jamestown story essay

Jamestown — The First Permanent English Settlement in America

Jamestown was the first permanent English settlement in North America. Established in 1607, the colonists survived famine, disease, weather, and several conflicts with Native American Indians. Jamestown grew, expanded, and served as the capital of the Virginia Colony from 1607 until 1698.

Captain John Smith. Image Source: Captain John Smith by Tudor Jenks, 1904, Archive.org.

Jamestown Summary

Jamestown was the first permanent settlement established in North America by England. It was started in 1607 by the Virginia Company of London, during the reign of King James I . Jamestown was founded for the purpose of finding gold and silver and establishing a trade route to the Pacific Ocean. Many of the colonists were unprepared for the harsh reality of life in the New World. Their focus on finding gold, and the lack of farming skills contributed to starvation and disease that caused many of them to die during the early days of the settlement. 

Captain John Smith took control of Jamestown and enforced a rigorous work schedule, and established a tenuous trade relationship with the Powhatans, the local Native American Indians. However, Smith was forced to return to England. Without his leadership, Jamestown faltered and suffered through a devastating winter known as “The Starving Time.” 

In 1610, a new group of settlers and supplies arrived, which helped the settlement recover. Soon after, John Rolfe introduced a new strand of tobacco, which turned into a cash valuable crop. Two years later, Rolfe married Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan, which helped establish peace between the settlement and the Indians. Jamestown continued to grow, which contributed to the settlement’s stability but also reignited tension with the Powhatan. 

In 1622, the Indians carried out an attack on the settlements that killed an estimated 25-33% of the population of Virginia. Soon after, Virginia became a Royal Colony. Jamestown was eventually surpassed by New Towne, and the original fort and settlement were burned to the ground during Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676. Jamestown remained the capital of Virginia until 1699 when it was replaced by Williamsburg.

Jamestown Facts

• Jamestown, established in 1607, was the first permanent English settlement in North America.
• The journey to Virginia began on December 6, 1606, with three ships: the Susan Constant , the Godspeed , and the Discovery . 
• A total of 104 English men and boys, plus 39 crewmen, arrived in North America to start the settlement, which was named after King James I.
• Jamestown served as the capital of the Virginia Colony for more than 80 years.
• Captain John Smith is often credited for implementing policies that saved the settlement in its early years.
• John Rolfe is credited for introducing a strain of tobacco that colonists were able to grow as a cash crop.
• Virginia became a Royal Colony in 1624 when King Charles I revoked the charter of the Virginia Company.
• Jamestown was plagued by fires due to its wooden buildings and was burned to the ground in 1676, during Bacon’s Rebellion.
• Another fire in 1698 led the colony to relocate the capital to present-day Williamsburg.
• Over time, Jamestown faded away and became farmland. Today, it is the Jamestown National Historic Site and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Jamestown Overview

Jamestown — also known as “James City” — was established on May 14, 1607, by the Virginia Company on James Island, a strategic location along the James River. Jamestown was approximately 60 miles from the confluence of the James River and the Chesapeake Bay. The settlement was established by a group of about 104 colonists who were led by Governor Edward Maria Winfield and his Governor’s Council.

The initial expedition was funded by the Virginia Company of London, a joint-stock company, with support from King James I. England wanted to follow in the footsteps of Spain and establish colonies in the New World, which were essential to the nation’s Mercantile System .

The purpose of the expedition was to establish a colony and to find gold and silver deposits, as well as a river route to the Pacific Ocean. The English believed a route to the ocean would allow them to establish trade with the Far East. At that time, Europeans believed the Pacific Ocean was much closer to the east coast of America. They had no idea it was 3,000 miles to the west.

During the first two years, the colonists in Jamestown faced many challenges. They suffered from hunger and illnesses like typhoid and dysentery, caused by drinking contaminated water from the nearby swamp. The colonists also lived with the constant threat of attacks from the local Indian tribes, who were part of the Powhatan Confederacy. Disagreements between leaders of the settlement also caused problems.

After Captain John Smith took on the leadership of the colony, a successful, but tenuous, trade relationship was created with the Powhatans. The Indians traded corn for beads, metal tools, and other objects — including some weapons — from the colonists, who depended on the trade relationship for food. Despite the relationship, skirmishes still broke out between the two groups and deteriorated further after Smith was forced to return to England. Due to famine, and new leadership at Jamestown, the Powhatans stopped trading food, which led to the “Starving Time” in Jamestown.

However, in 1610, a new group of settlers and supplies arrived and helped to turn the settlement’s fortunes around. The introduction of tobacco as a cash crop proved to be a profitable export for Jamestown and a period of peace followed the marriage of colonist John Rolfe to Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan.

In 1619, the Virginia Company, under the leadership of Sir Edwin Sandys, made changes to the operation of the colony that established the Headright System and the House of Burgesses. That same year, Dutch traders also arrived in Jamestown, carrying Africans with them. 

During the 1620s, Jamestown expanded from the area around the original James Fort into a “New Town” built to the east. Relations with the Powhatans deteriorated after the death of Chief Powhatan, and the Indians attacked Jamestown in 1622, killing 347 colonists. The incident led King James I to revoke the colonial charters and Virginia became a Royal Colony.

In 1676, the fort and settlement were burned to the ground by Nathanial Bacon and his army during Bacon’s Rebellion. Jamestown was rebuilt on a smaller scale and was replaced as the capital of Virginia in 1699 by Williamsburg.

Jamestown History

First virginia charter — april 10, 1606.

On April 10, 1606, King James I granted a charter that created two companies — the Virginia Company of London and the Virginia Company of Plymouth — for the purpose of establishing English colonies along the east coast of North America. 

The Virginia Company of London was given rights to the territory in the Mid-Atlantic region. Meanwhile, the Plymouth Company was given rights to present-day New England and established Popham Colony .

Jamestown and Popham were successors to the Lost Colony of Roanoke Island which was established in 1587 but disappeared by 1590.

Jamestown Expedition of 1606

The Virginia Company sent an expedition, consisting of three ships, to the Chesapeake Bay, under the command of Captain Christopher Newport. The ships were the Susan Constant , Godspeed , and Discovery . Together, they carried 104 men and boys. The group included 40 soldiers, 35 “gentlemen,” artisans, and laborers. The ships set sail from England on December 20, 1606, and arrived in the Mid-Atlantic Region in April 1607.

Jamestown Established — May 14, 1607

Newport had instructions from the Virginia Company to find a suitable place to establish a settlement that was uninhabited by Indians, provided protection from Spanish attacks, and had water deep enough for English ships to anchor. 

The ships sailed 50-60 miles north on a river they called the James River. On May 13, they chose the site — a low, marshy peninsula — and they went ashore on May 14. They named it “James Towne.” Both the river and the settlement were named after King James I.

The spot the colonists chose to settle appeared to be uninhabited but was within the hunting and fishing grounds of some tribes in the Powhatan Confederacy. However, the Indians did not build homes or mark the territory, which was an unfamiliar practice to the English colonists. As a result, the colonists believed the area was uninhabited.

Jamestown’s President and Council Revealed

All three ships in the fleet carried a sealed box, containing documents from the Virginia Company that identified which settlers were to serve as the President and President’s Council. Once the site for Jamestown was chosen, the boxes were opened, and the documents were read. 

The first President of the new Virginia colony was identified as Edward Maria Winfield, and the six members of the President’s Council were: 

• Bartholomew Gosnold
• Christopher Newport
• John Martin
• John Ratcliffe
• George Kendall

Captain John Smith was a surprise to the other colonists. He was a former mercenary who had been accused of insubordination aboard the ship by several other company members and imprisoned for part of the journey to Virginia.

Newport Reaches the Fall Line

Soon after the colonists were settled in, Captain Newport took some of his men and explored the rivers in the area. He traveled as far as the Fall Line, near present-day Richmond, Virginia. The Fall Line is a natural boundary that marks the transition from the Tidewater Region to the Piedmont Region.

Construction of Fort James

The presence of the colonists created conflict with the Powhatan Tribes, and they attacked the crude houses at Jamestown. After the settlement was attacked in May, the colonists were convinced they needed to build a fort for protection, which became the focal point of Jamestown.

