding of the research problem.

Limitations of Exploratory Research

The following are some limitations of exploratory research:

• Limited generalizability: Exploratory research is typically conducted on a small scale and uses non-random sampling techniques, which limits the generalizability of the findings to a broader population.
• Subjective nature: Exploratory research relies on qualitative methods and is therefore subject to researcher bias and interpretation. The findings may be influenced by the researcher’s own perceptions, beliefs, and assumptions.
• Lack of rigor: Exploratory research is often less rigorous than other research methods, such as experimental research, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Exploratory research is not designed to test specific hypotheses, but rather to generate initial insights and understanding of a research problem. It may not be suitable for testing well-defined research questions or hypotheses.
• Time-consuming : Exploratory research can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, particularly if the researcher needs to gather data from multiple sources or conduct multiple rounds of data collection.
• Difficulty in interpretation: The open-ended nature of exploratory research can make it difficult to interpret the findings, particularly if the researcher is unable to identify clear patterns or relationships in the data.

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Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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10 Exploratory Research Examples

Exploratory research is research that explores new or interesting topics, often as a pioneering study, conducting research that hasn’t been attempted before.

Let’s examine some academic definitions of exploratory research – if you’re writing an essay or methodology chapter on this topic, you might want to use these expert quotes in your writing:

• “… research used to investigate an issue that is new, a problem which is not clearly defined, a topic on which there is little data” (Gozdziak & Chantavanich, 2022)
• “… initial research conducted to clarify and define the nature of the problem. It is done to help diagnose the situation, allow for screening of alternatives, and discover new ideas.” (Hutchison, Allen & Macy, 2012)
• “… the initial research into a hypothetical or theoretical idea. This is where the researcher has an idea and wishes to research a topic seeking to understand it more deeply. An exploratory research study is an attempt to lay the groundwork that could of will lead to future studies.” (Blecher, 2018)

Oftentimes, an exploratory study takes the form of a descriptive-qualitative design that precedes a larger project (Cargan, 2007). The exploratory section of the study seeks to describe the phenomena in detail and generate hypotheses that would later be tested. This is common, for example, in grounded research projects .

Approaches to Exploratory Research

Belcher (2018) highlights that there are two ways you could go about exploratory research. You could either approach an entirely new topic that’s not been examined before. Or, you could find a new angle to approach an old topic:

• New Topic: This could involve examining an entirely new, rare, or unique phenomenon that is yet to be explored.
• New Angle on an Old Topic: This could involve using a new theoretical perspective or a new methodological approach to examine a topic that has been studied before.

Exploratory Research Examples

1. Bee Population Decline and Farming

Proposed Methods: Qualitative Interviews, Observation

If a team of environmental scientists were to notice a decline in the bee population in a farming region, they could conduct exploratory research by interviewing local farmers and observing farming practices. Their potential findings might suggest a correlation between certain pesticide use and the decrease in bee numbers, which could then prompt a more detailed investigation into alternative farming methods to protect bee colonies.

2. Urban Green Spaces and Mental Health

Proposed Methods: Surveys, Focus Group Discussions

If urban planners and health researchers were to observe a potential link between the presence of green spaces in urban areas and residents’ mental well-being, they could initiate exploratory research by surveying city dwellers and hosting focus group discussions. Their initial insights might indicate that regular access to urban parks and gardens is associated with lower stress levels and improved mood among the population. This could lead to a comprehensive study on the design and distribution of green spaces to enhance urban mental health.

3. Effects of Screen Time on Sleep Patterns

Proposed Methods: Diary Studies, Qualitative Interviews

If health experts were to suspect a relationship between prolonged screen time and disrupted sleep among teenagers, they could undertake exploratory research by having participants maintain sleep diaries and conducting in-depth interviews. The gathered data might reveal that excessive exposure to screens before bedtime could correlate with difficulty falling asleep and reduced sleep quality. Such findings could pave the way for a more conclusive study on digital habits and sleep hygiene.

4. Traditional Medicines and Modern Healing

Proposed Methods: Ethnographic Studies, Expert Interviews

If medical anthropologists were curious about the efficacy of traditional medicines in contemporary health practices, they could embark on exploratory research by studying indigenous communities and interviewing traditional healers. Their preliminary observations might suggest that certain age-old remedies have potential benefits in treating modern ailments. This could inspire further research into integrating traditional knowledge with modern medical practices.

5. Sustainable Packaging and Consumer Preferences

Proposed Methods: Surveys, Product Testing

If market researchers were to speculate about the rising preference for sustainable packaging among consumers, they could conduct exploratory research through surveys and product testing sessions. Initial feedback might indicate that consumers are more inclined to purchase products with eco-friendly packaging due to environmental concerns. This could initiate a more extensive study on the potential market shift towards sustainable packaging solutions.

6. Music Therapy and Cognitive Development in Children

Proposed Methods: Observational Studies , Interviews with Therapists

If developmental psychologists were to ponder the effects of music therapy on cognitive growth in children, they could delve into exploratory research by observing therapy sessions and interviewing music therapists. Early insights might reveal that structured musical activities could enhance certain cognitive functions, such as memory and attention span. This could set the stage for a detailed investigation into the therapeutic benefits of music for cognitive development.

7. Urban Architecture and Social Interactions

Proposed Methods: Urban Ethnography, Resident Interviews

If urban sociologists were to hypothesize that the design of urban spaces influences social interactions among residents, they could embark on exploratory research through urban ethnography and resident interviews. Initial observations might suggest that open communal spaces foster more community interactions and strengthen neighborhood bonds. These findings could lead to a comprehensive study on designing urban spaces to promote social cohesion.

8. Plant-Based Diets and Athletic Performance

Proposed Methods: Dietary Logs, Performance Metrics Analysis

If sports nutritionists were curious about the impact of plant-based diets on athletes’ performance, they could initiate exploratory research by analyzing athletes’ dietary logs and comparing performance metrics. Preliminary results might indicate that a well-planned plant-based diet could sustain or even enhance athletic prowess. This could trigger further research into the optimal nutrition strategies for athletes favoring plant-based diets.

9. Virtual Reality and Learning Efficiency

Proposed Methods: Experimental Learning Sessions, Feedback Surveys

If educational technologists were to consider the potential of virtual reality (VR) in enhancing learning experiences, they could conduct exploratory research using experimental VR learning sessions followed by feedback surveys. Early feedback might suggest that immersive VR environments can improve understanding and retention of complex topics. This could lead to a broader study on the integration of VR tools in various educational settings.

10. Urban Farming and Food Security

Proposed Methods: Case Studies, Farmer Interviews

If agricultural experts were to contemplate the role of urban farming in ensuring food security in metropolitan areas, they could initiate exploratory research by conducting case studies of existing urban farms and interviewing urban farmers. Preliminary insights might indicate that urban farming can significantly contribute to local food supplies and reduce food transportation costs. This could pave the way for more expansive research on optimizing urban agricultural practices to enhance city-wide food security.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research design is very useful for providing initial insights into a topic, describing phenomena in detail, and exploring a topic without the predetermined constraints of mere hypothesis testing.

But it’s not the best research design in all situations. For example, it might not be ideal if you were seeking to achieve clarity on well-worn topics, generate generalizable results that add to existing literature, or contribute to a specific set of existing scholarly discourse on a topic.

Below are some strengths and weaknesses of this research design:

Blecher, M. (2018). Israeli Settlements: Land Politics Beyond the Geneva Convention. Hamilton Books.

Cargan, L. (2007). Doing Social Research . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Gozdziak, E. M., & Chantavanich, S. (2022). Africans in Thailand. In Gozdziak, E. M., & Chantavanich, S. (Eds.). African Migration to Thailand: Race, Mobility, and Integration. Taylor & Francis.

Hammond, M., & Wellington, J. J. (2013). Research Methods: The Key Concepts . Routledge.

Hutchison, T., Allen, P., & Macy, A. (2012). Record Label Marketing . Taylor & Francis.

Morrison, A. M. (2022). Tourism Marketing: In the Age of the Consumer . Taylor & Francis.

Swedberg, R. (2020). Exploratory Research. In Elman C, Gerring J, & Mahoney J. (Eds.) The Production of Knowledge: Enhancing Progress in Social Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tan, W. C. K. (2022). Research Methods: A Practical Guide For Students And Researchers (Second Edition). World Scientific Publishing Company.

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Exploratory Research: Definition, Types, Examples

Appinio Research · 12.10.2023 · 28min read

Are you ready to unlock the power of exploration in research? In this guide, we'll navigate the fascinating realm of exploratory research, demystifying its techniques and shedding light on its real-world applications.

Whether you're a seasoned researcher seeking to broaden your methodological toolkit or a novice embarking on your first research endeavor, this guide will equip you with the knowledge and insights to harness the full potential of exploratory research. Join us as we dive deep into the intricacies of understanding, planning, conducting, and reporting exploratory research, with real-life examples illuminating the way.

What is Exploratory Research?

Exploratory Research is an investigative method used in the early stages of a research project to delve into a topic when little to no existing knowledge or information is available. It is a dynamic and flexible approach aimed at gaining insights, uncovering trends, and generating initial hypotheses. The primary purposes of exploratory research are:

• Understanding Complexity: Exploratory research helps researchers understand the intricate and multifaceted nature of a research topic, especially when the subject matter is not well-defined.
• Idea Generation: It serves as a fertile ground for generating new ideas, hypotheses, and research questions that can guide more focused studies in the future.
• Problem Identification: It helps identify research problems or gaps in existing knowledge, allowing researchers to refine their research objectives.
• Decision Support: Exploratory research provides valuable information for making informed decisions about the direction and scope of a research project.

Importance of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research holds immense significance in the world of research and problem-solving for several reasons:

• Risk Reduction: By exploring a topic before committing to a specific research path, exploratory research helps reduce the risk of pursuing unproductive or irrelevant research.
• Informed Research: It lays the groundwork for subsequent phases of research, ensuring that subsequent studies are well-informed and more likely to yield meaningful results.
• Creative Exploration: It encourages creative and open-minded exploration of topics, making it particularly useful when dealing with novel or emerging issues.
• Adaptability: Exploratory research methods are adaptable and can be tailored to the unique characteristics of a research question or problem.

Types of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research encompasses various methodologies, each designed to suit specific research objectives and contexts. Let's explore these types in more detail:

Literature Review

Literature Review involves a systematic examination of existing research, publications, and sources related to a specific topic. It serves as a comprehensive exploration of the current state of knowledge.

• Purpose: To identify existing theories, concepts, and gaps in the literature related to a research topic.
• Methods: Researchers review academic papers, books, articles, and other scholarly sources. They synthesize and analyze the findings and theories presented in these sources.
• Benefits: A literature review provides a solid foundation for understanding the historical context and key debates surrounding a topic. It helps researchers identify areas where further investigation is needed.

Pilot Studies

Pilot Studies are small-scale research projects conducted before a full-scale study. They serve as test runs to assess the feasibility of research methods and data collection tools.

• Purpose: To test research procedures, instruments, and methodologies in a controlled environment.
• Methods: Researchers select a smaller sample and conduct data collection and analysis as if it were a full study.
• Benefits: Pilot studies help identify potential problems, refine research designs, and improve the quality of data collection.

Case Studies

Case Studies involve an in-depth examination of a specific individual, group, organization, or event. They offer a holistic view of a particular phenomenon.

• Purpose: To explore real-life contexts and understand complex, unique situations.
• Methods: Researchers gather data through interviews, observations, and document analysis, providing rich, contextual insights.
• Benefits: Case studies provide a deep understanding of specific instances, allowing researchers to extract valuable lessons or generate hypotheses for broader research.

Focus Groups

Focus Groups bring together a small group of participants to engage in open and structured discussions about a particular topic.

• Purpose: To explore group dynamics, collective opinions, and shared perceptions on a specific subject.
• Methods: Researchers facilitate group discussions with carefully designed questions, encouraging participants to express their thoughts and experiences.
• Benefits: Focus groups reveal diverse perspectives, uncover latent issues, and provide qualitative data for further investigation.

In-depth Interviews

In-depth Interviews involve one-on-one conversations between a researcher and a participant, allowing for detailed exploration of experiences, opinions, and perceptions.

• Purpose: To gain in-depth insights into individual perspectives and experiences.
• Methods: Researchers use open-ended questions to guide interviews, creating a conversational and exploratory atmosphere.
• Benefits: In-depth interviews provide rich, nuanced data and are well-suited for studying sensitive topics or personal experiences.

Observational Research

Observational Research entails the systematic observation and recording of behaviors, events, or phenomena in their natural settings.

• Purpose: To understand behavior or phenomena as they naturally occur in their real-world context.
• Methods: Researchers select settings, define variables, and record data through direct observations.
• Benefits: Observational research captures authentic behavior and context, offering insights that might be missed in controlled environments.

Content Analysis

Content Analysis is a method for analyzing textual, visual, or audio content to uncover patterns, themes, or trends.

• Purpose: To explore and understand the content and communication surrounding a particular topic or media.
• Methods: Researchers define coding categories, code content based on these categories, and analyze the frequency and patterns of codes.
• Benefits: Content analysis provides quantitative and qualitative insights into the content of documents, media, or communication channels.

These various types of exploratory research methods offer researchers a versatile toolkit for diving into the unknown and gaining valuable insights, setting the stage for further investigation and discovery.

How to Plan and Design Exploratory Research?

In the planning and design phase of exploratory research, careful consideration of key elements is crucial to ensure the research objectives are met effectively. Let's delve into these elements:

1. Research Objectives

Before embarking on exploratory research, it's essential to define clear and specific research objectives.

• Purpose: Research objectives should clarify what you aim to achieve through your exploratory study. Are you looking to understand a phenomenon, generate hypotheses, identify research gaps, or explore new concepts?
• Specificity: Objectives should be well-defined, leaving no room for ambiguity. They should guide your research process and serve as a benchmark for success.
• Alignment: Ensure that your research objectives align with the broader goals of your research project and contribute to the generation of valuable insights.

2. Data Collection Methods

Selecting appropriate data collection methods is a critical step in planning exploratory research.

The choice of methods should align with your research objectives.

