long and short term causes of ww1 essay

The First World War’s Long- and Short-Term Causes Essay

The First World War remains one of the most devastating historical events ever experienced. Numerous conflicts witnessed in Europe towards the end of the 19th century and the start of the 20th formed the basis for resentment, hate, and the arms race that led to the Great War. Still, the war had no single cause but emerged due to a combination of numerous long- and short-term factors. Notably, the formation of alliances and imperialism were the long-term causes, while the death of Archduke Ferdinand and Serbia’s failure to honor the ten-point ultimatum were the immediate causes of WW1.

Undoubtedly, the build-up towards the First World War started early in the mid-19th century due to imperialism. The industrialized European powers were competing for colonies across the world, especially in Asia and Africa ( World War I , n.d.). Apart from viewing imperialism as an economic venture, most Europeans perceived that their military, culture, and race were superior and should influence the entire world. As more European powers realized the financial advantage and prestige that came with colonies, the idea became more competitive to the extent of nations clashing and almost starting war.

Britain and France acquired the most significant share, which angered other European countries ( World War I , n.d.). As a result, rivalries emerged, but Britain and France perceived their vast colonies as confirmation of being influential states in Europe.

Imperialism created hostility and paved the way for the formation of alliances. After the Franco-Prussian war of 1871, the German states united while defeated France remained disgruntled after losing part of its territory, Loraine and Alsace ( World War I , n.d.).

To cushion herself from future war with Germany and Austria-Hungary, France allied with Russia. Britain also sought an alliance with France after realizing it was friendless following the Second Boer War in South Africa between 1899 and 1902. Russia also allied itself with Serbia in the Balkan region. Due to Russia’s large population, Germany and Austria-Hungary saw it as a potential threat and decided to form an alliance ( World War I , n.d.). Thus, two antagonistic groups were formed; Triple Entente comprising France, Russia, and Britain, while Triple Alliance consisted of Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy.

At the same time, the Ottoman Empire was disintegrating with different ethnic groups seeking independence. Rising nationalism led to various wars in the Balkan region, with the Second Balkan War of 1912-1913 promoting Serbia to increase its size ( World War I , n.d.). Austria-Hungary had equally gained territory from the Ottoman Empire, including Bosnia Herzegovina, inhabited mainly by South Slavic people. Serbia wanted to unite all the Serbs in the Balkan region, but Austria-Hungary was not ready to surrender Bosnia Herzegovina. The Serbs in Austria-Hungary were also pushing to break away and join Serbia.

At the height of nationalism, one young Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, shot dead Austria-Hungarian heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia while visiting Bosnia. The tension between Serbia and her allies and Austria-Hungary and her friends heightened ( World War I , n.d.). Austria-Hungary gave Serbia a ten-point ultimatum, which Serbia honored only nine points. Russia promised Serbia support in case Austria-Hungary, which Germany had pledged reinforcement, attacked. On July 14, 1914, World War One officially started and continued for the next four years before ending in 1918.

Overall, the First World War started due to various factors. However, historians agree that among the long-term causes were imperialism and the formation of alliances. Triple Entente became the Allied Powers while the Triple alliance was Central Powers during the war. However, the most immediate causes of the war were the killing of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. Moreover, Serbia’s failure to honor Austria-Hungary’s ten-point ultimatum escalated the conflict.

World War I . (n.d.). HistoryNet. Web.

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• 20th Century

The 4 M-A-I-N Causes of World War One

Alex Browne

28 sep 2021.

It’s possibly the single most pondered question in history – what caused World War One? It wasn’t, like in World War Two, a case of a single belligerent pushing others to take a military stand. It didn’t have the moral vindication of resisting a tyrant.

Rather, a delicate but toxic balance of structural forces created a dry tinder that was lit by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo . That event precipitated the July Crisis, which saw the major European powers hurtle toward open conflict.

The M-A-I-N acronym – militarism, alliances, imperialism and nationalism – is often used to analyse the war, and each of these reasons are cited to be the 4 main causes of World War One. It’s simplistic but provides a useful framework.