On June 15, they completed the construction of a 3-sided fort with towers on each point. The towers were built to be large enough that they could hold several cannons. Inside the fort, the settlers built some new houses live in. Outside the fort, they started to clear land and plant crops. Unfortunately, the area was plagued by drought at the time, and the colonists had a difficult time growing crops.

Newport Returns to England

On June 22, after he believed the colonists were safe, Captain Newport left for England to get more supplies for the new settlement. 

Relationship with the Powhatans

The Powhatan Confederacy was large and powerful and consisted of many tribes, who spoke an Algonquian dialect.

• The Confederacy was led by a single chief, Wahunsonacock, who was also referred to as The Powhatan or Chief Powhatan. 
• The Powhatan territory covered most of the present-day area of Tidewater Virginia.
• It went from the Potomac in the north to the Carolinas in the south, from the Chesapeake Bay inland to the west of what is now Richmond. 
• It is estimated the Powhatan Confederacy was the largest Indian Confederation in the history of North America.

Chief Powhatan tried to establish friendly relations with the colonists by sending food, which they accepted — and then expected. Since the Powhatans were providing food, there was little incentive for the colonists to worry about their own crops. Instead, they focused on their search for precious metals and exploration of the area.

Disease Ravages Jamestown

Not long after Newport left for England, the colonists were plagued by:

• Contaminated Drinking Water — Unfortunately, the location they chose for Jamestown was too close to the ocean, so the salt water mixed with the fresh water in the James River, making it unhealthy to drink.
• Mosquitoes — The stagnant water was a perfect place for mosquitoes to thrive.
• Extreme Heat — The hot summer caused a significant amount of their food to spoil. 

During the fall and winter, many of the colonists came down with “the bloody flux” — dysentery — which spread because of the lack of clean water and unsanitary conditions. By the following spring, only 35-40 of the colonists were still alive.

John Smith’s Expedition

Many of the colonists, especially the well-to-do gentlemen, did not care for Smith, and he was sent out to look for food and explore the area. Smith worked carefully to improve the relationship with the Powhatans, and to present Jamestown as a strong, fortified settlement that could defend itself.

• Smith and his men traded with the Indians for provisions.
• He learned about the area and made an effort to learn the ways of the Powhatans, including their language. 
• The Indians told Smith stories of a western sea and of mountains and gold. 

Early on, Smith visited Indian villages, only to find they had been instructed by Chief Powhatan not to trade with the English. Desperate for food, Smith resorted to intimidation. If the villagers refused to trade, he would burn one of their buildings and threaten to burn the rest. Although it led to the Indians giving him some food, it also led Chief Powhatan to pursue him and try to kill him.

John Smith Captured and the Legend of Pocahontas

In December 1607, Smith was captured by the Powhatans and held captive. According to Smith, they intended to kill him, but Chief Powhatan’s daughter, Pocahontas, threw her arms around Smith and begged her father to spare him — which he did. Smith was released and returned to Jamestown. Whether or not this actually took place is the subject of debate, and is likely a story concocted by Smith.

Crisis in Jamestown

When Smith returned to Jamestown, he found the settlement on the verge of collapse. Newport had not returned with supplies, and some of the colonists wanted to sail back to England on the ship Discovery . Smith threatened to shoot anyone that tried to leave and the colonists responded by arresting him. 

Newport Returns — The First Supply

Newport returned to Jamestown on January 1, 1608, with supplies — and more colonists. Although one of the ships in the expedition was lost in a storm, Newport’s return to Jamestown calmed the situation with Smith, who was set free.

Newport also delivered a message from the Virginia Company, informing the colonists the company was not pleased they had not found gold, silver — or anything the company could make a profit from. The colonists were instructed to renew their focus on finding a way to make the settlement profitable.

Fort James Burns

Unfortunately, soon after Newport returned, a fire broke out in the fort, causing it to burn down, destroying all the food and supplies. By then Chief Powhatan was on good terms with Smith and he sent food and re-opened trade with Jamestown. Around that time, Smith realized the Indians were being generous, but were also expecting the colonists to pay more for the food they needed.

Gold Found Near Jamestown

Under Newport’s direction — and the renewed motivation to make a profit — the colonists spent a significant amount of time searching for gold. However, the focus on finding gold created friction between Smith and Newport for various reasons:

• Defenses at the fort were neglected.
• Exploration of the region stopped.
• Crops were neglected.
• Newport’s sailors were using up food, water, and supplies.

While Newport searched for gold, he started trading generously with the Indians. He even traded swords to them, which Smith was opposed to. 

Although Newport’s intentions were good, it created a situation that was unsustainable. Smith knew that once Newport returned to England, the Indians would still expect Jamestown to trade weapons and metal tools to them — and the settlement would have none to trade, which would cause issues with the Indians.

Eventually, some of the colonists found what looked to them like flakes of gold running through some streams. They also dug up dirt that was filled with the same flakes. It was all packed up and loaded onto Newport’s ships and taken back to England — where Newport found out it was nothing more than pyrite — “Fool’s Gold.”

Nelson’s Lost Ship Arrives

The ship that was lost during the First Supply sailed up the James River in April, under the command of Captain Thomas Nelson. When Nelson’s ship was separated from Newport’s, he sailed south, delaying his arrival in Jamestown. Nelson delivered supplies and more colonists before loading a supply of cedar and returning to England.

John Ratcliffe’s House

During the summer of 1608, Smith was away from Jamestown, searching for food. President John Ratcliffe put the colonists to work building a home for him outside of the fort. This kept the colonists from working on vital tasks, such as growing crops.

John Smith Takes Control of Jamestown

By September 1608, the colonists were desperate. The lack of food, illness, and trouble with the Indians was intensified by leadership issues and internal conflicts. Smith returned from his expedition, and although he was suffering from a stingray attack, the colonists voted to remove Ratcliff and put Smith in charge.

Smith took firm control, implemented strict discipline, and organized efforts to plant crops and construct proper houses and buildings. Smith’s motto, “Work or starve”, required each colonist to spend at least four hours each day farming in order to ensure the survival of the colony. 

Jamestown prospered, self-sufficiency increased, and the death rate fell. Smith’s success convinced the Virginia Company to eventually give more authority to the Governor.

However, Smith also had to deal with the high expectations Newport had created with the Indians. He was forced to adjust terms so it was more favorable for Jamestown. This led to the Indians stealing things like weapons and metal tools from Jamestown. Instead of retaliating with violence, as Governor Ralph Lane did at the Lost Colony on Roanoke Island, Smith simply strengthened the defenses of Jamestown and had men keep a lookout for potential thieves.

Newport Returns — The Second Supply

Newport returned in October 1608 to find Smith in charge and everything in Jamestown in order. Newport’s expedition was large and included four ships and more than 100 new colonists — including women and children. Among the group were:

• Thomas Forrest and Margaret Foxe, the first married English couple in North America.
• Anne Burras, who was a maid to Mistress Forest. Anne became the first Englishwoman to marry in North America when she married colonist John Layton.

Second Virginia Charter — May 23, 1609

Upset over the progress — and lack of profit — the investors in the Virginia Company asked for a new charter to allow them to sell additional shares in the company. The charter was granted by King James I and expanded the borders of the Virginia Colony. It is often referred to as a “sea to sea” charter because it extended the western border to the Pacific Ocean. The Second Charter also gave the Virginia Company the authority to make its own laws, as long as they did not violate existing English laws.

The Third Supply — The Sea Venture is Delayed

A supply ship called the Sea Venture , under the command of Sir George Somers, sailed to Jamestown as part of a flee that carried the “Third Supply.” The ship carried the new charter, along with Sir Thomas Gates — the new Governor of the colony — William Strachey, and John Rolfe. During the journey, the ship ran into a storm and was blown off course. It was severely damaged and ended up on the island of Bermuda — which Gates and Somers claimed for England.

When the ship arrived, Somers safely ran it aground, allowing the passengers to be safely transported to shore, where they remained for 10 months. Many believe the account Gates wrote about the voyage of the Sea Venture and his time on the island served as the inspiration for William Shakespeare’s play The Tempest .

The First Anglo-Powhatan War Begins

The area was still suffering from drought, which led Chief Powhatan to withhold food from Jamestown again, contributing to the First Anglo-Powhatan War . The colonists responded by taking food at gunpoint and the Indians retaliated by killing livestock and burning crops, making the food situation even worse in Jamestown.