• Method Suitability: Consider the nature of your research question. Qualitative methods like interviews and focus groups are ideal for exploring subjective experiences, while quantitative methods may be more suitable for gathering numerical data.
• Data Sources: Identify the sources of data you will tap into, whether it's primary data (collected directly) or secondary data (existing sources).
• Data Collection Tools: Determine the specific tools and instruments you will use for data collection. This may include interview guides, questionnaires, or observation protocols.

3. Sampling Techniques

Choosing the proper sampling techniques is crucial to ensure that your exploratory research represents the target population or context effectively.

• Purposeful Sampling: When using qualitative methods like interviews and focus groups, purposeful or selective sampling helps identify participants who can provide valuable insights based on specific criteria, such as expertise or experience.
• Random Sampling: If your exploratory research involves quantitative data collection, consider random sampling methods to ensure that your sample is representative of the larger population.
• Snowball Sampling: In cases where it's challenging to identify participants through traditional methods, snowball sampling allows initial participants to refer others, creating a chain of referrals.

4. Data Analysis Approaches

Determining the data analysis approaches is essential for making sense of the information collected during exploratory research.

• Qualitative Data Analysis: For qualitative data, approaches like thematic analysis, content analysis, or narrative analysis help identify patterns, themes, and trends within the data.
• Quantitative Data Analysis: If you have quantitative data, statistical analysis and data visualization techniques can reveal trends, correlations, and significant findings.
• Mixed-Methods Analysis: In cases where both qualitative and quantitative data are collected, a mixed-methods analysis approach can provide a more comprehensive understanding.

5. Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are paramount in exploratory research, as they ensure the well-being and rights of participants are protected.

• Informed Consent: Obtain informed consent from participants, explaining the purpose of the research, their role, and the potential risks and benefits. Consent forms should be clear and voluntary.
• Privacy and Anonymity: Protect the confidentiality and anonymity of participants by avoiding disclosing personal or sensitive information without explicit consent.
• Data Security: Safeguard research data to prevent unauthorized access or breaches of confidentiality.
• Conflict of Interest: Disclose any conflicts of interest or potential biases that may affect the research process or findings.
• Compliance: Adhere to ethical guidelines and regulations established by relevant institutions or governing bodies, such as institutional review boards (IRBs).

With a well-planned approach that includes clearly defined research objectives, appropriate data collection methods, thoughtful sampling techniques, robust data analysis approaches, and ethical considerations, you can set the stage for a successful exploratory research endeavor.

How to Conduct Exploratory Research?

In this section, we will delve into the practical aspects of conducting exploratory research, which involves data collection and analysis. These steps are vital to uncover insights and generate hypotheses. Let's explore each component in detail:

Data Collection

Effective data collection is the cornerstone of exploratory research. Here are various methods you can use to collect data:

1. Literature Review Process

Literature review is the process of systematically searching, reviewing, and summarizing existing academic literature related to your research topic. This step is crucial as it provides a foundation for understanding the current state of knowledge and identifying research gaps:

• Identify Relevant Sources: Begin by searching for relevant academic papers, books, articles, and reports. Online databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, and academic library catalogs are excellent resources.
• Synthesize Information: Summarize the essential findings and ideas from the sources you've collected. Create a literature review matrix or summary to organize your results and identify common themes.
• Identify Research Gaps: As you review the literature, pay attention to areas where there's a lack of research or conflicting findings. These gaps can inform your exploratory research objectives.

2. Conducting Pilot Studies

Pilot studies are small-scale research projects designed to test and refine your research methods and instruments. They provide valuable insights and help identify potential issues before embarking on a full-scale study.

• Define Objectives: Clearly define the objectives of your pilot study. What specific aspects of your research design are you testing? What do you hope to learn from the pilot?
• Select Sample: Choose a small, representative sample for your pilot study. This sample should reflect your target population as closely as possible.
• Collect Data: Implement your research methods on the selected sample. Pay close attention to any challenges or issues that arise during data collection.
• Analyze Results: After collecting data, analyze the results. Look for any anomalies or unexpected findings that may require adjustments to your research design.

3. Running Case Studies

Case studies involve in-depth investigations into specific individuals, groups, organizations, or events. They provide rich, contextual data.

• Select a Case: Choose a relevant case that aligns with your research objectives. Consider cases that offer unique insights or perspectives on your topic.
• Gather Data: Collect data through a combination of interviews, observations, and document analysis. Triangulate your data sources for a comprehensive view.
• Analyze Data: Analyze the collected data to identify patterns, themes, and insights. Use coding or thematic analysis to categorize information.

4. Organizing Focus Groups

Focus groups bring together a small group of participants to engage in open and structured discussions about a particular topic.

• Recruit Participants: Recruit a diverse group of participants who can provide valuable insights into your research questions. Ensure that the group dynamics are conducive to open discussion.
• Design Questions: Prepare a set of open-ended questions that guide the discussion. Encourage participants to share their perspectives and experiences.
• Conduct the Session: Facilitate the focus group session, making sure everyone has an opportunity to speak. Take detailed notes and consider using audio or video recording.
• Analyze Findings: Transcribe and analyze the focus group discussions. Look for common themes, opinions, and areas of agreement or disagreement among participants.

5. Performing In-depth Interviews

In-depth interviews involve one-on-one conversations between a researcher and a participant, allowing for detailed exploration of experiences, opinions, and perceptions.

• Prepare Interview Guide: Develop a structured interview guide with open-ended questions that align with your research objectives. The guide provides a framework for the interview.
• Select Participants: Choose participants who can offer in-depth insights into your research questions. Establish rapport and build trust during the interviews.
• Conduct Interviews: Conduct one-on-one interviews, following the interview guide but allowing for flexibility to explore unexpected topics. Encourage participants to share their thoughts and experiences.
• Transcribe and Analyze: Transcribe the interviews and analyze the responses. Look for common themes, patterns, and noteworthy quotes that support your research objectives.

6. Observational Research Techniques

Observational research involves the systematic observation and recording of behaviors, events, or phenomena in their natural settings.

• Select the Setting: Choose a setting that allows for unobtrusive observation of the behavior or phenomena you're studying. Ensure that your presence does not influence the behavior.
• Define Variables: Clearly define the behaviors or phenomena you're observing. Create an observation checklist or coding scheme to record data systematically.
• Record Data: Systematically record your observations, either in real-time or through video/audio recordings. Be objective and avoid making interpretations during the observation.
• Analyze Data: After data collection, analyze the recorded observations to identify patterns, trends, and any noteworthy behaviors. Consider interrater reliability if multiple observers are involved.

7. Content Analysis Methods

Content analysis is a method for systematically analyzing textual, visual, or audio content to uncover patterns, themes, or trends.

• Define Coding Categories: Determine the coding categories or themes that align with your research objectives. Create a coding scheme that can be applied consistently.
• Code Content: Apply the coding scheme to the content you're analyzing. This may involve categorizing text passages, images, or audio segments based on predefined criteria.
• Record and Analyze Data: Record the coded data systematically and analyze it to identify patterns, trends, or recurring themes. Consider using software tools to assist in content analysis.

Data Analysis

After collecting data through the various methods, it's essential to analyze it effectively to extract meaningful insights:

1. Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis involves the examination of non-numeric data, such as text, interviews, and observations.

• Data Coding: Begin by coding the qualitative data, which involves categorizing information into themes or codes. This step helps organize the data for analysis.
• Thematic Analysis: Conduct thematic analysis to identify recurring themes, patterns, and trends within the data. Look for connections and relationships between themes.
• Constant Comparison: Use constant comparison, where you compare new data with existing codes and themes to refine your understanding of the data.
• Interpretation: Interpret the qualitative data in the context of your research objectives. Explore the implications of your findings and consider how they contribute to your research goals.

2. Quantitative Data Analysis

Quantitative data analysis involves the examination of numerical data gathered through surveys, experiments, or other structured methods.

• Data Cleaning: Begin by cleaning the data and addressing any missing values, outliers, or inconsistencies. Ensure that the data is in a usable format for analysis.
• Descriptive Analysis: Perform descriptive analysis to summarize the main characteristics of the data. This includes calculating measures like mean, median, and standard deviation.
• Inferential Analysis: If applicable, conduct inferential analysis to test hypotheses or determine relationships between variables. Common statistical tests include t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis.
• Data Visualization: Create visual representations of your quantitative data using charts, graphs, and tables to illustrate key findings.

3. Identifying Patterns and Themes

Across both qualitative and quantitative data analysis, the process of identifying patterns and themes is essential.

• Pattern Recognition: Look for recurring patterns, trends, or regularities in the data. These patterns may be related to your research objectives or unexpected discoveries.
• Theme Identification: In qualitative data analysis, identify themes or categories that emerge from the data. Themes represent commonalities in participants' responses or behaviors.
• Cross-Referencing Data: Compare findings from different data collection methods (e.g., interviews, surveys) to triangulate your results and gain a more comprehensive understanding.
• Iterative Process: Data analysis is often an iterative process. You may revisit and refine your analysis as you uncover new insights or refine your research questions.

By effectively collecting and analyzing data, you can extract meaningful insights, identify trends, and generate hypotheses that will guide your exploratory research and inform future research endeavors.

How to Report and Present Exploratory Research Findings?

Effectively reporting and presenting exploratory research findings is vital to communicate insights and guide future actions. Let's explore the components of this phase in more detail.

Structure of Research Reports

Creating a well-structured research report ensures that your exploratory findings are communicated clearly and effectively.

• Title Page: Begin with a title page that includes the title of the report, your name, affiliation, and the date of publication.
• Executive Summary: Provide a concise summary of the research objectives, methods, key findings, and recommendations. This section should be informative yet brief.
• Table of Contents: Include a table of contents to help readers navigate through the report easily.
• Introduction: Introduce the research topic, objectives, and the importance of exploratory research in addressing your research questions.
• Methodology: Describe the methods used for data collection, including sampling techniques, data analysis approaches, and ethical considerations.
• Findings: Present your research findings, organized by research method (e.g., literature review, pilot study, focus groups, interviews, etc.).
• Discussion: Interpret your findings, discuss their implications, and relate them to your research objectives. Consider addressing any limitations.
• Recommendations: Offer recommendations based on your exploratory research. What actions or further research should be pursued?
• Conclusion: Summarize the key points of your study, emphasizing its significance.
• Appendices: Include any supplementary materials, such as interview transcripts, survey questionnaires, or additional data.
• References: Cite all the sources you referenced in your report using a consistent citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).

Visualizing Data

Effective data visualization enhances the understanding of your exploratory findings.

• Tables: Organize data in tabular format for easy comparison.
• Charts and Graphs: Use bar charts, line graphs, pie charts, or scatter plots to represent quantitative data.
• Infographics: Create visual summaries of key findings using infographics.
• Images and Visuals: Include relevant images, photographs, or screenshots to illustrate points.

Interpreting Results

Interpreting your exploratory research results involves:

• Contextualizing Findings: Explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your research objectives.
• Discussing Implications: Consider the practical implications of your findings. How do they impact the research area or field?
• Addressing Limitations: Acknowledge any limitations or constraints in your study, such as sample size or data collection challenges.
• Comparing with Hypotheses: If applicable, compare your findings with any initial hypotheses you may have developed during the exploratory phase.
• Suggesting Future Research: Identify areas where further research is needed, building upon the insights gained in your exploratory study.

Making Recommendations

Based on your exploratory research, provide actionable recommendations.

• Practical Steps: Offer specific actions or decisions that can be made based on your findings.
• Policy Recommendations: If relevant, suggest changes or improvements to policies or practices.
• Further Research: Highlight areas where more in-depth research is required to build upon your exploratory findings.
• Implementation Plan: Outline a plan for implementing the recommendations, if applicable.

Remember that the clarity of your report and the persuasiveness of your recommendations are crucial in making your exploratory research valuable to your audience. Effective communication ensures that your insights lead to informed decisions and further exploration in your field of study.

Exploratory Research Advantages and Limitations

Exploratory research offers valuable insights into various aspects of a research topic, but it also comes with its own set of advantages and limitations. Understanding these factors is essential for making informed decisions about using exploratory research in your projects. Let's explore both sides of the coin.

Exploratory Research Advantages

• Insight Generation: Exploratory research excels at discovering the unknown. It allows you to explore and uncover new phenomena, trends, or perspectives that may have been previously unknown or overlooked.
• Hypothesis Generation: By investigating a topic with an open mind, you can generate hypotheses and research questions that can guide more focused research in the future. These initial hypotheses can serve as a valuable starting point.
• Flexibility: Exploratory research is well-suited for complex and multifaceted topics where a structured approach may not be appropriate. It provides the flexibility to adapt to evolving research objectives.
• Qualitative Understanding: Methods like interviews, focus groups, and content analysis provide rich qualitative data. This qualitative understanding is crucial for exploring nuances and complexities in human experiences and behaviors.
• Contextual Understanding: Exploratory research often takes place in real-world contexts. Case studies and observational research, for example, allow you to understand how phenomena operate in their natural environments, providing valuable context.
• Pilot Testing: Exploratory research, including pilot studies, helps in refining research methodologies and instruments. By uncovering potential issues early on, it reduces errors in subsequent studies.

Exploratory Research Limitations

• Lack of Generalizability: Exploratory research often uses small, non-representative samples. This makes it challenging to generalize findings to larger populations or broader contexts. The insights gained may be specific to the participants or conditions involved.
• Subjectivity: The qualitative nature of many exploratory research methods can introduce subjectivity in data analysis and interpretation. Researchers' biases and perspectives may influence the findings.
• Time and Resource Intensive: Some exploratory research methods, such as in-depth interviews or case studies, can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. This can limit the scalability of exploratory studies.
• Limited Quantitative Data: If your research requires precise numerical data, exploratory research may not be sufficient. It primarily focuses on qualitative insights and quantitative data may be limited in scope.
• Potential for Bias: The choice of research methods and participants can introduce bias into your findings. For example, purposive sampling in qualitative research may inadvertently select participants with similar perspectives.
• Incomplete Picture: Exploratory research may provide an insufficient or preliminary picture of a topic. It often requires further investigation for validation and a more comprehensive understanding.
• Ethical Challenges: The open-ended nature of exploratory research can raise ethical challenges, especially in sensitive research areas. Ensuring participant consent and privacy is essential.

Understanding these advantages and limitations is crucial for researchers to make informed decisions about when and how to apply exploratory research methods. It's essential to carefully consider these factors in the context of your research objectives and the specific challenges and opportunities presented by your research topic.