The late nineteenth century was an era of military competition, particularly between the major European powers. The policy of building a stronger military was judged relative to neighbours, creating a culture of paranoia that heightened the search for alliances. It was fed by the cultural belief that war is good for nations.

Germany in particular looked to expand its navy. However, the ‘naval race’ was never a real contest – the British always s maintained naval superiority.  But the British obsession with naval dominance was strong. Government rhetoric exaggerated military expansionism.  A simple naivety in the potential scale and bloodshed of a European war prevented several governments from checking their aggression.

A web of alliances developed in Europe between 1870 and 1914 , effectively creating two camps bound by commitments to maintain sovereignty or intervene militarily – the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance.

• The Triple Alliance of 1882 linked Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
• The Triple Entente of 1907 linked France, Britain and Russia.

A historic point of conflict between Austria Hungary and Russia was over their incompatible Balkan interests, and France had a deep suspicion of Germany rooted in their defeat in the 1870 war.

The alliance system primarily came about because after 1870 Germany, under Bismarck, set a precedent by playing its neighbours’ imperial endeavours off one another, in order to maintain a balance of power within Europe

‘Hark! hark! the dogs do bark!’, satirical map of Europe. 1914

Image Credit: Paul K, CC BY 2.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Imperialism

Imperial competition also pushed the countries towards adopting alliances. Colonies were units of exchange that could be bargained without significantly affecting the metro-pole. They also brought nations who would otherwise not interact into conflict and agreement. For example, the Russo-Japanese War (1905) over aspirations in China, helped bring the Triple Entente into being.

It has been suggested that Germany was motivated by imperial ambitions to invade Belgium and France. Certainly the expansion of the British and French empires, fired by the rise of industrialism and the pursuit of new markets, caused some resentment in Germany, and the pursuit of a short, aborted imperial policy in the late nineteenth century.

However the suggestion that Germany wanted to create a European empire in 1914 is not supported by the pre-war rhetoric and strategy.

Nationalism

Nationalism was also a new and powerful source of tension in Europe. It was tied to militarism, and clashed with the interests of the imperial powers in Europe. Nationalism created new areas of interest over which nations could compete.

For example, The Habsburg empire was tottering agglomeration of 11 different nationalities, with large slavic populations in Galicia and the Balkans whose nationalist aspirations ran counter to imperial cohesion. Nationalism in the Balkan’s also piqued Russia’s historic interest in the region.

Indeed, Serbian nationalism created the trigger cause of the conflict – the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

The spark: the assassination

Ferdinand and his wife were murdered in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Bosnian Serbian nationalist terrorist organization the ‘Black Hand Gang.’ Ferdinand’s death, which was interpreted as a product of official Serbian policy, created the July Crisis – a month of diplomatic and governmental miscalculations that saw a domino effect of war declarations initiated.

The historical dialogue on this issue is vast and distorted by substantial biases. Vague and undefined schemes of reckless expansion were imputed to the German leadership in the immediate aftermath of the war with the ‘war-guilt’ clause. The notion that Germany was bursting with newfound strength, proud of her abilities and eager to showcase them, was overplayed.

The first page of the edition of the ‘Domenica del Corriere’, an Italian paper, with a drawing by Achille Beltrame depicting Gavrilo Princip killing Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo

Image Credit: Achille Beltrame, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The almost laughable rationalization of British imperial power as ‘necessary’ or ‘civilizing’ didn’t translate to German imperialism, which was ‘aggressive’ and ‘expansionist.’ There is an on-going historical discussion on who if anyone was most culpable.

Blame has been directed at every single combatant at one point or another, and some have said that all the major governments considered a golden opportunity for increasing popularity at home.

The Schlieffen plan could be blamed for bringing Britain into the war, the scale of the war could be blamed on Russia as the first big country to mobilise, inherent rivalries between imperialism and capitalism could be blamed for polarising the combatants. AJP Taylor’s ‘timetable theory’ emphasises the delicate, highly complex plans involved in mobilization which prompted ostensibly aggressive military preparations.