John Smith is Injured and Returns to England

Smith was injured in a gunpowder explosion and returned to England in October 1609. Without his leadership, the colony fell back into the habit of depending too much on the Powhatans for food.

The Starving Time

Without Smith’s leadership, the colonists living in Jamestown suffered through a long, harsh winter that has become known as “The Starving Time.” Due to threats of Indian attacks, the colonists rarely left the fort and many who did were attacked and killed. By early 1610, most of the settlers died — only 60 survived the winter — out of approximately 500. Some survived by leaving Jamestown and moving to Point Comfort, near present-day Hampton, Virginia.

Over the course of the winter, many died from starvation and disease. Some were desperate and hungry enough to eat animals, including pets, and shoe leather. George Percy, the President in John Smith’s absence, wrote “And now famine beginning to look ghastly and pale in every face that nothing was spared to maintain life and to do those things which seem incredible, as to dig up dead corpses out of graves and to eat them.”

Thomas Gates Arrives in Jamestown

After the Sea Venture landed on Bermuda, Somers and his men built two smaller boats — Deliverance and Patience . On May 10, 1610, the two ships left Bermuda and started the journey to Jamestown. Two men were left on the island to maintain England’s claim on Bermuda.

Within two weeks, the ships reached Point Comfort, where they found George Percy, who informed Gates the situation in Jamestown was perilous. The ships continued on to Jamestown and arrived there on May 24.

The settlement and fort appeared to be abandoned and were in disrepair. Someone rang a bell to see if anyone would respond. To the shock of Gates and Somers, starving, malnourished survivors emerged from the dilapidated buildings. Eventually, Gates decided the only thing he could do was abandon Jamestown, put everyone on ships, and return to England.

Lawes Divine, Morall, and Martiall

The same day Gates arrived in Jamestown — May 24, 1610 — he issued orders known as the “Lawes Divine, Morall, and Martiall.” The orders were the first set of English laws in the New World and defined how members, employees, and servants associated with the Virginia Company were required to conduct themselves.

Lord De La Warr Arrives in Jamestown

While the ships of the Third Supply were marooned on Bermuda, the Virginia Company appointed Thomas West, Lord De La Warr, as Governor. The company outfitted him with a small fleet, supplies, and colonists, and sent him to Jamestown.

As West and his fleet sailed past Point Comfort, Gates and his ships were sailing toward them. West stopped Gates and ordered him to return to Jamestown.

When West settled in at Jamestown, he was intent on ensuring the survival of Jamestown. He put the colonists to work, much like Smith had done before.

Jamestown Attacks Paspahegh

Unfortunately, Governor West was unable to successfully deal with the Indians. He sent a message to Powhatan, asking him to return prisoners and stolen goods. Powhatan refused and Delaware organized an attack on the village known as Paspahegh. George Percy led the nighttime raid. The Englishmen burned the village to the ground and brutally murdered some of the inhabitants, including women and children.

West and Somers Leave Jamestown

West and Somers were not in Jamestown for long. Somers sailed to Bermuda to capture wild pigs and for the settlement to use for food. Unfortunately, while he was there, he died. Meanwhile, West became ill and was forced to return to England. 

Although West remained Governor of Jamestown until 1619, several men served in his place as Acting Governor or Lieutenant Governor, including Sir Thomas Gates, George Percy, Sir Thomas Dale, Sir George Yeardley, and Sir Samuel Argall.

Dale was responsible for expanding the Laws Divine, as they applied to soldiers, which is often seen as imposing martial law throughout Virginia.

Third Charter of Virginia — March 12, 1612

On March 12, 1612, King James granted the Virginia Company of London a third charter, which extended the boundaries of the colony to include Bermuda. A new joint stock company was created to fund the colonization of Bermuda, which was known as the Somers Isles at the time. The company was called the Somers Isles Company and was led by Sir Thomas Smythe.

John Rolfe Plants Tobacco in Jamestown

In 1612, John Rolfe, one of many shipwrecked on Bermuda, acquired some tobacco seeds while he was on a trip to the Caribbean. He took them back to Jamestown, planted them, and they produced a sweet version of tobacco that became popular in England. From then on, tobacco was a vital cash crop that allowed Jamestown to find the stability it needed.

The Peace of Pocahontas

In 1613, Sir Samuel Argall kidnapped Pocahontas and took her to Jamestown. Governor Dale tried to trade her back to her father, Chief Powhatan, for prisoners and items the Indians had stolen prior to the Starving Time. 

However, when Dale went to meet with Chief Powhatan, he was not in his village. Further, Pocahontas announced she wanted to stay with the English in Jamestown. Pocahontas was kept in the settlement at Henricus. While she was there, she was instructed in Christianity and met John Rolfe. She was also baptized as a Christian and took the name, Rebecca.

In 1614, Rolfe married Pocahontas, and it helped establish a period of peace between Jamestown and the Indians, ending the time of the First Anglo-Powhatan War.

New Towne and New Settlements

As the colony grew, so did the need for a larger and more secure settlement. In 1619, a new settlement was built east of the original James Fort, called New Towne. Along with New Towne, settlements were established along the banks of the James River, including Bermuda Hundred.

Pocahontas Visits England

In the summer of 1616, John Rolfe, Pocahontas, their son, and a group of Powhatan warriors visited England They stayed until 1617 and John Smith visited her. Unfortunately, as the group prepared to return to England, Pocahontas became ill and died. She was buried in England and their son, Thomas, remained there. Rolfe returned to Virginia and his tobacco crops. The following year, Powhatan died and was succeeded by his brother, Opechancanough, who did not care for the English. The Peace of Pocahontas was coming to an end.

Great Charter of Virginia — November 18, 1618

Despite the popularity of tobacco, the Virginia Company was still in debt, so it decided to create a way to encourage people to pay to emigrate from England to Virginia. Two officers of the company, Sir Thomas Smythe and Sir Edwin Sandys, drafted a set of instructions for the new Governor, Sir George Yeardley, who replaced Thomas West. The instructions, which are known as the “Great Charter of Virginia,” established the Headright System and authorized the election of a General Assembly — the House of Burgesses.

Headright System

The Headright System provided incentives for landowners to pay for people to emigrate to Virginia. Basically, a landowner was given land for each immigrant they paid for. As more people moved to Jamestown, the landowners increased the amount of land they owned, and the lower class expanded. Initially, the immigrants were indentured servants. Once they completed their contracts, they were free to remain in Jamestown and were given a small amount of property, although it was usually poor, undeveloped land west of Jamestown. 

House of Burgesses

The Great Charter instructed Yeardley “to establish one equal and uniform government over all Virginia” and provide “just laws for the happy guiding and governing of the people there inhabiting.” The new General Assembly was the first representative assembly in English North America and held its first meeting — with the Governor and his Council — in the Jamestown church on July 30, 1619. The men elected by each district were called “Burgesses,” hence the name “House of Burgesses.”

Captured Africans Arrive in Jamestown

Not long after the first meeting of the House of Burgesses, John Rolfe recorded the arrival of a Dutch ship. The incident is significant because the ship carried approximately 20 Africans who were purchased by Jamestown landowners from the Dutch, to work on their plantations.

According to some accounts, there were already 30 Africans working in Jamestown as indentured servants. However, the Africans that were purchased from the Dutch are often considered to be the first slaves in the Province of Virginia. 

Because the landowners were paying to bring people into the colony, they were compensated with land. However, unlike indentured servants, slaves were not freed and were unable to acquire land. While the population increased, so did slavery, and so did the plantations of the wealthy landowners — or the “Wealthy Planters” as they are typically referred to.

English Women Arrive in Jamestown

Another major event in the growth and development of Jamestown took place in 1619. That year, the Virginia Company recruited approximately 90 women and sent them to Virginia. For the most part, their purpose was to find husbands and start families, which is widely believed to have contributed to the growth and stability of the colony.

Powhatan Attack of 1622

After Chief Powhatan died, he was succeeded by his brother, Opechancanough. As the Virginians expanded their plantations, they used up more land, angering Opechancanough, who decided to coordinate an attack on Virginia settlements on March 22, 1622.