Exploratory Research Examples

Exploratory research is a versatile approach employed across various fields to gain insights, uncover trends, and generate hypotheses. Let's explore real-world examples of how different exploratory research methods have been applied effectively:

1. Real-Life Case Studies

Facebook's emotional contagion study.

Background: In 2014, Facebook conducted a controversial exploratory research study to investigate emotional contagion. The study involved manipulating the content that appeared in users' newsfeeds to measure how emotional content impacted their own posts.

Method: Facebook used large-scale data analysis to conduct this study, which involved over 689,000 users. They manipulated the visibility of positive and negative posts to examine whether emotional states could be influenced online.

Findings: The study found that when users saw fewer positive posts in their newsfeeds, they tended to post fewer positive updates themselves, and vice versa for negative posts. This research sparked discussions about ethical considerations in online experimentation and the power of social media platforms to influence emotions.

Harvard Business School's Airbnb Case Study

Background: Harvard Business School conducted an exploratory case study on Airbnb, a disruptive platform in the hospitality industry. The goal was to understand how Airbnb disrupted traditional lodging markets and its impact on the hotel industry.

Method: Researchers collected data from various sources, including interviews with Airbnb hosts, surveys of travelers, and publicly available data on Airbnb listings and hotel occupancy rates. They analyzed the data to identify trends and insights.

Findings: The study found that Airbnb significantly impacted the hotel industry by offering unique, affordable, and personalized lodging options. It also highlighted challenges such as regulatory issues and concerns about safety and quality control.

2. Focus Groups

Apple's product development.

Background: Apple Inc. frequently conducts exploratory research through focus groups to gather insights and opinions from potential users before launching new products or features.

Method: Apple assembles small groups of potential users and conducts moderated discussions. Participants are encouraged to share their thoughts, preferences, and concerns about prototypes or concepts.

Findings: Apple gains valuable feedback about user preferences and pain points by engaging with focus groups. For example, before launching the Apple Watch, focus groups provided insights into desired features like health tracking and customization.

Political Campaign Strategy

Background: In politics, campaign teams often use focus groups to explore voters' opinions, reactions to candidates, and key campaign issues.

Method: Focus groups consist of a diverse set of voters who engage in discussions about campaign messages, policies, and candidate attributes. Campaign teams use these insights to tailor their strategies.

Findings: Focus groups help political campaigns understand which messages resonate with different voter demographics. For instance, a focus group may reveal that a candidate's stance on a specific policy particularly appeals to a specific age group, influencing campaign messaging.

3. Content Analysis

Climate change discourse in media.

Background: Exploratory content analysis has been employed to study media coverage of climate change. Researchers aim to understand how different media outlets frame climate change issues.

Method: Researchers collect articles and news reports from various sources and then analyze the content to identify recurring themes, framing, and the use of language. This helps determine how climate change is portrayed in the media.

Findings: Content analysis has revealed that media outlets may use different frames when discussing climate change, such as "economic impact," "environmental consequences," or "scientific consensus." These frames can influence public perception and policy discussions.

Social Media Sentiment Analysis

Background: Companies and organizations use content analysis of social media posts to gauge public sentiment and gather insights into customer opinions and preferences.

Method: Automated tools are used to collect and analyze social media posts, comments, and mentions related to a specific brand, product, or topic. Natural language processing techniques identify sentiment (positive, negative, neutral) and key themes.

Findings: By analyzing social media content, companies can identify customer complaints, emerging trends, or public sentiment shifts in real time. For example, a restaurant chain may use sentiment analysis to track customer reactions to new menu items.

4. Observational Research

Supermarket shopping behavior.

Background: Observational research is frequently used in the retail industry to understand consumer behavior. One example is studying how shoppers navigate supermarkets.

Method: Researchers observe shoppers in a supermarket, noting their paths through the store, product choices, and interactions with displays. This data helps retailers optimize store layouts and product placement.

Findings: Observational research has shown that shoppers tend to follow predictable patterns in supermarkets, such as starting with fresh produce. Retailers use this data to design store layouts that encourage specific shopping behaviors and maximize sales.

Child Development Studies

Background: Observational research is crucial in child development studies to understand how children learn and develop through their interactions with the environment.

Method: Researchers use video recordings or live observations to document children's behaviors in various settings, such as classrooms or homes. They analyze these observations to identify developmental milestones and learning patterns.

Findings: Observational research in child development has contributed to our understanding of how children acquire language, social skills, and cognitive abilities. For example, it has revealed how peer interactions influence language development in preschoolers.

These real-world examples illustrate the diverse applications of exploratory research methods, from understanding user preferences for tech giants like Apple to analyzing media discourse on critical issues like climate change. Exploratory research empowers organizations and researchers with valuable insights that inform decision-making and shape future research directions.

Exploratory research is a dynamic tool that opens doors to discovery. It helps us uncover hidden insights, generate fresh ideas, and better understand the world around us. By delving into the unknown and embracing its flexibility, we can embark on journeys of exploration that enrich our knowledge and inform future endeavors.

So, whether you're exploring uncharted territories in academia, industry, or any field, remember that the spirit of curiosity and the methods of exploratory research can be your compass. With the right strategies and ethical considerations, you'll not only navigate the challenges but also uncover the treasures of knowledge that await. As you embark on your own exploratory research adventures, may you find answers to your questions, ignite new inquiries, and, above all, revel in the joy of discovery.

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Exploratory Research – Guide, Definition & Examples

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Exploratory research deals with undiscovered or unfamiliar issues, frequently making up the foundation for further structured research. Within research methodology , it can be identified by its open-ended and flexible approach with the goal to explore new horizons, create ideas, or bringing clarity to debatable topics. Exploratory research does not test hypotheses but rather asks questions and collects first data, where further valuable and more in-depth investigations can be conducted.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Exploratory Research – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Exploratory research
• 3 The usage of exploratory research
• 4 Exploratory research questions
• 5 Exploratory research data collection
• 6 The five steps of exploratory research with examples
• 7 Exploratory vs. explanatory research
• 8 Advantages vs. disadvantages

Exploratory Research – In a Nutshell

• Exploratory research investigates issues that don’t have thorough studies yet.
• It provides an onset of an existing problem to explore further.
• It is usually structured as qualitative research and refers to a primary source.

Definition: Exploratory research

Exploratory research is a study methodology that explores an issue that has not been extensively studied in the past or a new topic or subject. It explores specific elements of an existing phenomenon and gets more insight into it.

Your university library is considering adding an alternative medicine section to it. However, the institution is hesitant because of concerns that the decision may cause backlash from students, which may lead to unrest in the school. Therefore, the plan will only proceed if there is concrete proof that the reception from the students will be positive.

The usage of exploratory research

This method is often applied when the study issue is novel or when the data collection process for the study issue is challenging. You can also use this method if you have a general notion about a subject or a specific question that you would like to explore, but there is no existing knowledge with which to explore it.

Exploratory research questions

Academic studies usually begin with research questions. These questions are usually constructed to assist you to understand more about a particular subject. Therefore, they help you put together notions to master the footing of your investigation without adding any predetermined philosophies or assumptions.

• What elements influence drug use in university students?
• What effect does using digital learning tools have on the attention span of undergraduates?
• What outcomes are connected with the gentle parenting style?

Exploratory research data collection

Data collection in this form of research is challenging because it involves working with a previously unexplored subject. However, exploratory research allows you to narrow down your subject of interest and come up with a distinct premise and problem statement.

You can use primary and secondary research questions to gather data. Primary research collects data directly from primary sources. Some examples of these sources are:

• Focus groups

On the other hand, secondary research collects data from existing materials. Examples of secondary research data collection techniques are:

• Case studies
• Literature review
• Online polls

The five steps of exploratory research with examples

The way you conduct this research usually depends on your chosen data collection method. However, this research features five standard steps.

You teach English to non-native speakers. Your current oral proficiency technique focuses on reducing your student’s foreign accent. However, you suspect that a foreign accent does not affect intelligibility. So, you want to shift your attention to increasing intelligibility. Nevertheless, there is no pre-existing research on the link between accent and intelligibility. Therefore, you decide to develop an exploratory research design to explore this issue.

Step 1 of exploratory research: Problem identification

The first step is narrowing down the problem and determining if using an exploratory study is an ideal course of action.

You notice that there is no difference in intelligibility between individuals that speak English with a foreign accent and those with a native accent. Also, you realize that trying to eliminate a student’s accent is not suitable because it is part of their identity. Unfortunately, all current teaching approaches focus on accent reduction.

Step 2 of exploratory research: Hypothesize a solution

The next step is establishing a solution to the challenge you are investigating. This involves articulating a hypothetical statement that will guide your study.

You anticipate that foreign English students would benefit from focusing on promoting intelligibility instead of reducing their accent. You think that it would be wiser to have an oral proficiency technique that echoes this.

Step 3 of exploratory research: Methodology design

This is where you conceptualize your data collection and analysis techniques and use them to develop a research design.

You choose to conduct formal interviews with other English teachers. You design interview questions that focus on issues to do with training oral proficiency. You ensure that the questions focus on the link between accent and intelligibility.

Step 4 of exploratory research: Data collection and analysis

Now you collect and analyze your data from the third step. Next, you can decide if your pilot results support your hypothesis. This research technique allows you to change your hypothesis depending on your findings.

Because of the interview analysis, you conclude that other teachers have similar thoughts as your hypothesis.

Step 5 of exploratory research: Avenues for future research

At this stage, you can determine if you would like to pursue the topic further. If you choose to do so, you will need to switch to another research design, like quantitative research with a larger sample size. Note that exploratory research does not usually give conclusive or generalizable results.

Your pilot outcomes prove your expectations to be right. However, you decide to pursue the study further with a more extensive study. So, you choose an experiment where subjects listen to audio samples of non-English speakers with foreign accents in different degrees. Ask the subjects to note mistakes in the transcript and use the data to determine if your hypothesis is correct.

Exploratory vs. explanatory research

Exploratory research explores research questions that have not been studied extensively in the past. The preliminary outcomes form the foundation for future explorations of the subject. In contrast, explanatory research questions focus on the ‘whys’ and ‘hows’.

Advantages vs. disadvantages

Here are the pros and cons of exploratory research:

What is the main purpose of explanatory research?

This form of research seeks to explore a topic that has not been previously studied in-depth. Its results form the foundation for further studies.

What is the value of exploratory research?

It is easy to conduct and gives more insight into an unexplored issue. It guides further studies on the subject.

What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is a study methodology that explores an issue that has not been extensively studied in the past or a new topic or subject.

How is exploratory research conducted?

It features five steps: problem identification, hypothesizing, research design, data collection and analysis, and further research.

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• Exploratory Research: What are its Method & Examples?

Research is a continuous process that needs improvement as time goes by, and as such is non-exhaustive. Although, a lot of researchers working on novel projects, most researchers work on existing theories or formulations and build on them.

Researchers may decide to work on a problem that has not been studied very clearly to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improving the final research design. This type of research is what is called exploratory research. 

What is Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not been studied or thoroughly investigated in the past . Exploratory type of research is usually conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but usually doesn’t lead to a conclusive result. 

Researchers use exploratory research when trying to gain familiarity with an existing phenomenon and acquire new insight into it to form a more precise problem. It begins based on a general idea and the outcomes of the research are used to find out related issues with the topic of the research.

In exploratory research, the process of the research varies according to the finding of new data or insight. Also referred to as interpretative research or grounded theory approach, the outcomes of this research provide answers to questions like what, how and why. 

Characteristics of Exploratory Research 

• Exploratory research is inexpensive, highly interactive and open-ended in nature.
• There is usually no prior relevant information available from past researchers.
• It has no predefined structure.
• It answers questions like how and why aiding the researcher to acquire more information about the research.
• The absence of relevant information from past research means the researcher will spend a lot of time studying materials in detail. Therefore, spending so much time conducting exploratory research.
• Since there is no standard for carrying out exploratory research, it is usually flexible and scattered.
• There must a few theories which can verify your outcome.
• Researchers cannot form a conclusion based on exploratory research.
• The research problem must be important and valuable
• Exploratory research mostly deals with qualitative data.

Exploratory Research Methods

There are several exploratory research methods available for data gathering and research. However, exploratory research has been classified into two main methods, namely the primary and secondary research methods . The process of conducting research tends to be more difficult when dealing with a problem that hasn’t been deeply investigated before.

Primary Research Methods

In primary research methods , data is collected directly from the subject of investigation. The subject, in this case, maybe a group of people or an individual. 

It doesn’t matter whether the data is collected by the researcher himself or through a third party, the main purpose of the research should be fulfilled. The purpose of conducting this research is to collect information about the problem which requires in-depth analysis.

Some of the primary research methods used in exploratory research include:

• Observations

In this primary research method, the researcher does not come in close contact with the subject. Rather, the subject is being watched from afar. Subject observation can be done in two ways.

The first is that the subject is aware that he/she is being observed while the second way is that the subject is not aware of it. The latter method is said to gather fairer data because the subject may behave differently when he/she is aware that (s)he is being watched. 

Surveys are used to collect data from a predefined subject(s). It can be used collected to study trends, opinions, and behaviour of a group of people.

Online form builders like Formplus have made it easier to conduct surveys online and reach diverse demography of participants from all over the world. Although, rarely in use these days, researchers can also conduct offline surveys. 

Although more stressful and time-consuming than others, the interview technique is the best in terms of collecting detailed and correct data. Interviews can be conducted in person, via phone call or video call.

Interviews can also be recorded by the researcher in case he/she needs to go back to it and confirm specific information. 

• Focus Groups

Focus group is often used by researchers when trying to collect data from a group of people with similar characteristics. The research can be done using any of the three methods explained above.

For example, a focus group of fresh graduates may be investigated on how they spend their time. 

Secondary Research Methods 

Secondary research method uses existing resources on the subject under study. Existing sources like newspapers, magazines, articles, papers, etc. are what researchers conduct for exploratory research. 

All the resources used must be cited in publications. Some of the secondary research methods used in exploratory research include:

Literature research is the process of conducting old resources like publications, textbooks, articles, magazines, etc. All this information can be gathered in both sift copy and hard copy documents.

For example, an undergraduate student conducting his/her final project research will need to conduct textbooks, publications, papers, articles, etc. 