Every point has some merit, but in the end what proved most devastating was the combination of an alliance network with the widespread, misguided belief that war is good for nations, and that the best way to fight a modern war was to attack. That the war was inevitable is questionable, but certainly the notion of glorious war, of war as a good for nation-building, was strong pre-1914. By the end of the war, it was dead.

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World War I

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: October 29, 2009

World War I, also known as the Great War, started in 1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. His murder catapulted into a war across Europe that lasted until 1918. During the four-year conflict, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire (the Central Powers) fought against Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Canada, Japan and the United States (the Allied Powers). Thanks to new military technologies and the horrors of trench warfare, World War I saw unprecedented levels of carnage and destruction. By the time the war was over and the Allied Powers had won, more than 16 million people—soldiers and civilians alike—were dead.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Tensions had been brewing throughout Europe—especially in the troubled Balkan region of southeast Europe—for years before World War I actually broke out.

A number of alliances involving European powers, the Ottoman Empire , Russia and other parties had existed for years, but political instability in the Balkans (particularly Bosnia, Serbia and Herzegovina) threatened to destroy these agreements.

The spark that ignited World War I was struck in Sarajevo, Bosnia, where Archduke Franz Ferdinand —heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire—was shot to death along with his wife, Sophie, by the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. Princip and other nationalists were struggling to end Austro-Hungarian rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand set off a rapidly escalating chain of events: Austria-Hungary , like many countries around the world, blamed the Serbian government for the attack and hoped to use the incident as justification for settling the question of Serbian nationalism once and for all.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

Because mighty Russia supported Serbia, Austria-Hungary waited to declare war until its leaders received assurance from German leader Kaiser Wilhelm II that Germany would support their cause. Austro-Hungarian leaders feared that a Russian intervention would involve Russia’s ally, France, and possibly Great Britain as well.

On July 5, Kaiser Wilhelm secretly pledged his support, giving Austria-Hungary a so-called carte blanche, or “blank check” assurance of Germany’s backing in the case of war. The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary then sent an ultimatum to Serbia, with such harsh terms as to make it almost impossible to accept.

World War I Begins

Convinced that Austria-Hungary was readying for war, the Serbian government ordered the Serbian army to mobilize and appealed to Russia for assistance. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and the tenuous peace between Europe’s great powers quickly collapsed.

Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Serbia had lined up against Austria-Hungary and Germany, and World War I had begun.

The Western Front

According to an aggressive military strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan (named for its mastermind, German Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen ), Germany began fighting World War I on two fronts, invading France through neutral Belgium in the west and confronting Russia in the east.

On August 4, 1914, German troops crossed the border into Belgium. In the first battle of World War I, the Germans assaulted the heavily fortified city of Liege , using the most powerful weapons in their arsenal—enormous siege cannons—to capture the city by August 15. The Germans left death and destruction in their wake as they advanced through Belgium toward France, shooting civilians and executing a Belgian priest they had accused of inciting civilian resistance. 

First Battle of the Marne

In the First Battle of the Marne , fought from September 6-9, 1914, French and British forces confronted the invading German army, which had by then penetrated deep into northeastern France, within 30 miles of Paris. The Allied troops checked the German advance and mounted a successful counterattack, driving the Germans back to the north of the Aisne River.

The defeat meant the end of German plans for a quick victory in France. Both sides dug into trenches , and the Western Front was the setting for a hellish war of attrition that would last more than three years.

Particularly long and costly battles in this campaign were fought at Verdun (February-December 1916) and the Battle of the Somme (July-November 1916). German and French troops suffered close to a million casualties in the Battle of Verdun alone.

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World War I Books and Art

The bloodshed on the battlefields of the Western Front, and the difficulties its soldiers had for years after the fighting had ended, inspired such works of art as “ All Quiet on the Western Front ” by Erich Maria Remarque and “ In Flanders Fields ” by Canadian doctor Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae . In the latter poem, McCrae writes from the perspective of the fallen soldiers:

Published in 1915, the poem inspired the use of the poppy as a symbol of remembrance.

Visual artists like Otto Dix of Germany and British painters Wyndham Lewis, Paul Nash and David Bomberg used their firsthand experience as soldiers in World War I to create their art, capturing the anguish of trench warfare and exploring the themes of technology, violence and landscapes decimated by war.