On that day, warriors from the Powhatan Confederacy attacked plantations and settlements, killing nearly 350 of the 1,200 colonists. The attack marked the beginning of the Second Anglo-Powhatan War .

People living in and around Jamestown were warned about the impending attack by an Indian boy who was living with the family of Richard Pace. The boy warned the Pace family, who took refuge, and then Pace warned Jamestown. The town prepared its defenses and was able to prevent the planned attack.

King James I Revokes the Virginia Company Charter

In 1623, the Privy Council opened an investigation into the affairs of Sandys and the Virginia Company. The next year, Nathaniel Butler, who had been the Governor of Bermuda, published a pamphlet that was critical of how the government of Virginia operated. A commission was sent to Virginia to assess the situation. 

On May 24, 1624, King James I revoked the Virginia Company’s charter and Virginia became a Royal Colony, under the direct control of the monarch. Sir Francis Wyatt was appointed as the first Royal Governor of Virginia and served until 1626. Wyatt was followed by Sir George Yeardley (1626–1627) and Francis West (1627–1629). West was the brother of Thomas West, Lord De La Warr.

The Second Anglo-Powhatan War Ends

The shift in colonial rule did not alter relations with the Indians, and the Second Anglo-Powhatan War continued until 1632 when the Powhatans were forced to concede. Afterward, the colonists expanded their settlements along the James River and throughout the region. Within two years, the colonists completed a palisade — a fence made from wooden stakes — that stretched for six miles across the Virginia Peninsula. The palisade was intended to act as a barrier to keep Indians from moving down the Peninsula to attack the settlements, including Jamestown.

Following the Second Anglo-Powhatan War, Virginia was governed by a series of men who were often in trouble with the law or caught up in political intrigue.

• Sir John Harvey was impeached by the Council of Virginia — his own Governor’s Council — and removed from office. Harvey went to England and plead his case to King Charles I, arguing there was a conspiracy to change the colony’s charter. Harvey was restored to office and served as Governor from 1637 to 1639.
• Sir John West served as Acting Governor after Harvey was ousted. When Harvey returned, West was recalled to England where he was questioned for his role in the supposed conspiracy to change the colonial charter. West was the third West brother, following Thomas and Francis, to spend time serving as Governor.
• Sir George Reade served as Acting Governor when Harvey was in England. Reade appears to have been able to avoid controversy and is most well-known as being the great-great-grandfather of George Washington.

Sir William Berkely Arrives in Jamestown

Sir Francis Wyatt was appointed as Governor for a second time in 1639. He served until 1632 when he was replaced by Sir William Berkeley. Berkeley served as Governor from 1642 to 1652 and then again from 1660 until 1677. He was also one of the Lords Proprietors of the Province of Carolina.

According to most accounts, Berkeley was talented, with an interest in science. He believed trade with the Indians was important to Virginia’s success and he also believed the colony needed to diversify its economic system so it did not depend entirely on tobacco. However, Berkeley manipulated the political system so it favored the wealthy upper class, and he insisted on enforcing the Navigation Acts, which ultimately led to his downfall. 

Third Anglo-Powhatan War and Treaty of 1646

Once again, Opechancanough planned another coordinated attack against the English settlements, due to encroachment on Powhatan lands. The surprise attacks were carried out on April 18, 1644, ending in the deaths of roughly 350-400 of the 8,000 colonists living in Virginia, and starting the Third Anglo-Powhatan War .

In 1646, Opechancanough, who was likely over 90 years old at the time, was captured and held prisoner in Jamestown. While he was there, a guard shot him from behind, killing him. His death led to the end of the war — and the Powhatan Confederacy. 

His successor, Necotowance, signed the Treaty of 1646, which made all tribes in the Powhatan Confederacy tributaries to the King of England. Per the treaty, each tribe was given land, essentially a reservation, and was required to pay tribute — an annual fee — to the Governor.

Further, Indians and Virginians were prohibited from crossing into each other’s territory unless they had a pass issued from the forts on the border.

Jamestown and the English Civil War

During the English Civil War, Governor Berkeley remained loyal to the Stuarts, as did most Virginians, who were members of the Church of England. Virginia’s loyalty to the Stuarts and the “Cavaliers” is what earned it the nicknames “Cavalier State” and “Old Dominion.”

When King Charles I was dethroned and executed, Oliver Cromwell and Puritans took control of England and replaced Berkeley with Richard Bennett (1652–1655), who was followed by Edward Digges (1655–1656), and then Samuel Mathews (1656–1660).

King Charles II ascended the throne in 1660 in an event known as the “Restoration of the Stuart Monarchy.” The new King restored Berekeley as Governor of Virginia, in part as a way to thank him for his loyalty to the monarchy.

Bacon’s Rebellion

Bacon’s Rebellion was a violent uprising led by Nathaniel Bacon that took place in colonial Virginia in 1676 and 1677. The rebellion was the result of a political dispute between Governor Berkeley and Virginia colonists, led by landowner Bacon, over how to deal with attacks from remnants of the Powhatan Tribes on the frontier.

Many of the colonists that banded together under Bacon were former indentured servants — black and white — who lived on small farms that were unable to compete with the larger plantations. Naturally, they resented the political system that benefitted the upper class. When the Indian attacks started, Berkeley refused to attack the Indians, fearing it would disrupt the lucrative trade that he and his political allies benefitted from.

It was the first rebellion in the colonies where colonists took up arms against English government officials. On September 14, 1676, Bacon and his army burned Jamestown to the ground and Berkeley was forced to flee.

Near the end of the conflict, Bacon died and English troops were sent to restore peace. As a result of the rebellion, the Virginia House of Burgesses outlawed indentured servitude, which contributed to an increase in the use of enslaved Africans in Virginia.

After Bacon died, Berkeley and the Indians signed the Treaty of 1677, which restored peace. However, Berkeley was recalled to England, where he died on July 9, 1677.

The Jamestown Fire of 1698

When the city was rebuilt, it was on a smaller scale. In the following years, it was less of a hub of business and more of an administrative center for the colony’s politicians.

Jamestown remained the capital of Virginia until the statehouse and prison, located on the western end of the island, burned to the ground in 1698, in a fire started by a prisoner. Although the buildings were lost, a significant number of the public records were saved.

Influential men like James Page of Middle Plantation — present-day Williamsburg — successfully lobbied to have the capital moved there. In 1699, Middle Plantation succeeded Jamestown as the capital of Virginia.

People continued to live on the island and in the area, but it transformed from a town to farmland. By the mid-1700s, the land became part of two plantations, owned by the Travis and Ambler families.

Afterward, Jamestown faded away, and the land was eventually purchased by the owners of surrounding plantations. 

Jamestown Today

Today, Jamestown National Historic Site is located on the James River. Nearby is Historic Jamestowne, a living-history museum that includes a reconstructed Fort James and a small representation of a Powhatan village.

Jamestown Significance

Jamestown Settlement was important to the history of the United States because it was the first successful English settlement in the New World.

Jamestown AP US History (APUSH) Study Guide

Use the following links and videos to study Jamestown, the 13 Original Colonies , and the Southern Colonies for the AP US History Exam. Also, be sure to look at our Guide to the AP US History Exam .

Jamestown APUSH Definition

Jamestown refers to the first successful permanent English settlement in North America. It was established on May 14, 1607, in present-day Virginia. The settlement was sponsored by the Virginia Company, a joint-stock company that sought to profit from the colonization of the New World. Although Jamestown struggled at first, the introduction of tobacco as a cash crop helped stabilize the colony. Jamestown is often seen as the beginning of the English presence in North America and the beginning of the 13 Original Colonies.

Jamestown APUSH Video — The English Colonies in America

This video from The Daily Bellringer provides an overview of the early days of the English Colonies in America, including the Jamestown Settlement, and is an excellent resource for students studying for the AP US History Exam.

Jamestown Pictures

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Jamestown Colony: Facts & history

The 17th-century colony where Pocahontas met John Smith.

Colonization of the Americas

• Disastrous early years

Pocahontas & John Smith

• "Starving time"

Forcing 'colonists' to Jamestown

• Improving fortunes

Slavery in Jamestown

First representative assembly, all the single women, an attack too late, rediscovery of the original fort, additional resources, bibliography.