• Online Sources

With the advent of technology, this research has gained much popularity among millennials. Online research sources are the cheapest and easiest method of research.

With access to the internet and a personal computer or mobile phone, a researcher can browse through as many resources as possible. They can also be downloaded for further use in the future. 

The setback of this method is the difficulty of combing through the many online resources to find genuine information. Researchers face the possibility of ending up with incorrect data because false information may be difficult to identify. 

A researcher might find relevant information on the problem under study by studying existing cases. For example, a mathematician trying to formulate a model to solve the queuing problem in an airport may conduct existing research in similar areas.

A case study could be research that solved the queuing problem in a shopping mall. This research will be studied and modified to suit that of the airport queuing problem. 

A researcher may decide to get more creative by using informal sources like email newsletter subscription, RSS feeds, google alerts, google trends or even design a bot that combs through the large repository of data online.

How To Conduct Exploratory Research

Step 1 – identify the problem.

This is a common starting point for all types of research. Here, the researcher identifies the purpose of the research by answering the “what question”.For example, when investigating a crime scene, the FBI needs to first identify what happened. Was it theft, murder or a case of child abuse? 

Step 2 – Create the hypothesis

After identifying the problem, the researcher goes ahead to check whether there have been prior investigations regarding the subject matter. But when the researcher realizes that there are no previous investigations, he/she arrives at a hypothesis based on the questions obtained while identifying the problem.

If you are investigating a crime scene, an autopsy will be performed on the dead body to answer how he/she was killed. Questions like, Was he in a gang?, Fighting over a business deal? or very rich? will answer the question of why he was killed. 

With this information, the investigator can arrive at a hypothesis. 

Step 3 – Conduct further research 

To conduct further research, the researcher needs to first obtain relevant data that will assist in the research process. Some of the methods of collecting data include interviews, surveys, online sources, etc. 

Once the data has been collected, the researcher will continue the investigation through descriptive methods. This process uses qualitative data. 

Examples of Exploratory Research 

In this section, we shall be considering three examples of exploratory research and will be going through the research process as explained above. 

Exploratory Research Example on Murder Investigation

A fresh or inconclusive murder case will be investigated using exploratory research because it has not been investigated clearly in the past. To gain a better understanding of how exploratory research is used to conduct a murder investigation, let us review this popular crime movie titled Murder on the Orient Express .  

Adapted from Agatha Christie’s novel , we see in this movie that the first thing detective Hercule Poirot did was to identify the problem which is the murder of Ratchett. After that was the question of how he was killed. 

The how consists of the murder weapon, how it was used, the time he was murdered, etc. The last piece of information the detective needed to nail the culprit was the why. 

By discovering why Ratchett was murdered, the detective can easily arrive at a hypothesis on who the murderer is. In the search for why the detective used a primary research approach to collect relevant data that will aid the investigation. 

When an avalanche stops the Orient Express dead in its tracks, the world’s greatest detective–Hercule Poirot–arrives to interrogate all passengers and search for clues before the killer can strike again. After a series of interviews, the detective was able to arrive at a hypothesis on who the killer was. 

The results of any criminal investigation will remain a hypothesis until tried under a court which will either confirm or nullify the hypothesis. The evidence acquired during the investigation is what will assist the court in making a decision. 

Exploratory Research Example on Product Research

Organizations conduct two major research when working on a new product or service. The first one is conducted before developing the product while the second one is conducted after product development. 

Our focus will be on the exploratory research conducted after product development. For tech products, it is called the beta testing stage of product development. 

If a new feature is added to an existing app, for example, product researchers will want to investigate whether the feature will be well received among the users. If the feature added to the app is something that is already in existence, then the research is not exploratory. 

For example, if telegram adds a status feature to its app, the beta research stage of the app is not exploratory. This is because this feature is something that is already in existence, and they can easily get enough information from WhatsApp.

However, if it is a new feature like the Snapchat filters when they just came out, the research is explanatory. In this case, exploratory research is carried out using a focus group of beta testers. 

Trend Analysis

A good example of trend analysis research is studying the relationship between an increased rate of charity and crime rate in a community. Will giving food, clothes, etc. to the people in a community help decrease the rate at which people steal?

This exploratory research may be conducted through observations. A sample crime laden community will be given charity for a certain period, while the crime rate during this period will be observed. 

This kind of research is better carried out when the subject is not aware they are under observation. An alternative to this approach is using the case study method. 

Although this research may not have been done in this specific community, something similar may have been done in the past. If that is the case, the research can be easily carried out by investigating the case study to get relevant information. 

This will make the research process easier and a hypothesis easier to come by. 

How to use Formplus for Exploratory Surveys 

Start creating exploratory surveys with Formplus in three easy steps.

Step 1: Register or Sign up

• Visit www.formpl.us on your desktop or mobile device.
• Sign up through your Email, Google or Facebook in less than 30 seconds.

Step 2: Create Your Exploratory Survey

We will be creating a product research exploratory survey in this guide. Consider a software company that just added some new features to their app. The app is currently in the beta testing stage and they are taking an exploratory survey to get feedback from the beta testers.

Radio Choice Multiple Choice Question

• Click on the Choice Options section of the form builder menu.
• Create Radio multiple choice questions by clicking on the radio tab.
• Edit the question with your preferred stem and choice options.

Open-Ended Question

• Click on the Inputs section of the form builder menu.
• Create a short text open-ended question by clicking on the Short Text tab.

• Edit the label and placeholder text as preferred.

Checkbox Multiple Choice Question

• Create a checkbox multiple choice question by clicking on the radio tab.

Matrix Rating Multiple Choice Question

• Click on the Ratings section of the form builder menu.
• Create a matrix rating by clicking on the Matrix tab.
• Edit the table as preferred.

• Save your exploratory survey.

You can also add more questions as preferred. 

Step 3: Customise and Share

This is the final stage where you customise your form and start sharing with respondents.

Feel free to customise your forms as you please. You can also add logic in the settings before sharing.

• Copy the link or click on the “Preview Form” button to see how your form looks like.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

• Exploratory research is inexpensive to perform, especially when using the second method for research.
• Exploratory does not have a standard process and as such is very flexible.
• Information gathered from exploratory research is very useful as it helps lay the foundation for future research.
• It gives researchers more insight into the problem under study.
• Researchers don’t have to waste time conducting irrelevant research when using an exploratory approach. It helps the researcher if the topic is worth investigating at an early stage.

Disadvantages of Exploratory Research

• It produces an inconclusive result.
• Exploratory research provides qualitative data, which may be difficult to interpret. The interpretation of qualitative data may be bias and/or judgemental.
• Many of the data collected through secondary sources may be old and outdated.
• If collected through online sources, the researcher may be prone to collecting false information.
• Exploratory research mostly involves a smaller sample whose results may be incorrect for a larger population.

Conclusion  

Research is built on the incredible inquisitive and resourceful minds of researchers and the urge to solve problems. This stems from the child-like tendency to frequently ask questions like what, why, and how—a trademark of exploratory research. 

Exploratory research is one of the three main objectives of market research, with the other two being descriptive research and causal research. It is commonly used for various applied research projects. 

Applied research is often exploratory because there is a need for flexibility in approaching the problem. Also, there are often data limitations and a need to decide within a short period. 

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How to write an exploratory essay [Updated 2023]

Unlike other types of essays, the exploratory essay does not present a specific argument or support a claim with evidence. Instead, an exploratory essay allows a writer to "explore" a topic and consider tentative conclusions about it. This article covers what you need to know to write a successful exploratory essay.

What is an exploratory essay?

An exploratory essay considers a topic or problem and explores possible solutions. This type of paper also sometimes includes background about how you have approached the topic, as well as information about your research process.

Whereas other types of essays take a concrete stance on an issue and offer extensive support for that stance, the exploratory essay covers how you arrived at an idea and what research materials and methods you used to explore it.

For example, an argumentative essay on expanding public transportation might argue that increasing public transit options improves citizens' quality of life. However, an exploratory essay would provide context for the issue and discuss what data and research you gathered to consider the problem.

What to include in an exploratory essay

Importantly, an exploratory essay does not reach a specific conclusion about a topic. Rather, it explores multiple conclusions and possibilities. So, for the above example, your exploratory essay might include several viewpoints about public transit, including research from urban planners, transportation advocates, and other experts.

Finally, an exploratory essay will include some reflection on your own research and writing process. You might be asked to draw some conclusions about how you could tackle your topic in an argumentative essay or you might reflect on what sources or pieces of evidence were most helpful as you were exploring the topic.

Ultimately, the primary goal of an exploratory essay is to make an inquiry about a topic or problem, investigate the context, and address possible solutions.

What to expect in an exploratory essay assignment

This section discusses what you can expect in an exploratory essay assignment, in terms of length, style, and sources. Instructors may also provide you with an exploratory essay example or an assignment rubric to help you determine if your essay meets the appropriate guidelines .

The expected length of an exploratory essay varies depending on the topic, course subject, and course level. For instance, an exploratory essay assigned in an upper-level sociology course will likely be longer than a similar assignment in an introductory course.

Like other essay types, exploratory essays typically include at least five paragraphs, but most range from a few pages to the length of a full research paper .

While exploratory essays will generally follow academic style guidelines, they differ from other essays because they tend to utilize a more reflective, personal tone. This doesn't mean that you can cast off academic style rules, however.

Rather, think of an exploratory essay as a venue for presenting your topic and methods to a sympathetic and intelligent audience of fellow researchers. Most importantly, make sure that your writing is clear, correct, and concise.

As an exploration of your approach to a topic, an exploratory essay will necessarily incorporate research material. As a result, you should expect to include a bibliography or references page with your essay. This page will list both the sources that you cite in your essay, as well as any sources that you may have consulted during your research process.

The citation style of your essay's bibliography will vary based on the subject of the course. For example, an exploratory essay for a sociology class will probably adhere to APA style , while an essay in a history class might use Chicago style .

Exploratory essay outline and format

An exploratory essay utilizes the same basic structure that you'll find in other essays. It includes an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction sets up the context for your topic, addresses why that topic is worthy of study, and states your primary research question(s).

The body paragraphs cover the research that you've conducted and often include overviews of the sources that you've consulted. The conclusion returns to your research question and considers possible solutions.

• Introduction

The introduction of an exploratory essay functions as an overview. In this section, you should provide context for your topic, explain why the topic is important, and state your research question:

• Context includes general information about the topic. This part of the introduction may also outline, or signpost, what the rest of the paper will cover.
• Topic importance helps readers "buy in" to your research. A few sentences that address the question, "so what?" will enable you to situate your research within an ongoing debate.
• The last part of of your introduction should clearly state your research question. It's okay to have more than one, depending on the assignment.

If you were writing an exploratory essay on public transportation, you might start by briefly introducing the recent history of public transit debates. Next, you could explain that public transportation research is important because it has a concrete impact on our daily lives. Finally, you might end your introduction by articulating your primary research questions.

While some individuals may choose not to utilize public transportation, decisions to expand or alter public transit systems affect the lives of all. As a result of my preliminary research, I became interested in exploring whether public transportation systems improve citizens' quality of life. In particular, does public transit only improve conditions for those who regularly use these systems? Or, do improvements in public transportation positively impact the quality of life for all individuals within a given city or region? The remainder of this essay explores the research around these questions and considers some possible conclusions.

Body paragraphs

The body paragraphs of an exploratory essay discuss the research process that you used to explore your topic. This section highlights the sources that you found most useful and explains why they are important to the debate.

You might also use the body paragraphs to address how individual resources changed your thinking about your topic. Most exploratory essays will have several body paragraphs.

One source that was especially useful to my research was a 2016 study by Richard J. Lee and Ipek N. Sener that considers the intersections between transportation planning and quality of life . They argue that, while planners have consistently addressed physical health and well-being in transportation plans, they have not necessarily factored in how mental and social health contributes to quality of life. Put differently, transportation planning has traditionally utilized a limited definition of quality of life and this has necessarily impacted data on the relationship between public transit and quality of life. This resource helped me to broaden my conception of quality of life to include all aspects of human health. It also enabled me to better understand the stakeholders involved in transportation decisions.

Your conclusion should return to the research question stated in your introduction. What are some possible solutions to your questions, based on the sources that you highlighted in your essay? While you shouldn't include new information in your conclusion, you can discuss additional questions that arose as you were conducting your research.

In my introduction, I asked whether public transit improves quality of life for all, not simply for users of public transportation. My research demonstrates that there are strong connections between public transportation and quality of life, but that researchers differ as to how quality of life is defined. Many conclude that public transit improves citizens' lives, but it is still not clear how public transit decisions affect non-users, since few studies have focused on this distinct group. As a result, I believe that more research is needed to answer the research questions that I posed above.

Frequently Asked Questions about exploratory essays

You should begin an exploratory essay by introducing the context for your topic, explaining the topic's importance, and outlining your original research question.

Like other types of essays, the exploratory essay has three primary parts:

Although an exploratory essay does not make a specific argument, your research question technically serves as your thesis.

Yes, you can use "I" throughout your paper. An exploratory essay is meant to explore your own research process, so a first-person perspective is appropriate.

You should end your exploratory essay with a succinct conclusion that returns to your research question and considers possible answers. You can also end by highlighting further questions you may have about your research.

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This resource will help you with exploratory/inquiry essay assignments.

Exploratory essays are very different from argumentative essays. In fact, an exploratory essay is likely different from any other essay you’ve written. Instead of writing to convince an audience of the validity of a thesis, you will be writing to find out about a problem and perhaps to form some preliminary conclusions about how it might be solved.

But there is another aspect the exploratory genre that is equally important. An exploratory essay is, in essence, a retrospective of your writing and thinking process as you work through a problem. It describes when, how, and why you completed certain types of research. This kind of writing is about how you work through problems that require writing and research. You will have to be introspective and think about your thinking process in order for your essay to turn out well.

Very roughly, then, your exploratory essay may follow this sort of structure:

Introduction

The introduction should outline the problem you explored and why it’s important. In addition, you should briefly discuss 1) some of the problem’s possible causes; 2) the institutions and people involved with the problem; 3) some of the possible solutions to the problem. A brief overview of the types of sources you researched during your inquiry.