The Eastern Front

On the Eastern Front of World War I, Russian forces invaded the German-held regions of East Prussia and Poland but were stopped short by German and Austrian forces at the Battle of Tannenberg in late August 1914.

Despite that victory, Russia’s assault forced Germany to move two corps from the Western Front to the Eastern, contributing to the German loss in the Battle of the Marne.

Combined with the fierce Allied resistance in France, the ability of Russia’s huge war machine to mobilize relatively quickly in the east ensured a longer, more grueling conflict instead of the quick victory Germany had hoped to win under the Schlieffen Plan .

Russian Revolution

From 1914 to 1916, Russia’s army mounted several offensives on World War I’s Eastern Front but was unable to break through German lines.

Defeat on the battlefield, combined with economic instability and the scarcity of food and other essentials, led to mounting discontent among the bulk of Russia’s population, especially the poverty-stricken workers and peasants. This increased hostility was directed toward the imperial regime of Czar Nicholas II and his unpopular German-born wife, Alexandra.

Russia’s simmering instability exploded in the Russian Revolution of 1917, spearheaded by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks , which ended czarist rule and brought a halt to Russian participation in World War I.

Russia reached an armistice with the Central Powers in early December 1917, freeing German troops to face the remaining Allies on the Western Front.

America Enters World War I

At the outbreak of fighting in 1914, the United States remained on the sidelines of World War I, adopting the policy of neutrality favored by President Woodrow Wilson while continuing to engage in commerce and shipping with European countries on both sides of the conflict.

Neutrality, however, it was increasingly difficult to maintain in the face of Germany’s unchecked submarine aggression against neutral ships, including those carrying passengers. In 1915, Germany declared the waters surrounding the British Isles to be a war zone, and German U-boats sunk several commercial and passenger vessels, including some U.S. ships.

Widespread protest over the sinking by U-boat of the British ocean liner Lusitania —traveling from New York to Liverpool, England with hundreds of American passengers onboard—in May 1915 helped turn the tide of American public opinion against Germany. In February 1917, Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the United States ready for war.

Germany sunk four more U.S. merchant ships the following month, and on April 2 Woodrow Wilson appeared before Congress and called for a declaration of war against Germany.

Gallipoli Campaign

With World War I having effectively settled into a stalemate in Europe, the Allies attempted to score a victory against the Ottoman Empire, which entered the conflict on the side of the Central Powers in late 1914.

After a failed attack on the Dardanelles (the strait linking the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean Sea), Allied forces led by Britain launched a large-scale land invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula in April 1915. The invasion also proved a dismal failure, and in January 1916 Allied forces staged a full retreat from the shores of the peninsula after suffering 250,000 casualties.

Did you know? The young Winston Churchill, then first lord of the British Admiralty, resigned his command after the failed Gallipoli campaign in 1916, accepting a commission with an infantry battalion in France.

British-led forces also combated the Ottoman Turks in Egypt and Mesopotamia , while in northern Italy, Austrian and Italian troops faced off in a series of 12 battles along the Isonzo River, located at the border between the two nations.

Battle of the Isonzo

The First Battle of the Isonzo took place in the late spring of 1915, soon after Italy’s entrance into the war on the Allied side. In the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, also known as the Battle of Caporetto (October 1917), German reinforcements helped Austria-Hungary win a decisive victory.

After Caporetto, Italy’s allies jumped in to offer increased assistance. British and French—and later, American—troops arrived in the region, and the Allies began to take back the Italian Front.

World War I at Sea

In the years before World War I, the superiority of Britain’s Royal Navy was unchallenged by any other nation’s fleet, but the Imperial German Navy had made substantial strides in closing the gap between the two naval powers. Germany’s strength on the high seas was also aided by its lethal fleet of U-boat submarines.

After the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915, in which the British mounted a surprise attack on German ships in the North Sea, the German navy chose not to confront Britain’s mighty Royal Navy in a major battle for more than a year, preferring to rest the bulk of its naval strategy on its U-boats.