Jamestown, founded in 1607, was the first successful permanent English settlement in what would become the United States. The settlement existed for nearly 100 years as the capital of the Virginia colony, but it was abandoned after the capital moved to Williamsburg in 1699. 

The history of Jamestown (sometimes spelled Jamestowne) includes human cannibalism, enslaved people forcibly brought from Africa and children kidnapped off the streets of London and taken to the colony. Jamestown is the "creation story from hell," wrote Karen Ordahl Kupperman, a professor of history at New York University, in her book " The Jamestown Project " (The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007).

A preservationist group took over the site in the late 1800s, and today what's left of Jamestown is part of a national historic park with tours, museums and ongoing archaeological digs that continue to reveal new findings. However, rising sea levels caused by climate change may pose a threat to the site, research suggests . There are plans to reinforce a seawall to try to save the site the Washington Post reports . 

Jamestown was not the first successful permanent European settlement in what would become the United States; that distinction belongs to St. Augustine, in Florida, which the Spanish founded in 1565.

At the beginning of the 17th century, England's attempts to colonize the Americas lagged behind other European nations' endeavours. Spain controlled a vast empire in the Western Hemisphere that included much of South and Central America, Mexico, part of the Caribbean and a settlement in Florida. The Spanish were also moving into what is now the American Southwest.

Meanwhile, the French were exploring Canada's northeast and, in time, would establish a highly profitable fur trade in the region.

In the 16th century, the English had attempted to found Roanoke colony , but the venture ended in disaster; the colonists disappeared and were never heard from again, Kupperman wrote. This colony was located in what is now the Outer Banks area of North Carolina, and the colonists may have left to live with local Native American people, a number of scholars have suggested.

In addition to the Roanoke colonists, other European adventurers had sailed along the eastern coast of North America, some of whom ended up living with the Native Americans they encountered, Kupperman wrote. So it's possible that England's Jamestown colonists met the generations of Europeans who came before them.

"It does not seem too fanciful to assume that some colonists in Jamestown, founded twenty years after the last Roanoke colony, might have encountered descendants of earlier transatlantic migrants without knowing it," she wrote.

Jamestown's disastrous early years

The founding of Jamestown had the blessing of England's King James I , and the settlement and nearby James River were named in his honor. However, the settlement was financed and run by the Virginia Company, a joint-stock company that King James I chartered. This company, in turn, was financed by private investors, who expected the colonists to discover a valuable commodity, or a route to East Asia, which would make the enterprise profitable and offer a return on their investment.

The investors in London hoped that some of the "vanished" Roanoke colonists (or their descendants) were still alive and, with knowledge they gained about the area, could guide the Jamestown colonists to minerals and a passage to East Asia, Kupperman noted.

Unfortunately, the company chose to build its settlement on "a disease-ridden, bug-infested swampy island with no source of fresh water," Jerome Bridges, a park ranger and Historic Jamestowne tour guide, told Live Science. Located about 60 miles (94 kilometers) up the James River from the Atlantic Coast, the site was chosen because the settlers had orders from their investors not to take any land that was occupied by the Indigenous people, Bridges said. This policy did not last for long as Jamestown expanded after being established, creating tensions with the Indigenous people living in the area.

Additionally, the colonists' selected spot may have been considered more defensible than other locations that had been scouted, Joseph Kelly, professor and director of Irish and Irish American studies at the College of Charleston in South Carolina, wrote in the book " Marooned: Jamestown, Shipwreck, and a New History of America's Origin " (Bloomsbury, 2018). 

The Indigenous people in the area were the Powhatan and were led by Wahunsenacawh, whom Europeans often called "Chief Powhatan: His realm was known as "Tsenacommacah" and it encompassed about 15,000 people who lived in several communities, Historic Jamestowne noted .

When the English landed there in May 1607, they divided themselves into three groups: One group was to build fortifications, a storehouse and some simple houses; the second group was to plant crops; and the third party was to explore the area in search of minerals and a passage to East Asia.

It did not take long for the colonists to run into trouble. Within a few weeks, a force of several hundred Powhatans attacked the settlement. The colonists had not even unpacked their muskets, and so they relied on naval gunfire from the ships that were still off the coast to repel the attackers. "Had the ships not fired their ordnance, the colony would have been overwhelmed," Kupperman wrote. 

In the following few weeks, the settlers focused on building a fort, which was a triangular palisade with three bulwarks, or raised platforms, for cannons.

Before long, the colonists started dying. Of the 104 men and boys who landed, only 38 were still alive by January 1608, according to the National Park Service . Research revealed that the colonists' drinking  water was salty and contained arsenic . Additionally, food ran out, famine set in, and a particularly harsh winter compounded the misery of the colonists.

"Our men were destroyed with cruel diseases as swellings, fluxes [also called dysentery], burning fevers, and by wars, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part they died of meer famine," wrote George Percy, one of the survivors, in a report on the colony. "There were never Englishmen left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia."

In that first year, the bodies were buried in unmarked graves to prevent the Powhatans from finding out that so many of the settlers had died, according to Bridges. Excavations by William Kelso, director of archaeology for Jamestown Rediscovery at Historic Jamestowne, and his team revealed 29 burial shafts close to the west palisade wall inside the fort. The team thinks these graves likely hold many of the colonists who died in 1607.

Two of the excavated grave shafts contain two bodies each. According to the Historic Jamestowne website, the colonists likely resorted to double burials because so many men were dying in a short timespan. Twenty individuals died in August 1607 alone, and multiple burials saved energy and time. 

The body of a boy, who was around 14 years old, was found with a small arrowhead next to his right leg, which suggests he had been shot shortly before he was buried. Percy recorded that a boy was slain during combat with Powhatans in the first month of the settlement, and it's possible that these remains belong to that boy.

The well-known story of how Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, saved Captain John Smith's life very likely did not happen, at least not the way most people have heard it (and most certainly not the way the 1995 Disney animated movie told it), Bridges said. 

Smith, who was elected president of the colony's council in 1608 after most of the councillors died or became incapacitated, wrote that the colony depended on trade with friendly Powhatan tribes to survive. Powhatan's people often visited the settlers when they weren't fighting the colonists, according to Bridges. The chief's daughter, about 10 years old at the time, was a frequent visitor to Jamestown, delivering messages from her father and bringing food and furs to trade for hatchets and trinkets, Bridges said.

She also liked to play, and would spend time turning cartwheels with the boys of the colony. Her name was actually Matoaka, and Pocahontas was a nickname meaning "Little Wanton" in Algonquin, according to Historic Jamestowne's website . 

Smith later wrote in his book "The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles," published in 1624, that at one point during an expedition in December 1607, he was captured and brought to Powhatan. He was first welcomed and offered a feast. Then he was grabbed and forced to stretch out on two large, flat stones. People stood over him with clubs as though ready to beat him to death if ordered. Suddenly, Pocahontas rushed in and took Smith's "head in her arms and laid her owne upon his to save him from death," Smith wrote .  The girl then pulled him to his feet. Powhatan said that they were now friends, and he adopted Smith as his son, or a subordinate chief. 

Smith's tale has become legend, and he romanticized it in later writings, Historic Jamestowne noted. Smith told the story only after Pocahontas converted to Christianity in 1614. And if Smith's story is true, this mock "execution and salvation" ceremony was traditional with Powhatan tribes, and Pocahontas' actions were probably one part of a ritual, according to Historic Jamestowne . 

Jamestown's "starving time"

Although the colony had been resupplied, along with 100 new settlers, in January 1608, the settlers hit another low during the winter of 1609 to 1610 — a period that became known as the "starving time," according to Historic Jamestowne. By this time, Smith had been forced to return to England due to gunpowder injuries, and the colony's new governor, Thomas Gates, had been shipwrecked on the island of Bermuda along with essential supplies.

By this point, relations with the Powhatans had deteriorated to the point where trade was impossible and the Jamestown fort was under siege. When the colonists ran out of food, they "fed upon horses and other beasts as long as they lasted, we were glad to make shift with vermin, as dogs, cats, rats and mice," Percy wrote. Recent research has confirmed that dogs were eaten at Jamestown and that these dogs were at least partly native to North America . Historical records indicate that boots, shoes and leather were also consumed, and archaeological evidence confirms that some colonists resorted to human cannibalism to survive. 