Body Paragraphs

Body paragraphs should discuss the inquiry process you followed to research your problem. These paragraphs should include the following:

• Introduction of source (title, author, type of media, publisher, publication date, etc.) and why you chose to use it in your exploration
• Important information you found in the source regarding your problem
• Why the information is important and dependable in relation to the problem
• Some personal introspection on how the source helped you, allowed you to think differently about the problem, or even fell short of your expectations and led you in a new direction in your research, which forms a transition into your next source.

The conclusion should restate the problem you explored, outline some of its possible causes, review the institutions and people involved, and highlight some possible solutions. If you still have any questions about the problem (and it’s ok to have some), you will discuss them here. Talk about why you think you still have questions regarding the problem you explored, where you might look to answer these questions, and what other forms of research you would have to do.

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• Exploratory Research | Definition, Guide, & Examples

Exploratory Research | Definition, Guide, & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on 20 January 2023.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that investigates topics and research questions that have not previously been studied in depth.

Exploratory research is often qualitative in nature. However, a study with a large sample conducted in an exploratory manner can be quantitative as well. It is also often referred to as interpretive research or a grounded theory approach due to its flexible and open-ended nature.

Table of contents

When to use exploratory research, exploratory research questions, exploratory research data collection, step-by-step example of exploratory research, exploratory vs explanatory research, advantages and disadvantages of exploratory research, frequently asked questions about exploratory research.

Exploratory research is often used when the issue you’re studying is new or when the data collection process is challenging for some reason.

You can use this type of research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

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Exploratory research questions are designed to help you understand more about a particular topic of interest. They can help you connect ideas to understand the groundwork of your analysis without adding any preconceived notions or assumptions yet.

Here are some examples:

• What effect does using a digital notebook have on the attention span of primary schoolers?
• What factors influence mental health in undergraduates?
• What outcomes are associated with an authoritative parenting style?
• In what ways does the presence of a non-native accent affect intelligibility?
• How can the use of a grocery delivery service reduce food waste in single-person households?

Collecting information on a previously unexplored topic can be challenging. Exploratory research can help you narrow down your topic and formulate a clear hypothesis , as well as giving you the ‘lay of the land’ on your topic.

Data collection using exploratory research is often divided into primary and secondary research methods, with data analysis following the same model.

Primary research

In primary research, your data is collected directly from primary sources : your participants. There is a variety of ways to collect primary data.

Some examples include:

• Survey methodology: Sending a survey out to the student body asking them if they would eat vegan meals
• Focus groups: Compiling groups of 8–10 students and discussing what they think of vegan options for dining hall food
• Interviews: Interviewing students entering and exiting the dining hall, asking if they would eat vegan meals

Secondary research

In secondary research, your data is collected from preexisting primary research, such as experiments or surveys.

Some other examples include:

• Case studies : Health of an all-vegan diet
• Literature reviews : Preexisting research about students’ eating habits and how they have changed over time
• Online polls, surveys, blog posts, or interviews; social media: Have other universities done something similar?

For some subjects, it’s possible to use large- n government data, such as the decennial census or yearly American Community Survey (ACS) open-source data.

How you proceed with your exploratory research design depends on the research method you choose to collect your data. In most cases, you will follow five steps.

We’ll walk you through the steps using the following example.

Therefore, you would like to focus on improving intelligibility instead of reducing the learner’s accent.

Step 1: Identify your problem

The first step in conducting exploratory research is identifying what the problem is and whether this type of research is the right avenue for you to pursue. Remember that exploratory research is most advantageous when you are investigating a previously unexplored problem.

Step 2: Hypothesise a solution

The next step is to come up with a solution to the problem you’re investigating. Formulate a hypothetical statement to guide your research.

Step 3. Design your methodology

Next, conceptualise your data collection and data analysis methods and write them up in a research design.

Step 4: Collect and analyse data

Next, you proceed with collecting and analysing your data so you can determine whether your preliminary results are in line with your hypothesis.

In most types of research, you should formulate your hypotheses a priori and refrain from changing them due to the increased risk of Type I errors and data integrity issues. However, in exploratory research, you are allowed to change your hypothesis based on your findings, since you are exploring a previously unexplained phenomenon that could have many explanations.

Step 5: Avenues for future research

Decide if you would like to continue studying your topic. If so, it is likely that you will need to change to another type of research. As exploratory research is often qualitative in nature, you may need to conduct quantitative research with a larger sample size to achieve more generalisable results.

It can be easy to confuse exploratory research with explanatory research. To understand the relationship, it can help to remember that exploratory research lays the groundwork for later explanatory research.

Exploratory research investigates research questions that have not been studied in depth. The preliminary results often lay the groundwork for future analysis.

Explanatory research questions tend to start with ‘why’ or ‘how’, and the goal is to explain why or how a previously studied phenomenon takes place.

Like any other research design , exploratory research has its trade-offs: it provides a unique set of benefits but also comes with downsides.

• It can be very helpful in narrowing down a challenging or nebulous problem that has not been previously studied.
• It can serve as a great guide for future research, whether your own or another researcher’s. With new and challenging research problems, adding to the body of research in the early stages can be very fulfilling.
• It is very flexible, cost-effective, and open-ended. You are free to proceed however you think is best.

Disadvantages

• It usually lacks conclusive results, and results can be biased or subjective due to a lack of preexisting knowledge on your topic.
• It’s typically not externally valid and generalisable, and it suffers from many of the challenges of qualitative research .
• Since you are not operating within an existing research paradigm, this type of research can be very labour-intensive.

Exploratory research is a methodology approach that explores research questions that have not previously been studied in depth. It is often used when the issue you’re studying is new, or the data collection process is challenging in some way.

You can use exploratory research if you have a general idea or a specific question that you want to study but there is no preexisting knowledge or paradigm with which to study it.

Exploratory research explores the main aspects of a new or barely researched question.

Explanatory research explains the causes and effects of an already widely researched question.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

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Exploratory Research – Guide, Definition & Examples

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Exploratory research deals with undiscovered or unfamiliar issues, frequently making up the foundation for further structured research. Within research methodology , it can be identified by its open-ended and flexible approach with the goal to explore new horizons, create ideas, or bringing clarity to debatable topics. Exploratory research does not test hypotheses but rather asks questions and collects first data, where further valuable and more in-depth investigations can be conducted.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Exploratory Research – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Exploratory research
• 3 The usage of exploratory research
• 4 Exploratory research questions
• 5 Exploratory research data collection
• 6 The five steps of exploratory research with examples
• 7 Exploratory vs. explanatory research
• 8 Advantages vs. disadvantages

Exploratory Research – In a Nutshell

• Exploratory research investigates issues that don’t have thorough studies yet.
• It provides an onset of an existing problem to explore further.
• It is usually structured as qualitative research and refers to a primary source.

Definition: Exploratory research

Exploratory research is a study methodology that explores an issue that has not been extensively studied in the past or a new topic or subject. It explores specific elements of an existing phenomenon and gets more insight into it.

Your university library is considering adding an alternative medicine section to it. However, the institution is hesitant because of concerns that the decision may cause backlash from students, which may lead to unrest in the school. Therefore, the plan will only proceed if there is concrete proof that the reception from the students will be positive.

The usage of exploratory research

This method is often applied when the study issue is novel or when the data collection process for the study issue is challenging. You can also use this method if you have a general notion about a subject or a specific question that you would like to explore, but there is no existing knowledge with which to explore it.

Exploratory research questions

Academic studies usually begin with research questions. These questions are usually constructed to assist you to understand more about a particular subject. Therefore, they help you put together notions to master the footing of your investigation without adding any predetermined philosophies or assumptions.

• What elements influence drug use in university students?
• What effect does using digital learning tools have on the attention span of undergraduates?
• What outcomes are connected with the gentle parenting style?

Exploratory research data collection

Data collection in this form of research is challenging because it involves working with a previously unexplored subject. However, exploratory research allows you to narrow down your subject of interest and come up with a distinct premise and problem statement.

You can use primary and secondary research questions to gather data. Primary research collects data directly from primary sources. Some examples of these sources are:

• Focus groups

On the other hand, secondary research collects data from existing materials. Examples of secondary research data collection techniques are:

• Case studies
• Literature review
• Online polls

The five steps of exploratory research with examples

The way you conduct this research usually depends on your chosen data collection method. However, this research features five standard steps.

You teach English to non-native speakers. Your current oral proficiency technique focuses on reducing your student’s foreign accent. However, you suspect that a foreign accent does not affect intelligibility. So, you want to shift your attention to increasing intelligibility. Nevertheless, there is no pre-existing research on the link between accent and intelligibility. Therefore, you decide to develop an exploratory research design to explore this issue.

Step 1 of exploratory research: Problem identification

The first step is narrowing down the problem and determining if using an exploratory study is an ideal course of action.

You notice that there is no difference in intelligibility between individuals that speak English with a foreign accent and those with a native accent. Also, you realize that trying to eliminate a student’s accent is not suitable because it is part of their identity. Unfortunately, all current teaching approaches focus on accent reduction.

Step 2 of exploratory research: Hypothesize a solution

The next step is establishing a solution to the challenge you are investigating. This involves articulating a hypothetical statement that will guide your study.

You anticipate that foreign English students would benefit from focusing on promoting intelligibility instead of reducing their accent. You think that it would be wiser to have an oral proficiency technique that echoes this.

Step 3 of exploratory research: Methodology design

This is where you conceptualize your data collection and analysis techniques and use them to develop a research design.

You choose to conduct formal interviews with other English teachers. You design interview questions that focus on issues to do with training oral proficiency. You ensure that the questions focus on the link between accent and intelligibility.

Step 4 of exploratory research: Data collection and analysis

Now you collect and analyze your data from the third step. Next, you can decide if your pilot results support your hypothesis. This research technique allows you to change your hypothesis depending on your findings.

Because of the interview analysis, you conclude that other teachers have similar thoughts as your hypothesis.

Step 5 of exploratory research: Avenues for future research

At this stage, you can determine if you would like to pursue the topic further. If you choose to do so, you will need to switch to another research design, like quantitative research with a larger sample size. Note that exploratory research does not usually give conclusive or generalizable results.

Your pilot outcomes prove your expectations to be right. However, you decide to pursue the study further with a more extensive study. So, you choose an experiment where subjects listen to audio samples of non-English speakers with foreign accents in different degrees. Ask the subjects to note mistakes in the transcript and use the data to determine if your hypothesis is correct.

Exploratory vs. explanatory research

Exploratory research explores research questions that have not been studied extensively in the past. The preliminary outcomes form the foundation for future explorations of the subject. In contrast, explanatory research questions focus on the ‘whys’ and ‘hows’.

Advantages vs. disadvantages

Here are the pros and cons of exploratory research:

What is the main purpose of explanatory research?

This form of research seeks to explore a topic that has not been previously studied in-depth. Its results form the foundation for further studies.

What is the value of exploratory research?

It is easy to conduct and gives more insight into an unexplored issue. It guides further studies on the subject.

What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is a study methodology that explores an issue that has not been extensively studied in the past or a new topic or subject.

How is exploratory research conducted?

It features five steps: problem identification, hypothesizing, research design, data collection and analysis, and further research.

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Exploratory Research

Obscurity can eat up a person’s mind; the lack of clarity can be maddening to those who have a working brain. When one can’t think straight or form a coherent thought, they start to feel as though they’ve lost touch with reality. To battle this phenomenon, people find a focus so that they can build something out of a little fact. When things become too vague, the best thing would be to conduct some sort of case analysis . It would help if you searched for something that can give you a clue to where the problem leads, how the complication unfolds, and what other factors can lead to the issue. To fix things, like this, you might need to conduct exploratory research.

Before you can conduct exploratory research, you first need to understand what it is. Exploratory research defines itself as the process of investigating an unclear and improperly set problem. This research methodology is a way to recognize an existing problem. This study is useful when the problem is at its early phase. It can give slight clarifications but will not provide conclusive results. Researchers use this study to lock on specific issues. Since this is exploratory, researchers are required to be flexible and able to divert the path of the research based on the new data gathered from this research.

Help and Handicap

Exploratory research is a critical research framework applicable to any research project . This is because it lets the researcher find a clear path to solve a given problem. It enables the researcher to explore his ideas to help him find suitable ways to formulate and answer research questions. This builds a firm understanding of the subject without impulsively making conclusions. This type of research still does come with its own set of advantages and disadvantages, though.

One thing that makes this research favorable is that it lets the researcher adapt to any changes in the data gathered. It’s easy for researchers to be flexible with this study. It also provides a reliable insight into a phenomenon that is worth all the time, effort, or cost spent. The most significant advantage is that it can lead to other possibilities. Whether that is finding new details to solve the problem or further exploratory data analysis.

Disadvantage

The biggest downside to exploratory research is that it can turn into qualitative research . The data of which can be interpreted with bias. This research also provides inconclusive data, which can still lead to an unclear study. This research design usually makes use of a small sample that cannot accurately describe the whole demographic. Also, when using secondary research to collect data for this study, the information might not be up to date and can render itself useless.

10+ Exploratory Research Examples

If you are looking for answers to what, why, and how questions regarding a particular issue, you might need to conduct exploratory research. This research stirs the curiosity of the researcher and dives him to look for ways to solve a problem. If you need more information about this research action plan , here are 10+ exploratory research examples you can look into.

1. Exploratory Research Workshops Example

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2. Exploratory Research Design Example

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 3. Exploratory Studies Social Science Research Example

4. Exploratory Research Project Example

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5. Fundamental and Exploratory Research Example

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6. Multiple Testing for Exploratory Researh Example

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7. Exploratory Social Science Research Example

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8. Exploratory Museum Studies Research Example

9. Exploratory Small Enterprises Research Example

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10. Exploratory Research Application Form Example

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11. Exploratory Research Essay Template

Wonderful Ways

Exploratory research is a very versatile research design. It can help you find faults in your case study or even your marketing strategies . This research can lead to further investigations like qualitative and descriptive research. But researching something would be really difficult if you have nowhere to start. There are many methods to accomplish this type of research; here are some of them.

1. Focus Group

A standard method in exploratory research is the use of focus groups. Having this in your research plan is strongly advised. This method selects 8-12 participants to answer questions and give insight into the topic studied. This strategy requires the participants to have similar backgrounds and experiences for the research results to be valid. This method provides useful information about the problem.