In May 1610, Gates made his way from Bermuda to the colony on makeshift ships made partly from wood found on Bermuda. Finding only 60 survivors at Jamestown, he gave the order to abandon the settlement but not to burn it. As the group set out to sea, however, they encountered a fleet led by English merchant and politician Lord De La Warr, with fresh supplies and new colonists, so they returned to Jamestown and repaired the fort. (The state of Delaware was later named after De La Warr.)

During the colony's early years, it was difficult to convince new settlers to go to Jamestown; as a result, some people, including prisoners and those living on the streets, were sent against their will, British writer Jennifer Potter wrote in her book " The Jamestown Brides: The Story of England's 'Maids for Virginia '" (Oxford University Press, 2019). The city of London even raised money to send London's homeless to Virginia, wrote Potter, noting that King James I was in favor of it. Many of the homeless sent were males. 

In 1618, the Virginia Company became particularly interested in getting homeless children to the colony as children were believed to be "more pliable than adults," Potter wrote. Instructions were issued to London's constables to apprehend street children and take them to a place where they would wait to be taken overseas. Poor families were also coerced to send children they couldn't support to Jamestown, Potter noted. 

Jamestown's improving fortunes

In the following decade Jamestown's situation improved. Martial law was imposed, solving, however harshly, some of the discipline problems — such as people ignoring orders — experienced during the first three years of the colony, according to Historic Jamestowne.

Until this point, the colonists had failed to find a marketable commodity that would help fund the settlement and develop its economy, but this problem was solved in 1612, when a settler named John Rolfe experimented with tobacco seeds ― possibly from Trinidad ― and developed a marketable crop that could be exported to England. King James I later gave the Virginia Company a monopoly on tobacco, making the trade even more profitable. He even allowed the company to set up a lottery to provide additional funds for the Jamestown venture, according to Historic Jamestowne.

In April 1613, Pocahontas was captured and brought to Jamestown. Although her captors intended to use her to barter for English prisoners, she turned into a catalyst for peace. She married Rolfe in April 1614 in the Jamestown church, converted to Christianity and took the name Rebecca Rolfe. Her father, Powhatan, reached a peace agreement with the English that allowed the colony to expand its cultivated territory and set up new settlements, including Henrico and Bermuda Hundred.

Now, "after five years' intestine [frequent] war with the revengeful, implacable Indians, a firm peace (not again easily to be broken) hath been lately concluded," Gov. Thomas Dale wrote in 1614.

Pocahontas, Rolfe and their infant son traveled to London in 1616, where she became something of a celebrity. However, she died of an unspecified illness in 1617 while the three of them were preparing to return to Virginia. Rolfe headed to Virginia alone, leaving their son in the care of an English family.

In August 1619, a Dutch ship arrived at Jamestown and traded food supplies for the ship's cargo of around 20 enslaved people, who were originally from Angola. "Slavery as it was later defined did not yet exist in the Chesapeake, and some of these Africans lived to achieve their freedom," Kupperman wrote. They worked as indentured servants (as many English newcomers did), but were forced to labor for longer terms. Indentured servants normally had to work for the company for a certain time to pay for their passage and goods given them. 

While people from Africa had been brought to the Americas as slaves to work in Central and South America in the 16th century, 1619 marked the first time that Africans were brought to North America to work as slaves at an English colony. 

Today, 1619 is regarded as the beginning of a new period in American history. "The unequal social status of African Americans begins with the 246-year period from 1619 to 1865, when slavery was a critically important economic and social institution in American life," a team of researchers wrote in a 2019 paper published in the American Journal of Public Health . As the colony expanded, more slave were brought into Virginia. 

In 1619, Sir George Yeardley, a former colonist who had been appointed governor in 1618, returned to Jamestown from England with instructions from the Virginia Company to create "a laudable form of government" that would create "just laws for the happy guiding and governing of the people there," according to historical documents that can be accessed on Encyclopedia Virginia. 

In July of that year, 30 men met for the first time in Jamestown to discuss issues facing the growing colony. "This assembly was the first expression of English representative government in North America," Kelso wrote in his book, " Jamestown: The Buried Truth " (University of Virginia Press, 2006).

In 1619, the Virginia Company created a program that encouraged single women to travel to Jamestown, which in its early years had been a predominantly male settlement. The company hoped that more women in the colony would encourage the Jamestown men to settle down, rather than return to England after making some money.

The Virginia Company set a "bride price" of 150 pounds (68 kilograms) of tobacco to be paid by a man to the company who married one of the women, Potter wrote in her book. 

Potter tracked down the origins of the women who traveled to Jamestown in 1621 and found that 1 in 6 of the women were daughters of gentry (members of the aristocracy). The rest "represented a microcosm of 'middling' England, with fathers, brothers, uncles, working in respectable trades," Potter wrote, noting that people who knew the women had to attest to their good character, and the women had to go voluntarily, although some may have been coerced by relatives. 

After the death of the peacemaker Chief Powhatan in April 1618, war seemed inevitable, Kupperman wrote. With the English colony growing, and the settlers using more land and making more aggressive attempts to convert Powhatan people to Christianity the stage was set for a showdown.

Opechancanough, Chief Powhatan's successor, felt threatened by the growing English presence, which by that time consisted of more than 1,000 people on several plantations. In 1622, he launched a surprise attack in an attempt to wipe out the colony.

The Virginia Company claimed the attack killed 347 people, Kupperman wrote, although the actual death toll was likely higher. The English were forced to abandon some plantations and cluster closer together.

Although the attack succeeded in killing many English, it failed in its aim of pushing them out of the region. More settlers arrived to work on the plantations, and the attack gave the English an excuse to wage war against Opechancanough's people, sparing only the children so that they could be converted to Christianity and forced to work on the English plantations, according to Kupperman.

This war was a take-no-prisoners affair, Kupperman wrote. "In [May] 1623 they [the colonists] invited Indian leaders to a peace parley where they served poisoned wine and then fired on the disabled Indians." 

From the start of the Jamestown colony, the settlers held a number of military advantages over the Native American tribes in the region. They had gunpowder weapons, equipment made of steel and iron, as well as armor that could offer some protection from arrow hits, Kelly wrote in his book. The Powhatans, on the other hand, had bows and arrows and melee weapons that may have included clubs, knives and spears.

As the Virginia colony grew, Jamestown developed into a thriving port town. Thousands of colonists either passed through to start tobacco plantations farther inland, or settled in Jamestown, which expanded by developing a suburb of sorts called New Towne, situated east of the original fort.

Representative government took hold in the 1620s, and inns and taverns were soon established. The tobacco trade, meanwhile, required warehouses and piers along the shore. Jamestown's well-to-do residents built English-style cottages and houses along New Towne's main road.

With new settlers flowing in, the English gained control of the Chesapeake Bay area and launched new colonies (including Plymouth in 1620) along the Eastern Seaboard of the future United States. In May 1624, the Virginia Company was formally dissolved, and Jamestown became a crown colony with a governor appointed by the king.

With the growth of new settlements in Virginia, and the English colonists' improving military situation in the region, the original Jamestown fort site became redundant. Jamestown remained the capital of Virginia until 1699 — a fire destroyed Jamestown's statehouse in 1698, so the capital moved to Williamsburg, according to Historic Jamestowne .

In 1994, the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (APVA) began archaeological work to look for ruins from the original Jamestown fort, Kelso told Live Science. It was widely believed at the time that the fort had been washed away into the James River.

Excavations revealed holes where the triangular palisade had once stood, along with the remains of three bulwarks used to strengthen its defenses. The archaeologists also found the remnants of five churches (one built on top of the remains of the preceding church); row houses, including a structure that appears to be the governor's house; a blacksmith shop; and barracks, among other features. 

In 2015 archaeologists uncovered the  burial sites of four Jamestown leaders who had been buried in one of the churches. In 2018, archaeologists digging in a church in Jamestown found a  headless body that might be that of Yeardley. They are hoping to match DNA from the skeleton and teeth found nearby with DNA from Yeardley's living descendants.

To help visitors learn more about what Jamestown was like, replicas of the triangular fort, a barracks and the original church have been built on their original plots. Some reproductions have been built using similar bricks. 