2. Polls / Survey

When collecting data regarding trends and opinions, the best methods for that are polls, survey questions, and questionnaires. The digital age has even helped in the advancement of this method through online surveys. That said, this method is considerably low cost. Researchers can also use this method to collect data from experts and specialists that know their way around the field and topic.

3. Interview

When gathering information, nothing beats in-person interviews. This way, you get to interact with your target market and research participants on a personal level. You get to gather information straight from the source. You can be sure that the facts you use for data analysis are reliable and valid. Interviewing experts can also provide you something not everyone can come across.

4. Secondary research

Exploratory research can also make use of secondary research. Documentary research can be a form of this method. By checking out previously conducted research, journals, and news articles, you can be sure that the data has been proven correct.

There is a quote that goes, “curiosity killed the cat.” What most people don’t know is that it is followed by, “but satisfaction brought it back.” This means that new things may be risky and dangerous, but when you get to prove something, you can get the satisfaction you deserve

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The potential of working hypotheses for deductive exploratory research

Mattia casula.

1 Department of Political and Social Sciences, University of Bologna, Strada Maggiore 45, 40125 Bologna, Italy

Nandhini Rangarajan

2 Texas State University, San Marcos, TX USA

Patricia Shields

While hypotheses frame explanatory studies and provide guidance for measurement and statistical tests, deductive, exploratory research does not have a framing device like the hypothesis. To this purpose, this article examines the landscape of deductive, exploratory research and offers the working hypothesis as a flexible, useful framework that can guide and bring coherence across the steps in the research process. The working hypothesis conceptual framework is introduced, placed in a philosophical context, defined, and applied to public administration and comparative public policy. Doing so, this article explains: the philosophical underpinning of exploratory, deductive research; how the working hypothesis informs the methodologies and evidence collection of deductive, explorative research; the nature of micro-conceptual frameworks for deductive exploratory research; and, how the working hypothesis informs data analysis when exploratory research is deductive.

Introduction

Exploratory research is generally considered to be inductive and qualitative (Stebbins 2001 ). Exploratory qualitative studies adopting an inductive approach do not lend themselves to a priori theorizing and building upon prior bodies of knowledge (Reiter 2013 ; Bryman 2004 as cited in Pearse 2019 ). Juxtaposed against quantitative studies that employ deductive confirmatory approaches, exploratory qualitative research is often criticized for lack of methodological rigor and tentativeness in results (Thomas and Magilvy 2011 ). This paper focuses on the neglected topic of deductive, exploratory research and proposes working hypotheses as a useful framework for these studies.

To emphasize that certain types of applied research lend themselves more easily to deductive approaches, to address the downsides of exploratory qualitative research, and to ensure qualitative rigor in exploratory research, a significant body of work on deductive qualitative approaches has emerged (see for example, Gilgun 2005 , 2015 ; Hyde 2000 ; Pearse 2019 ). According to Gilgun ( 2015 , p. 3) the use of conceptual frameworks derived from comprehensive reviews of literature and a priori theorizing were common practices in qualitative research prior to the publication of Glaser and Strauss’s ( 1967 ) The Discovery of Grounded Theory . Gilgun ( 2015 ) coined the terms Deductive Qualitative Analysis (DQA) to arrive at some sort of “middle-ground” such that the benefits of a priori theorizing (structure) and allowing room for new theory to emerge (flexibility) are reaped simultaneously. According to Gilgun ( 2015 , p. 14) “in DQA, the initial conceptual framework and hypotheses are preliminary. The purpose of DQA is to come up with a better theory than researchers had constructed at the outset (Gilgun 2005 , 2009 ). Indeed, the production of new, more useful hypotheses is the goal of DQA”.

DQA provides greater level of structure for both the experienced and novice qualitative researcher (see for example Pearse 2019 ; Gilgun 2005 ). According to Gilgun ( 2015 , p. 4) “conceptual frameworks are the sources of hypotheses and sensitizing concepts”. Sensitizing concepts frame the exploratory research process and guide the researcher’s data collection and reporting efforts. Pearse ( 2019 ) discusses the usefulness for deductive thematic analysis and pattern matching to help guide DQA in business research. Gilgun ( 2005 ) discusses the usefulness of DQA for family research.

Given these rationales for DQA in exploratory research, the overarching purpose of this paper is to contribute to that growing corpus of work on deductive qualitative research. This paper is specifically aimed at guiding novice researchers and student scholars to the working hypothesis as a useful a priori framing tool. The applicability of the working hypothesis as a tool that provides more structure during the design and implementation phases of exploratory research is discussed in detail. Examples of research projects in public administration that use the working hypothesis as a framing tool for deductive exploratory research are provided.

In the next section, we introduce the three types of research purposes. Second, we examine the nature of the exploratory research purpose. Third, we provide a definition of working hypothesis. Fourth, we explore the philosophical roots of methodology to see where exploratory research fits. Fifth, we connect the discussion to the dominant research approaches (quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods) to see where deductive exploratory research fits. Sixth, we examine the nature of theory and the role of the hypothesis in theory. We contrast formal hypotheses and working hypotheses. Seven, we provide examples of student and scholarly work that illustrates how working hypotheses are developed and operationalized. Lastly, this paper synthesizes previous discussion with concluding remarks.

Three types of research purposes

The literature identifies three basic types of research purposes—explanation, description and exploration (Babbie 2007 ; Adler and Clark 2008 ; Strydom 2013 ; Shields and Whetsell 2017 ). Research purposes are similar to research questions; however, they focus on project goals or aims instead of questions.

Explanatory research answers the “why” question (Babbie 2007 , pp. 89–90), by explaining “why things are the way they are”, and by looking “for causes and reasons” (Adler and Clark 2008 , p. 14). Explanatory research is closely tied to hypothesis testing. Theory is tested using deductive reasoning, which goes from the general to the specific (Hyde 2000 , p. 83). Hypotheses provide a frame for explanatory research connecting the research purpose to other parts of the research process (variable construction, choice of data, statistical tests). They help provide alignment or coherence across stages in the research process and provide ways to critique the strengths and weakness of the study. For example, were the hypotheses grounded in the appropriate arguments and evidence in the literature? Are the concepts imbedded in the hypotheses appropriately measured? Was the best statistical test used? When the analysis is complete (hypothesis is tested), the results generally answer the research question (the evidence supported or failed to support the hypothesis) (Shields and Rangarajan 2013 ).

Descriptive research addresses the “What” question and is not primarily concerned with causes (Strydom 2013 ; Shields and Tajalli 2006 ). It lies at the “midpoint of the knowledge continuum” (Grinnell 2001 , p. 248) between exploration and explanation. Descriptive research is used in both quantitative and qualitative research. A field researcher might want to “have a more highly developed idea of social phenomena” (Strydom 2013 , p. 154) and develop thick descriptions using inductive logic. In science, categorization and classification systems such as the periodic table of chemistry or the taxonomies of biology inform descriptive research. These baseline classification systems are a type of theorizing and allow researchers to answer questions like “what kind” of plants and animals inhabit a forest. The answer to this question would usually be displayed in graphs and frequency distributions. This is also the data presentation system used in the social sciences (Ritchie and Lewis 2003 ; Strydom 2013 ). For example, if a scholar asked, what are the needs of homeless people? A quantitative approach would include a survey that incorporated a “needs” classification system (preferably based on a literature review). The data would be displayed as frequency distributions or as charts. Description can also be guided by inductive reasoning, which draws “inferences from specific observable phenomena to general rules or knowledge expansion” (Worster 2013 , p. 448). Theory and hypotheses are generated using inductive reasoning, which begins with data and the intention of making sense of it by theorizing. Inductive descriptive approaches would use a qualitative, naturalistic design (open ended interview questions with the homeless population). The data could provide a thick description of the homeless context. For deductive descriptive research, categories, serve a purpose similar to hypotheses for explanatory research. If developed with thought and a connection to the literature, categories can serve as a framework that inform measurement, link to data collection mechanisms and to data analysis. Like hypotheses they can provide horizontal coherence across the steps in the research process.

Table  1 demonstrated these connections for deductive, descriptive and explanatory research. The arrow at the top emphasizes the horizontal or across the research process view we emphasize. This article makes the case that the working hypothesis can serve the same purpose as the hypothesis for deductive, explanatory research and categories for deductive descriptive research. The cells for exploratory research are filled in with question marks.

Table 1

Connecting research purpose and frameworks for deductive inquiry

The remainder of this paper focuses on exploratory research and the answers to questions found in the table:

• What is the philosophical underpinning of exploratory, deductive research?
• What is the Micro-conceptual framework for deductive exploratory research? [ As is clear from the article title we introduce the working hypothesis as the answer .]
• How does the working hypothesis inform the methodologies and evidence collection of deductive exploratory research?
• How does the working hypothesis inform data analysis of deductive exploratory research?

The nature of exploratory research purpose

Explorers enter the unknown to discover something new. The process can be fraught with struggle and surprises. Effective explorers creatively resolve unexpected problems. While we typically think of explorers as pioneers or mountain climbers, exploration is very much linked to the experience and intention of the explorer. Babies explore as they take their first steps. The exploratory purpose resonates with these insights. Exploratory research, like reconnaissance, is a type of inquiry that is in the preliminary or early stages (Babbie 2007 ). It is associated with discovery, creativity and serendipity (Stebbins 2001 ). But the person doing the discovery, also defines the activity or claims the act of exploration. It “typically occurs when a researcher examines a new interest or when the subject of study itself is relatively new” (Babbie 2007 , p. 88). Hence, exploration has an open character that emphasizes “flexibility, pragmatism, and the particular, biographically specific interests of an investigator” (Maanen et al. 2001 , p. v). These three purposes form a type of hierarchy. An area of inquiry is initially explored . This early work lays the ground for, description which in turn becomes the basis for explanation . Quantitative, explanatory studies dominate contemporary high impact journals (Twining et al. 2017 ).

Stebbins ( 2001 ) makes the point that exploration is often seen as something like a poor stepsister to confirmatory or hypothesis testing research. He has a problem with this because we live in a changing world and what is settled today will very likely be unsettled in the near future and in need of exploration. Further, exploratory research “generates initial insights into the nature of an issue and develops questions to be investigated by more extensive studies” (Marlow 2005 , p. 334). Exploration is widely applicable because all research topics were once “new.” Further, all research topics have the possibility of “innovation” or ongoing “newness”. Exploratory research may be appropriate to establish whether a phenomenon exists (Strydom 2013 ). The point here, of course, is that the exploratory purpose is far from trivial.

Stebbins’ Exploratory Research in the Social Sciences ( 2001 ), is the only book devoted to the nature of exploratory research as a form of social science inquiry. He views it as a “broad-ranging, purposive, systematic prearranged undertaking designed to maximize the discovery of generalizations leading to description and understanding of an area of social or psychological life” (p. 3). It is science conducted in a way distinct from confirmation. According to Stebbins ( 2001 , p. 6) the goal is discovery of potential generalizations, which can become future hypotheses and eventually theories that emerge from the data. He focuses on inductive logic (which stimulates creativity) and qualitative methods. He does not want exploratory research limited to the restrictive formulas and models he finds in confirmatory research. He links exploratory research to Glaser and Strauss’s ( 1967 ) flexible, immersive, Grounded Theory. Strydom’s ( 2013 ) analysis of contemporary social work research methods books echoes Stebbins’ ( 2001 ) position. Stebbins’s book is an important contribution, but it limits the potential scope of this flexible and versatile research purpose. If we accepted his conclusion, we would delete the “Exploratory” row from Table  1 .

Note that explanatory research can yield new questions, which lead to exploration. Inquiry is a process where inductive and deductive activities can occur simultaneously or in a back and forth manner, particularly as the literature is reviewed and the research design emerges. 1 Strict typologies such as explanation, description and exploration or inductive/deductive can obscures these larger connections and processes. We draw insight from Dewey’s ( 1896 ) vision of inquiry as depicted in his seminal “Reflex Arc” article. He notes that “stimulus” and “response” like other dualities (inductive/deductive) exist within a larger unifying system. Yet the terms have value. “We need not abandon terms like stimulus and response, so long as we remember that they are attached to events based upon their function in a wider dynamic context, one that includes interests and aims” (Hildebrand 2008 , p. 16). So too, in methodology typologies such as deductive/inductive capture useful distinctions with practical value and are widely used in the methodology literature.

We argue that there is a role for exploratory, deductive, and confirmatory research. We maintain all types of research logics and methods should be in the toolbox of exploratory research. First, as stated above, it makes no sense on its face to identify an extremely flexible purpose that is idiosyncratic to the researcher and then basically restrict its use to qualitative, inductive, non-confirmatory methods. Second, Stebbins’s ( 2001 ) work focused on social science ignoring the policy sciences. Exploratory research can be ideal for immediate practical problems faced by policy makers, who could find a framework of some kind useful. Third, deductive, exploratory research is more intentionally connected to previous research. Some kind of initial framing device is located or designed using the literature. This may be very important for new scholars who are developing research skills and exploring their field and profession. Stebbins’s insights are most pertinent for experienced scholars. Fourth, frameworks and deductive logic are useful for comparative work because some degree of consistency across cases is built into the design.

As we have seen, the hypotheses of explanatory and categories of descriptive research are the dominate frames of social science and policy science. We certainly concur that neither of these frames makes a lot of sense for exploratory research. They would tend to tie it down. We see the problem as a missing framework or missing way to frame deductive, exploratory research in the methodology literature. Inductive exploratory research would not work for many case studies that are trying to use evidence to make an argument. What exploratory deductive case studies need is a framework that incorporates flexibility. This is even more true for comparative case studies. A framework of this sort could be usefully applied to policy research (Casula 2020a ), particularly evaluative policy research, and applied research generally. We propose the Working Hypothesis as a flexible conceptual framework and as a useful tool for doing exploratory studies. It can be used as an evaluative criterion particularly for process evaluation and is useful for student research because students can develop theorizing skills using the literature.

Table  1 included a column specifying the philosophical basis for each research purpose. Shifting gears to the philosophical underpinning of methodology provides useful additional context for examination of deductive, exploratory research.

What is a working hypothesis

The working hypothesis is first and foremost a hypothesis or a statement of expectation that is tested in action. The term “working” suggest that these hypotheses are subject to change, are provisional and the possibility of finding contradictory evidence is real. In addition, a “working” hypothesis is active, it is a tool in an ongoing process of inquiry. If one begins with a research question, the working hypothesis could be viewed as a statement or group of statements that answer the question. It “works” to move purposeful inquiry forward. “Working” also implies some sort of community, mostly we work together in relationship to achieve some goal.

Working Hypothesis is a term found in earlier literature. Indeed, both pioneering pragmatists, John Dewey and George Herbert Mead use the term working hypothesis in important nineteenth century works. For both Dewey and Mead, the notion of a working hypothesis has a self-evident quality and it is applied in a big picture context. 2

Most notably, Dewey ( 1896 ), in one of his most pivotal early works (“Reflex Arc”), used “working hypothesis” to describe a key concept in psychology. “The idea of the reflex arc has upon the whole come nearer to meeting this demand for a general working hypothesis than any other single concept (Italics added)” (p. 357). The notion of a working hypothesis was developed more fully 42 years later, in Logic the Theory of Inquiry , where Dewey developed the notion of a working hypothesis that operated on a smaller scale. He defines working hypotheses as a “provisional, working means of advancing investigation” (Dewey 1938 , pp. 142). Dewey’s definition suggests that working hypotheses would be useful toward the beginning of a research project (e.g., exploratory research).

Mead ( 1899 ) used working hypothesis in a title of an American Journal of Sociology article “The Working Hypothesis and Social Reform” (italics added). He notes that a scientist’s foresight goes beyond testing a hypothesis.

Given its success, he may restate his world from this standpoint and get the basis for further investigation that again always takes the form of a problem. The solution of this problem is found over again in the possibility of fitting his hypothetical proposition into the whole within which it arises. And he must recognize that this statement is only a working hypothesis at the best, i.e., he knows that further investigation will show that the former statement of his world is only provisionally true, and must be false from the standpoint of a larger knowledge, as every partial truth is necessarily false over against the fuller knowledge which he will gain later (Mead 1899 , p. 370).

Cronbach ( 1975 ) developed a notion of working hypothesis consistent with inductive reasoning, but for him, the working hypothesis is a product or result of naturalistic inquiry. He makes the case that naturalistic inquiry is highly context dependent and therefore results or seeming generalizations that may come from a study and should be viewed as “working hypotheses”, which “are tentative both for the situation in which they first uncovered and for other situations” (as cited in Gobo 2008 , p. 196).

A quick Google scholar search using the term “working hypothesis” show that it is widely used in twentieth and twenty-first century science, particularly in titles. In these articles, the working hypothesis is treated as a conceptual tool that furthers investigation in its early or transitioning phases. We could find no explicit links to exploratory research. The exploratory nature of the problem is expressed implicitly. Terms such as “speculative” (Habib 2000 , p. 2391) or “rapidly evolving field” (Prater et al. 2007 , p. 1141) capture the exploratory nature of the study. The authors might describe how a topic is “new” or reference “change”. “As a working hypothesis, the picture is only new, however, in its interpretation” (Milnes 1974 , p. 1731). In a study of soil genesis, Arnold ( 1965 , p. 718) notes “Sequential models, formulated as working hypotheses, are subject to further investigation and change”. Any 2020 article dealing with COVID-19 and respiratory distress would be preliminary almost by definition (Ciceri et al. 2020 ).

Philosophical roots of methodology

According to Kaplan ( 1964 , p. 23) “the aim of methodology is to help us understand, in the broadest sense not the products of scientific inquiry but the process itself”. Methods contain philosophical principles that distinguish them from other “human enterprises and interests” (Kaplan 1964 , p. 23). Contemporary research methodology is generally classified as quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. Leading scholars of methodology have associated each with a philosophical underpinning—positivism (or post-positivism), interpretivism or constructivist and pragmatism, respectively (Guba 1987 ; Guba and Lincoln 1981 ; Schrag 1992 ; Stebbins 2001 ; Mackenzi and Knipe 2006 ; Atieno 2009 ; Levers 2013 ; Morgan 2007 ; O’Connor et al. 2008 ; Johnson and Onwuegbuzie 2004 ; Twining et al. 2017 ). This section summarizes how the literature often describes these philosophies and informs contemporary methodology and its literature.

Positivism and its more contemporary version, post-positivism, maintains an objectivist ontology or assumes an objective reality, which can be uncovered (Levers 2013 ; Twining et al. 2017 ). 3 Time and context free generalizations are possible and “real causes of social scientific outcomes can be determined reliably and validly (Johnson and Onwuegbunzie 2004 , p. 14). Further, “explanation of the social world is possible through a logical reduction of social phenomena to physical terms”. It uses an empiricist epistemology which “implies testability against observation, experimentation, or comparison” (Whetsell and Shields 2015 , pp. 420–421). Correspondence theory, a tenet of positivism, asserts that “to each concept there corresponds a set of operations involved in its scientific use” (Kaplan 1964 , p. 40).

The interpretivist, constructivists or post-modernist approach is a reaction to positivism. It uses a relativist ontology and a subjectivist epistemology (Levers 2013 ). In this world of multiple realities, context free generalities are impossible as is the separation of facts and values. Causality, explanation, prediction, experimentation depend on assumptions about the correspondence between concepts and reality, which in the absence of an objective reality is impossible. Empirical research can yield “contextualized emergent understanding rather than the creation of testable theoretical structures” (O’Connor et al. 2008 , p. 30). The distinctively different world views of positivist/post positivist and interpretivist philosophy is at the core of many controversies in methodology, social and policy science literature (Casula 2020b ).

With its focus on dissolving dualisms, pragmatism steps outside the objective/subjective debate. Instead, it asks, “what difference would it make to us if the statement were true” (Kaplan 1964 , p. 42). Its epistemology is connected to purposeful inquiry. Pragmatism has a “transformative, experimental notion of inquiry” anchored in pluralism and a focus on constructing conceptual and practical tools to resolve “problematic situations” (Shields 1998 ; Shields and Rangarajan 2013 ). Exploration and working hypotheses are most comfortably situated within the pragmatic philosophical perspective.

Research approaches

Empirical investigation relies on three types of methodology—quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods.

Quantitative methods

Quantitative methods uses deductive logic and formal hypotheses or models to explain, predict, and eventually establish causation (Hyde 2000 ; Kaplan 1964 ; Johnson and Onwuegbunzie 2004 ; Morgan 2007 ). 4 The correspondence between the conceptual and empirical world make measures possible. Measurement assigns numbers to objects, events or situations and allows for standardization and subtle discrimination. It also allows researchers to draw on the power of mathematics and statistics (Kaplan 1964 , pp. 172–174). Using the power of inferential statistics, quantitative research employs research designs, which eliminate competing hypotheses. It is high in external validity or the ability to generalize to the whole. The research results are relatively independent of the researcher (Johnson & Onwuegbunzie 2004 ).

Quantitative methods depend on the quality of measurement and a priori conceptualization, and adherence to the underlying assumptions of inferential statistics. Critics charge that hypotheses and frameworks needlessly constrain inquiry (Johnson and Onwuegbunzie 2004 , p. 19). Hypothesis testing quantitative methods support the explanatory purpose.

Qualitative methods

Qualitative researchers who embrace the post-modern, interpretivist view, 5 question everything about the nature of quantitative methods (Willis et al. 2007 ). Rejecting the possibility of objectivity, correspondence between ideas and measures, and the constraints of a priori theorizing they focus on “unique impressions and understandings of events rather than to generalize the findings” (Kolb 2012 , p. 85). Characteristics of traditional qualitative research include “induction, discovery, exploration, theory/hypothesis generation and the researcher as the primary ‘instrument’ of data collection” (Johnson and Onwuegbunzie 2004 , p. 18). It also concerns itself with forming “unique impressions and understandings of events rather than to generalize findings” (Kolb 2012 , p. 85). The data of qualitative methods are generated via interviews, direct observation, focus groups and analysis of written records or artifacts.

Qualitative methods provide for understanding and “description of people’s personal experiences of phenomena”. They enable descriptions of detailed “phenomena as they are situated and embedded in local contexts.” Researchers use naturalistic settings to “study dynamic processes” and explore how participants interpret experiences. Qualitative methods have an inherent flexibility, allowing researchers to respond to changes in the research setting. They are particularly good at narrowing to the particular and on the flipside have limited external validity (Johnson and Onwuegbunzie 2004 , p. 20). Instead of specifying a suitable sample size to draw conclusions, qualitative research uses the notion of saturation (Morse 1995 ).

Saturation is used in grounded theory—a widely used and respected form of qualitative research, and a well-known interpretivist qualitative research method. Introduced by Glaser and Strauss ( 1967 ), this “grounded on observation” (Patten and Newhart 2000 , p. 27) methodology, focuses on “the creation of emergent understanding” (O’Connor et al. 2008 , p. 30). It uses the Constant Comparative method, whereby researchers develop theory from data as they code and analyze at the same time. Data collection, coding and analysis along with theoretical sampling are systematically combined to generate theory (Kolb 2012 , p. 83). The qualitative methods discussed here support exploratory research.

A close look at the two philosophies and assumptions of quantitative and qualitative research suggests two contradictory world views. The literature has labeled these contradictory views the Incompatibility Theory, which sets up a quantitative versus qualitative tension similar to the seeming separation of art and science or fact and values (Smith 1983a , b ; Guba 1987 ; Smith and Heshusius 1986 ; Howe 1988 ). The incompatibility theory does not make sense in practice. Yin ( 1981 , 1992 , 2011 , 2017 ), a prominent case study scholar, showcases a deductive research methodology that crosses boundaries using both quantaitive and qualitative evidence when appropriate.

Mixed methods

Turning the “Incompatibility Theory” on its head, Mixed Methods research “combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches … for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration” (Johnson et al. 2007 , p. 123). It does this by partnering with philosophical pragmatism. 6 Pragmatism is productive because “it offers an immediate and useful middle position philosophically and methodologically; it offers a practical and outcome-oriented method of inquiry that is based on action and leads, iteratively, to further action and the elimination of doubt; it offers a method for selecting methodological mixes that can help researchers better answer many of their research questions” (Johnson and Onwuegbunzie 2004 , p. 17). What is theory for the pragmatist “any theoretical model is for the pragmatist, nothing more than a framework through which problems are perceived and subsequently organized ” (Hothersall 2019 , p. 5).

Brendel ( 2009 ) constructed a simple framework to capture the core elements of pragmatism. Brendel’s four “p”’s—practical, pluralism, participatory and provisional help to show the relevance of pragmatism to mixed methods. Pragmatism is purposeful and concerned with the practical consequences. The pluralism of pragmatism overcomes quantitative/qualitative dualism. Instead, it allows for multiple perspectives (including positivism and interpretivism) and, thus, gets around the incompatibility problem. Inquiry should be participatory or inclusive of the many views of participants, hence, it is consistent with multiple realities and is also tied to the common concern of a problematic situation. Finally, all inquiry is provisional . This is compatible with experimental methods, hypothesis testing and consistent with the back and forth of inductive and deductive reasoning. Mixed methods support exploratory research.

Advocates of mixed methods research note that it overcomes the weaknesses and employs the strengths of quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods provide precision. The pictures and narrative of qualitative techniques add meaning to the numbers. Quantitative analysis can provide a big picture, establish relationships and its results have great generalizability. On the other hand, the “why” behind the explanation is often missing and can be filled in through in-depth interviews. A deeper and more satisfying explanation is possible. Mixed-methods brings the benefits of triangulation or multiple sources of evidence that converge to support a conclusion. It can entertain a “broader and more complete range of research questions” (Johnson and Onwuegbunzie 2004 , p. 21) and can move between inductive and deductive methods. Case studies use multiple forms of evidence and are a natural context for mixed methods.

One thing that seems to be missing from mixed method literature and explicit design is a place for conceptual frameworks. For example, Heyvaert et al. ( 2013 ) examined nine mixed methods studies and found an explicit framework in only two studies (transformative and pragmatic) (p. 663).

Theory and hypotheses: where is and what is theory?

Theory is key to deductive research. In essence, empirical deductive methods test theory. Hence, we shift our attention to theory and the role and functions of the hypotheses in theory. Oppenheim and Putnam ( 1958 ) note that “by a ‘theory’ (in the widest sense) we mean any hypothesis, generalization or law (whether deterministic or statistical) or any conjunction of these” (p. 25). Van Evera ( 1997 ) uses a similar and more complex definition “theories are general statements that describe and explain the causes of effects of classes of phenomena. They are composed of causal laws or hypotheses, explanations, and antecedent conditions” (p. 8). Sutton and Staw ( 1995 , p. 376) in a highly cited article “What Theory is Not” assert the that hypotheses should contain logical arguments for “why” the hypothesis is expected. Hypotheses need an underlying causal argument before they can be considered theory. The point of this discussion is not to define theory but to establish the importance of hypotheses in theory.

Explanatory research is implicitly relational (A explains B). The hypotheses of explanatory research lay bare these relationships. Popular definitions of hypotheses capture this relational component. For example, the Cambridge Dictionary defines a hypothesis a “an idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proven”. Vocabulary.Com’s definition emphasizes explanation, a hypothesis is “an idea or explanation that you then test through study and experimentation”. According to Wikipedia a hypothesis is “a proposed explanation for a phenomenon”. Other definitions remove the relational or explanatory reference. The Oxford English Dictionary defines a hypothesis as a “supposition or conjecture put forth to account for known facts.” Science Buddies defines a hypothesis as a “tentative, testable answer to a scientific question”. According to the Longman Dictionary the hypothesis is “an idea that can be tested to see if it is true or not”. The Urban Dictionary states a hypothesis is “a prediction or educated-guess based on current evidence that is yet be tested”. We argue that the hypotheses of exploratory research— working hypothesis — are not bound by relational expectations. It is this flexibility that distinguishes the working hypothesis.

Sutton and Staw (1995) maintain that hypotheses “serve as crucial bridges between theory and data, making explicit how the variables and relationships that follow from a logical argument will be operationalized” (p. 376, italics added). The highly rated journal, Computers and Education , Twining et al. ( 2017 ) created guidelines for qualitative research as a way to improve soundness and rigor. They identified the lack of alignment between theoretical stance and methodology as a common problem in qualitative research. In addition, they identified a lack of alignment between methodology, design, instruments of data collection and analysis. The authors created a guidance summary, which emphasized the need to enhance coherence throughout elements of research design (Twining et al. 2017 p. 12). Perhaps the bridging function of the hypothesis mentioned by Sutton and Staw (1995) is obscured and often missing in qualitative methods. Working hypotheses can be a tool to overcome this problem.