Originally published on July 24, 2018. Additional reporting by Tim Sharp. 

Historic Jamestowne's website contains a sizable amount of information about the settlement's artifacts and records. Jamestown is part of a national historical park, and the National Park Service has information on how to visit it . Slavery in the United States has a long history, and recent research has revealed more information about the Underground Railroad that led some people to freedom. 

Jamestown timeline

May 1607 : Jamestown, named after King James I of England, is founded and consists of 104 men and boys.

August 1607 : In this month alone, 20 of the colonists die.

December 1607 : John Smith is captured and brought to Chief Powhatan. Smith claims that Pocahontas saves his life, although this is likely not true.

January 1608 : Only 38 of the 104 original colonists are still alive; poor water and food shortages contribute to the high mortality rate. 100 new colonists are brought in from England during this month. 

Winter 1609-1610 : The "starving time" sees some colonists resort to human cannibalism. 

May 1610 : Governor Gates, who had been shipwrecked on Bermuda, makes his way to Jamestown on makeshift ships. Finding only 60 colonists alive, he gives orders to abandon Jamestown. But while leaving, the settlers encounter a relief fleet led by Lord De La Warr that has fresh supplies and new colonists.

1612 : While experimenting with tobacco seeds, John Rolfe finds that tobacco grows well in Virginia, giving the colony a marketable product.

April 1613 : Pocahontas is captured and brought to Jamestown.

April 1614 : Pocahontas marries John Rolfe, and the two leave for England where Pocahontas becomes something of a celebrity. A peace agreement of sorts is reached between Jamestown and Chief Powhatan.

March 1617 : Pocahontas dies in England at around age 21.

April 1618 : Chief Powhatan dies; relations between the Powhatans and Jamestown's colonists decline.

1619 : A program is launched encouraging women to migrate to Jamestown and marry colonists. 

July 1619 : First meeting of the colony's assembly

August 1619 : A Dutch ship brings more than 20 enslaved people from Africa to Jamestown.

1622 : Opechancanough, the successor of Powhatan, launches a surprise attack on Jamestown; more than 300 English people are killed and all-out war breaks out.

May 1623 : After agreeing to a peace parley, several Native American leaders in the area are killed after drinking poisoned wine.

May 1624 : The Virginia Company is dissolved and Jamestown becomes a crown colony. English settlement in Virginia continues to expand, with Jamestown as the legislative center. 

1699 : After a fire burns down the legislative building at Jamestown, Virginia's capital moves to Williamsburg. Jamestown itself becomes abandoned. 

Kelly, J. (2018) "Marooned: Jamestown, Shipwreck, and a New History of America's Origin" Bloomsbury,

Kelso, W. (2006) "Jamestown: The Buried Truth" University of Virginia Press

Kupperman, K. (2007) "The Jamestown Project" The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press

LaVeist, T. A., Fullilove, M., & Fullilove, R. (2019). 400 Years of Inequality Since Jamestown of 1619.  American journal of public health ,  109 (1), 83–84. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304824  

Potter, J. (2019) "The Jamestown Brides: The Story of England's 'Maids for Virginia'" Oxford University Press

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Owen Jarus is a regular contributor to Live Science who writes about archaeology and humans' past. He has also written for The Independent (UK), The Canadian Press (CP) and The Associated Press (AP), among others. Owen has a bachelor of arts degree from the University of Toronto and a journalism degree from Ryerson University. 

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10 Things You May Not Know About the Jamestown Colony

By: Crystal Ponti

Updated: September 12, 2023 | Original: August 6, 2019

In May of 1607, a hearty group of Englishmen arrived on the muddy shores of modern-day Virginia under orders from King James I to establish an English colony. But despite their efforts, the Jamestown Colony  was immediately plagued by disease, famine, and violent encounters with the native population. “There were never Englishmen left in a foreign country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia,” one colonist recalled .

Although more than a third of the colonists perished in the harsh conditions, the group eventually overcame their disastrous start and founded the first permanent English settlement in the New World. Here are some of the lesser-known facts about the Jamestown Colony. 

1. The original settlers were all men.

In December of 1606, the Virginia Company, under charter from King James I, sent an expedition to establish an English settlement in North America. When their ships, the Susan Constant , Godspeed and Discovery , arrived near the banks of the James River on May 14, 1607, 104 men and boys set foot on what would soon become Jamestown . The initial group contained well-to-do adventurers, a handful of artisans and craftsmen, and laborers eager to forge a new home. Notably absent were members of the opposite sex. It would be another nine long months before any women arrived at the fledgling colony. 

2. Drinking water likely played a role in the early decimation of the settlement.

While the terrain might have appeared ideal from the deck of a ship—unoccupied and ripe with natural resources—the Virginia Company established its settlement on a swath of swampy land with no source of fresh water. Soon after, the men began to perish. Only 38 of the 104 original settlers were still alive by January 1608. 

As documented in colonial records, many died from disease and famine. Others met their fate in skirmishes with the Powhatans and their tribal allies. Experts also believe that some may have succumbed to an invisible threat: toxic water . Modern-day samples taken from some of the wells used by Jamestown colonists have revealed high levels of salt and varying degrees of arsenic and fecal contamination—a foul, and potentially lethal, cocktail.

3. Bodies were buried in unmarked graves to conceal the colony’s decline in manpower.

Before more colonists arrived from England, the population of Jamestown dwindled. The Virginia Company had predicted that disease would manifest, and lives would be lost. Concerned about prying eyes and an ambush on a weakened colony, they had stressed "above all things" that the colonists hide the sick and bury the dead in unmarked graves. The men followed orders, burying their deceased out of sight behind the fort wall. When the death toll spiked between May and September of 1607, they also made use of double burials with two men laid to rest in the same shaft.

4. The settlers resorted to cannibalism during the 'starving time.'

Between January 1608 and August 1609, 470 new settlers arrived at Jamestown. Although their circumstances looked promising, the tide soon turned against them. Captain John Smith , who had negotiated favorable relations with the Powhatans and whose leadership bolstered the strength of the settlement, suffered gunpowder injuries and had to return to England in the fall of 1609. Smith’s ship had barely vanished from the horizon, when Chief Powhatan called for a siege of Jamestown.

Surrounded by Powhatan’s warriors and trapped inside the fort, the settlers eventually ran out of food and were forced to eat whatever they could find: horses, dogs, rats, snakes, leather shoes and, according to forensic evidence, even each other. Marked by survivalist cannibalism, Jamestown reached one of its lowest points during the winter of 1609-1610—a period now known as the “starving time,” in which at least one deceased colonist was consumed as food.

5. Mail-order brides helped populate (and save) Jamestown.

Back in England, women had heard horror stories about the conditions at Jamestown. They were not exactly jumping at the opportunity to join the men across the pond. This gender imbalance boded ill for the colony’s future, as men left in droves to seek out wives. Edwin Sandys, the Virginia Company treasurer, convinced his fellow board members that they advertise for women to immigrate to Jamestown and marry the colonists. The Virginia Company offered attractive incentives for would-be wives: free transportation, a plot of land, a dowry of clothing and furnishings. They also allowed the women to choose their husbands after entertaining the eager suitors. The tactic had some success, and, the women, in theory, became America’s first mail-order brides.

6. Climate change threatened the survival of Jamestown.

Before their arrival, European explorers assumed America's climate would match that of other lands situated at the same latitude. They soon discovered that the New World was both hotter and colder than they expected. To make matters worse, the already harsh and unpredictable environment was exacerbated by climate change, namely a “ Little Ice Age ” that lasted from 1550 to 1800. Wet springs led to flooding, hot summers brought on droughts, and frigid winters covered the landscape in blankets of thick frost.

The colonists arrived in Jamestown during one of the driest seven-year periods (1606-1612) in 770 years. The 17th century was also one of the coldest on record. The dramatic weather patterns in the Virginia colony brought on a cycle of conflict, scarcity and death, with climate change threatening its survival.

7. The birth of American democracy began in Jamestown.

By the time the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776 and the first peaceful transfer of U.S. presidential power occurred between George Washington and John Adams in 1797, Americans had already experienced over 150 years of democracy. The roots can be traced to Jamestown. With the establishment of the House of Burgesses, America's first democratically elected legislative body, a precedent had been set. Thereafter, each new English colony sought its own legislature. Although there were challenges and power struggles, the concept of elections, creation of laws and power through and by the people, began in America's first English settlement.