For reasons, similar to those used by mixed methods scholars, we look to classical pragmatism and the ideas of John Dewey to inform our discussion of theory and working hypotheses. Dewey ( 1938 ) treats theory as a tool of empirical inquiry and uses a map metaphor (p. 136). Theory is like a map that helps a traveler navigate the terrain—and should be judged by its usefulness. “There is no expectation that a map is a true representation of reality. Rather, it is a representation that allows a traveler to reach a destination (achieve a purpose). Hence, theories should be judged by how well they help resolve the problem or achieve a purpose ” (Shields and Rangarajan 2013 , p. 23). Note that we explicitly link theory to the research purpose. Theory is never treated as an unimpeachable Truth, rather it is a helpful tool that organizes inquiry connecting data and problem. Dewey’s approach also expands the definition of theory to include abstractions (categories) outside of causation and explanation. The micro-conceptual frameworks 7 introduced in Table  1 are a type of theory. We define conceptual frameworks as the “way the ideas are organized to achieve the project’s purpose” (Shields and Rangarajan 2013 p. 24). Micro-conceptual frameworks do this at the very close to the data level of analysis. Micro-conceptual frameworks can direct operationalization and ways to assess measurement or evidence at the individual research study level. Again, the research purpose plays a pivotal role in the functioning of theory (Shields and Tajalli 2006 ).

Working hypothesis: methods and data analysis

We move on to answer the remaining questions in the Table  1 . We have established that exploratory research is extremely flexible and idiosyncratic. Given this, we will proceed with a few examples and draw out lessons for developing an exploratory purpose, building a framework and from there identifying data collection techniques and the logics of hypotheses testing and analysis. Early on we noted the value of the Working Hypothesis framework for student empirical research and applied research. The next section uses a masters level student’s work to illustrate the usefulness of working hypotheses as a way to incorporate the literature and structure inquiry. This graduate student was also a mature professional with a research question that emerged from his job and is thus an example of applied research.

Master of Public Administration student, Swift ( 2010 ) worked for a public agency and was responsible for that agency’s sexual harassment training. The agency needed to evaluate its training but had never done so before. He also had never attempted a significant empirical research project. Both of these conditions suggest exploration as a possible approach. He was interested in evaluating the training program and hence the project had a normative sense. Given his job, he already knew a lot about the problem of sexual harassment and sexual harassment training. What he did not know much about was doing empirical research, reviewing the literature or building a framework to evaluate the training (working hypotheses). He wanted a framework that was flexible and comprehensive. In his research, he discovered Lundvall’s ( 2006 ) knowledge taxonomy summarized with four simple ways of knowing ( Know - what, Know - how, Know - why, Know - who ). He asked whether his agency’s training provided the participants with these kinds of knowledge? Lundvall’s categories of knowing became the basis of his working hypotheses. Lundvall’s knowledge taxonomy is well suited for working hypotheses because it is so simple and is easy to understand intuitively. It can also be tailored to the unique problematic situation of the researcher. Swift ( 2010 , pp. 38–39) developed four basic working hypotheses:

• WH1: Capital Metro provides adequate know - what knowledge in its sexual harassment training
• WH2: Capital Metro provides adequate know - how knowledge in its sexual harassment training
• WH3: Capital Metro provides adequate know - why knowledge in its sexual harassment training
• WH4: Capital Metro provides adequate know - who knowledge in its sexual harassment training

From here he needed to determine what would determine the different kinds of knowledge. For example, what constitutes “know what” knowledge for sexual harassment training. This is where his knowledge and experience working in the field as well as the literature come into play. According to Lundvall et al. ( 1988 , p. 12) “know what” knowledge is about facts and raw information. Swift ( 2010 ) learned through the literature that laws and rules were the basis for the mandated sexual harassment training. He read about specific anti-discrimination laws and the subsequent rules and regulations derived from the laws. These laws and rules used specific definitions and were enacted within a historical context. Laws, rules, definitions and history became the “facts” of Know-What knowledge for his working hypothesis. To make this clear, he created sub-hypotheses that explicitly took these into account. See how Swift ( 2010 , p. 38) constructed the sub-hypotheses below. Each sub-hypothesis was defended using material from the literature (Swift 2010 , pp. 22–26). The sub-hypotheses can also be easily tied to evidence. For example, he could document that the training covered anti-discrimination laws.

WH1: Capital Metro provides adequate know - what knowledge in its sexual Harassment training

• WH1a: The sexual harassment training includes information on anti-discrimination laws (Title VII).
• WH1b: The sexual harassment training includes information on key definitions.
• WH1c: The sexual harassment training includes information on Capital Metro’s Equal Employment Opportunity and Harassment policy.
• WH1d: Capital Metro provides training on sexual harassment history.

Know-How knowledge refers to the ability to do something and involves skills (Lundvall and Johnson 1994 , p. 12). It is a kind of expertise in action. The literature and his experience allowed James Smith to identify skills such as how to file a claim or how to document incidents of sexual harassment as important “know-how” knowledge that should be included in sexual harassment training. Again, these were depicted as sub-hypotheses.

WH2: Capital Metro provides adequate know - how knowledge in its sexual Harassment training

• WH2a: Training is provided on how to file and report a claim of harassment
• WH2b: Training is provided on how to document sexual harassment situations.
• WH2c: Training is provided on how to investigate sexual harassment complaints.
• WH2d: Training is provided on how to follow additional harassment policy procedures protocol

Note that the working hypotheses do not specify a relationship but rather are simple declarative sentences. If “know-how” knowledge was found in the sexual harassment training, he would be able to find evidence that participants learned about how to file a claim (WH2a). The working hypothesis provides the bridge between theory and data that Sutton and Staw (1995) found missing in exploratory work. The sub-hypotheses are designed to be refined enough that the researchers would know what to look for and tailor their hunt for evidence. Figure  1 captures the generic sub-hypothesis design.

A Common structure used in the development of working hypotheses

When expected evidence is linked to the sub-hypotheses, data, framework and research purpose are aligned. This can be laid out in a planning document that operationalizes the data collection in something akin to an architect’s blueprint. This is where the scholar explicitly develops the alignment between purpose, framework and method (Shields and Rangarajan 2013 ; Shields et al. 2019b ).

Table  2 operationalizes Swift’s working hypotheses (and sub-hypotheses). The table provide clues as to what kind of evidence is needed to determine whether the hypotheses are supported. In this case, Smith used interviews with participants and trainers as well as a review of program documents. Column one repeats the sub-hypothesis, column two specifies the data collection method (here interviews with participants/managers and review of program documents) and column three specifies the unique questions that focus the investigation. For example, the interview questions are provided. In the less precise world of qualitative data, evidence supporting a hypothesis could have varying degrees of strength. This too can be specified.

Table 2

Operationalization of the working hypotheses: an example

For Swift’s example, neither the statistics of explanatory research nor the open-ended questions of interpretivist, inductive exploratory research is used. The deductive logic of inquiry here is somewhat intuitive and similar to a detective (Ulriksen and Dadalauri 2016 ). It is also a logic used in international law (Worster 2013 ). It should be noted that the working hypothesis and the corresponding data collection protocol does not stop inquiry and fieldwork outside the framework. The interviews could reveal an unexpected problem with Smith’s training program. The framework provides a very loose and perhaps useful ways to identify and make sense of the data that does not fit the expectations. Researchers using working hypotheses should be sensitive to interesting findings that fall outside their framework. These could be used in future studies, to refine theory or even in this case provide suggestions to improve sexual harassment training. The sensitizing concepts mentioned by Gilgun ( 2015 ) are free to emerge and should be encouraged.

Something akin to working hypotheses are hidden in plain sight in the professional literature. Take for example Kerry Crawford’s ( 2017 ) book Wartime Sexual Violence. Here she explores how basic changes in the way “advocates and decision makers think about and discuss conflict-related sexual violence” (p. 2). She focused on a subsequent shift from silence to action. The shift occurred as wartime sexual violence was reframed as a “weapon of war”. The new frame captured the attention of powerful members of the security community who demanded, initiated, and paid for institutional and policy change. Crawford ( 2017 ) examines the legacy of this key reframing. She develops a six-stage model of potential international responses to incidents of wartime violence. This model is fairly easily converted to working hypotheses and sub-hypotheses. Table  3 shows her model as a set of (non-relational) working hypotheses. She applied this model as a way to gather evidence among cases (e.g., the US response to sexual violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to show the official level of response to sexual violence. Each case study chapter examined evidence to establish whether the case fit the pattern formalized in the working hypotheses. The framework was very useful in her comparative context. The framework allowed for consistent comparative analysis across cases. Her analysis of the three cases went well beyond the material covered in the framework. She freely incorporated useful inductively informed data in her analysis and discussion. The framework, however, allowed for alignment within and across cases.

Table 3

Example illustrating a set of working hypotheses as a framework for comparative case studies

Source : Adaptation from Table 1.1 of Crawford’s ( 2017 ) book Wartime Sexual Violence

In this article we argued that the exploratory research is also well suited for deductive approaches. By examining the landscape of deductive, exploratory research, we proposed the working hypothesis as a flexible conceptual framework and a useful tool for doing exploratory studies. It has the potential to guide and bring coherence across the steps in the research process. After presenting the nature of exploratory research purpose and how it differs from two types of research purposes identified in the literature—explanation, and description. We focused on answering four different questions in order to show the link between micro-conceptual frameworks and research purposes in a deductive setting. The answers to the four questions are summarized in Table  4 .

Table 4

Linking micro-conceptual frameworks and research purposes in deductive research

Firstly, we argued that working hypothesis and exploration are situated within the pragmatic philosophical perspective. Pragmatism allows for pluralism in theory and data collection techniques, which is compatible with the flexible exploratory purpose. Secondly, after introducing and discussing the four core elements of pragmatism (practical, pluralism, participatory, and provisional), we explained how the working hypothesis informs the methodologies and evidence collection of deductive exploratory research through a presentation of the benefits of triangulation provided by mixed methods research. Thirdly, as is clear from the article title, we introduced the working hypothesis as the micro-conceptual framework for deductive explorative research. We argued that the hypotheses of explorative research, which we call working hypotheses are distinguished from those of the explanatory research, since they do not require a relational component and are not bound by relational expectations. A working hypothesis is extremely flexible and idiosyncratic, and it could be viewed as a statement or group of statements of expectations tested in action depending on the research question. Using examples, we concluded by explaining how working hypotheses inform data collection and analysis for deductive exploratory research.

Crawford’s ( 2017 ) example showed how the structure of working hypotheses provide a framework for comparative case studies. Her criteria for analysis were specified ahead of time and used to frame each case. Thus, her comparisons were systemized across cases. Further, the framework ensured a connection between the data analysis and the literature review. Yet the flexible, working nature of the hypotheses allowed for unexpected findings to be discovered.

The evidence required to test working hypotheses is directed by the research purpose and potentially includes both quantitative and qualitative sources. Thus, all types of evidence, including quantitative methods should be part of the toolbox of deductive, explorative research. We show how the working hypotheses, as a flexible exploratory framework, resolves many seeming dualisms pervasive in the research methods literature.

To conclude, this article has provided an in-depth examination of working hypotheses taking into account philosophical questions and the larger formal research methods literature. By discussing working hypotheses as applied, theoretical tools, we demonstrated that working hypotheses fill a unique niche in the methods literature, since they provide a way to enhance alignment in deductive, explorative studies.

Acknowledgements

The authors contributed equally to this work. The authors would like to thank Quality & Quantity’ s editors and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable advice and comments on previous versions of this paper.

Open access funding provided by Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna within the CRUI-CARE Agreement. There are no funders to report for this submission.

Compliance with ethical standards

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

1 In practice, quantitative scholars often run multivariate analysis on data bases to find out if there are correlations. Hypotheses are tested because the statistical software does the math, not because the scholar has an a priori, relational expectation (hypothesis) well-grounded in the literature and supported by cogent arguments. Hunches are just fine. This is clearly an inductive approach to research and part of the large process of inquiry.

2 In 1958 , Philosophers of Science, Oppenheim and Putnam use the notion of Working Hypothesis in their title “Unity of Science as Working Hypothesis.” They too, use it as a big picture concept, “unity of science in this sense, can be fully realized constitutes an over-arching meta-scientific hypothesis, which enables one to see a unity in scientific activities that might otherwise appear disconnected or unrelated” (p. 4).

3 It should be noted that the positivism described in the research methods literature does not resemble philosophical positivism as developed by philosophers like Comte (Whetsell and Shields 2015 ). In the research methods literature “positivism means different things to different people….The term has long been emptied of any precise denotation …and is sometimes affixed to positions actually opposed to those espoused by the philosophers from whom the name derives” (Schrag 1992 , p. 5). For purposes of this paper, we are capturing a few essential ways positivism is presented in the research methods literature. This helps us to position the “working hypothesis” and “exploratory” research within the larger context in contemporary research methods. We are not arguing that the positivism presented here is anything more. The incompatibility theory discussed later, is an outgrowth of this research methods literature…

4 It should be noted that quantitative researchers often use inductive reasoning. They do this with existing data sets when they run correlations or regression analysis as a way to find relationships. They ask, what does the data tell us?

5 Qualitative researchers are also associated with phenomenology, hermeneutics, naturalistic inquiry and constructivism.

6 See Feilzer ( 2010 ), Howe ( 1988 ), Johnson and Onwuegbunzie ( 2004 ), Morgan ( 2007 ), Onwuegbuzie and Leech ( 2005 ), Biddle and Schafft ( 2015 ).

7 The term conceptual framework is applicable in a broad context (see Ravitch and Riggan 2012 ). The micro-conceptual framework narrows to the specific study and informs data collection (Shields and Rangarajan 2013 ; Shields et al. 2019a ) .

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Contributor Information

Mattia Casula, Email: [email protected] .

Nandhini Rangarajan, Email: ude.etatsxt@11rn .

Patricia Shields, Email: ude.etatsxt@70sp .

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