8. Smuggled tobacco seeds gave Jamestown economic viability.

King James I had a strong, and well-known, distaste for tobacco. “A custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the Nose,” he once declared. It’s ironic that this very crop gave Jamestown its economic viability. The settlement had struggled to find a marketable commodity that it could trade and ship back to England for profit. The colonists dabbled in forestry, silk making and glassmaking, with little financial return.

Then, in 1610, John Rolfe arrived in Jamestown with a convoy of 150 new settlers. He brought with him a sweet, and quite possibly illegal, strain of South American tobacco seeds. After some initial trial and error, Rolfe cultivated them into a major cash crop—one surprisingly granted a monopoly from King James I—making Jamestown economically stable for the first time.

No one knows where or how Rolfe obtained the seeds. Until then, Spain had controlled tobacco on the European markets and selling seeds to non-Spaniards was a crime punishable by death. Rolfe may have smuggled the seeds from Bermuda, where some of the fleet was shipwrecked for 10 months before arriving in Jamestown, or somewhere in the Caribbean. Either way, the risk paid off.

9. English pirates brought the first African captives to Jamestown.

John Rolfe documented the arrival of the first African captives to Jamestown in late August 1619. He reported that a Dutch ship had arrived with “20 and odd” Africans who were “bought for victuals.” August 1619 is the date that the first enslaved Africans were brought to Virginia, but they didn’t arrive on a Dutch ship as Rolfe mentioned. They were originally captured in modern-day Angola, an area of West Central Africa, and forced to march over 100 miles to board the San Juan Bautista , a Portuguese ship destined for Mexico.

While in the Gulf of Mexico, two English privateers, the White Lion and the Treasurer , attacked the ship and stole 50 to 60 African captives on board. This act of piracy, politely called “privateering” in the 17th century, led to the White Lion bringing the first Africans to Jamestown. Historians believe that Rolfe either falsified his report to conceal what the English had done or that the White Lion swapped flags with a Dutch ship while out at sea, causing Rolfe to incorrectly record the ship’s country of origin.

10. To this day, Jamestown remains an active dig site.

Active archaeological excavation, research and analysis have been ongoing since 1994 at the original site of Jamestown. Archaeologists have found parts of the palisade of the original 1607 fort, discovered the site of the second church and unearthed the remains of a handful of the settlement’s early inhabitants. They’ve debunked the myth that the original Jamestown site had washed into the James River long ago, uncovered evidence of the “starving time” and cannibalism and learned more about the settlers’ daily lives and work habits. To date, millions of artifacts have been uncovered and the facts about this defining chapter in American history have been rewritten or brought to light.

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The Role of Jamestown Settlement in American History

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Miss Manners: Dinner guest stays on phone all evening

Dear Miss Manners: I had a formal sit-down dinner for eight guests at my home. One guest was on her phone nearly the whole time — texting and even watching live videos that her friends posted while others were trying to have a conversation.

She was away from the group, but the sounds were still audible. She arrived late and stayed by herself, on her phone, during the cocktail and hors d'oeuvres time. When it was time for dinner, once everyone was seated and the food was being passed, she got up to get the hors d'oeuvres and bring them to the table. Then she got up again to go to her car to bring pictures of her boyfriend to the table for us to see. Never excused herself.

When asked at the end of the party if she had been bored, she said she had had a great time but was trying to include her long-distance boyfriend whom she misses so much and can’t go any length of time without contacting.

I didn’t want to call her out on her behavior at the party and am hesitant to do so now. She has very low self-esteem, but she also wonders why she loses friends. What can one do sensitively in a situation like this?

Sensitive to whom, exactly? It can’t be to yourself or your guests, as your friend strikes Miss Manners as remarkably insensitive to them. But she agrees with you that allowing your friend to be so rude is also insensitive to her needs — a phrase she shudders to use — as it will only further isolate her.

As it would be impolite to correct your friend's manners, the least unkind thing to do is to find a new eighth for your next party. And let's stop asking the guests if they are bored.

Dear Miss Manners: I traveled by bus to attend a funeral for a family member in my hometown (where I no longer live). I don’t mind riding the bus, and in fact, I relish the chance to listen to a podcast or audiobook and unwind.

The bus ride was about two hours, and I was seated next to a woman whom I could not, despite my best and most mannerly efforts, disengage from conversation. Should something like this happen in the future, what is a polite but FIRM way to disengage a chatty stranger, short of simply putting in my ear buds and ignoring him or her?

The rude person on the bus — or the train, or the airplane — has convinced you that ignoring her would be rude. It feels rude. If we ignore her own rudeness in forcing you into a conversation, it would be.

Miss Manners often says that one rudeness does not justify another, so how can this woman’s rudeness cancel the rudeness of ignoring her? Because it does. Etiquette is not stupid. It may, occasionally, allow one to use politeness as a bludgeon — but it does not allow rudeness to be so used. You may listen to your audiobook with a clear conscience, but you must steel yourself to do so.

New Miss Manners columns are posted Monday through Saturday on washingtonpost.com/advice . You can send questions to Miss Manners at her website, missmanners.com . You can also follow her @RealMissManners.

© 2024 Judith Martin

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8-Year-Old Survives Bus Plunge Off Bridge That Left 45 People Dead

The bus, which was carrying people from Botswana to an Easter weekend pilgrimage in South Africa, fell 165 feet into a ravine.

By John Eligon

Reporting from Johannesburg

An 8-year-old girl was the sole survivor after a bus carrying 46 people on their way to an Easter weekend pilgrimage in South Africa on Thursday plunged 165 feet from a bridge into a ravine and burst into flames, according to a local department of transportation.

The bus was traveling from Botswana to Moria, a religious pilgrimage site in South Africa’s northeast, when it careered off a bridge winding through the Mmamatlakala mountain pass after the driver “lost control,” the department said in a statement.

Forty-five people, including the driver, were killed.

The girl was receiving medical attention at a nearby hospital, the Limpopo Province department of transportation in South Africa said in a statement . The child was in serious condition, according to another government statement.

“Rescue operations continued until the late hours of Thursday evening, as some bodies were burned beyond recognition, others trapped inside the debris and others scattered on the scene,” the transportation department said.

President Cyril Ramaphosa of South Africa called his counterpart in Botswana, President Mokgweetsi Masisi, to extend his condolences, the president’s office said in a statement released late Thursday.

The crash occurred in a scenic, mountainous area of winding roads and sweeping vistas about three and a half hours north of Johannesburg. The road on a high overpass bent sharply over a ravine flanked on both sides by rocky, tree-covered slopes.

The area attracts a lot of traffic on Easter weekend for a pilgrimage to Moria, the headquarters of the Zion Christian Church, one of the largest in the country. Mr. Ramaphosa visited last year’s pilgrimage, the first one since the Covid-19 pandemic. South African border officials had said they were bracing for an influx of visitors for this year’s pilgrimage.

The nationalities of the victims have not yet been determined.

The tragedy struck as South Africans prepared for a four-day weekend, with public holidays on Friday and Monday.

Around major holidays, the South African authorities often take extra measures like police roadblocks and publicity campaigns to help prevent traffic accidents. On Wednesday, South Africa’s minister of transport, Sindisiwe Chikunga, started an Easter road-safety campaign, noting that traffic accidents often spiked during the holiday.

“Easter is a time for celebration, but it is also a time when roads can be more dangerous due to increased traffic and holiday festivities,” the ministry warned .

Africa has historically had among the highest road-fatality rates in the world, according to data from the World Bank and the World Health Organization .

South Africa had more than 12,400 road fatalities in 2022, the most recent year for which statistics are available. The Automobile Association of South Africa called the traffic deaths a “national crisis” in a statement released last year. The association argued that the government needed to invest more in road safety and to enforce traffic laws better.

“Unless these two issues are dealt with, our country’s abysmal road safety situation will never improve,” it said.

Russell Goldman contributed reporting from New York.

John Eligon is the Johannesburg bureau chief for The Times, covering a wide range of events and trends that influence and shape the lives of ordinary people across southern Africa. More about John Eligon