The biggest naval engagement of World War I, the Battle of Jutland (May 1916) left British naval superiority on the North Sea intact, and Germany would make no further attempts to break an Allied naval blockade for the remainder of the war.

World War I Planes

World War I was the first major conflict to harness the power of planes. Though not as impactful as the British Royal Navy or Germany’s U-boats, the use of planes in World War I presaged their later, pivotal role in military conflicts around the globe.

At the dawn of World War I, aviation was a relatively new field; the Wright brothers took their first sustained flight just eleven years before, in 1903. Aircraft were initially used primarily for reconnaissance missions. During the First Battle of the Marne, information passed from pilots allowed the allies to exploit weak spots in the German lines, helping the Allies to push Germany out of France.

The first machine guns were successfully mounted on planes in June of 1912 in the United States, but were imperfect; if timed incorrectly, a bullet could easily destroy the propeller of the plane it came from. The Morane-Saulnier L, a French plane, provided a solution: The propeller was armored with deflector wedges that prevented bullets from hitting it. The Morane-Saulnier Type L was used by the French, the British Royal Flying Corps (part of the Army), the British Royal Navy Air Service and the Imperial Russian Air Service. The British Bristol Type 22 was another popular model used for both reconnaissance work and as a fighter plane.

Dutch inventor Anthony Fokker improved upon the French deflector system in 1915. His “interrupter” synchronized the firing of the guns with the plane’s propeller to avoid collisions. Though his most popular plane during WWI was the single-seat Fokker Eindecker, Fokker created over 40 kinds of airplanes for the Germans.

The Allies debuted the Handley-Page HP O/400, the first two-engine bomber, in 1915. As aerial technology progressed, long-range heavy bombers like Germany’s Gotha G.V. (first introduced in 1917) were used to strike cities like London. Their speed and maneuverability proved to be far deadlier than Germany’s earlier Zeppelin raids.

By the war’s end, the Allies were producing five times more aircraft than the Germans. On April 1, 1918, the British created the Royal Air Force, or RAF, the first air force to be a separate military branch independent from the navy or army. 

Second Battle of the Marne

With Germany able to build up its strength on the Western Front after the armistice with Russia, Allied troops struggled to hold off another German offensive until promised reinforcements from the United States were able to arrive.

On July 15, 1918, German troops launched what would become the last German offensive of the war, attacking French forces (joined by 85,000 American troops as well as some of the British Expeditionary Force) in the Second Battle of the Marne . The Allies successfully pushed back the German offensive and launched their own counteroffensive just three days later.

After suffering massive casualties, Germany was forced to call off a planned offensive further north, in the Flanders region stretching between France and Belgium, which was envisioned as Germany’s best hope of victory.

The Second Battle of the Marne turned the tide of war decisively towards the Allies, who were able to regain much of France and Belgium in the months that followed.

The Harlem Hellfighters and Other All-Black Regiments

By the time World War I began, there were four all-Black regiments in the U.S. military: the 24th and 25th Infantry and the 9th and 10th Cavalry. All four regiments comprised of celebrated soldiers who fought in the Spanish-American War and American-Indian Wars , and served in the American territories. But they were not deployed for overseas combat in World War I. 

Blacks serving alongside white soldiers on the front lines in Europe was inconceivable to the U.S. military. Instead, the first African American troops sent overseas served in segregated labor battalions, restricted to menial roles in the Army and Navy, and shutout of the Marines, entirely. Their duties mostly included unloading ships, transporting materials from train depots, bases and ports, digging trenches, cooking and maintenance, removing barbed wire and inoperable equipment, and burying soldiers.

Facing criticism from the Black community and civil rights organizations for its quotas and treatment of African American soldiers in the war effort, the military formed two Black combat units in 1917, the 92nd and 93rd Divisions . Trained separately and inadequately in the United States, the divisions fared differently in the war. The 92nd faced criticism for their performance in the Meuse-Argonne campaign in September 1918. The 93rd Division, however, had more success. 

With dwindling armies, France asked America for reinforcements, and General John Pershing , commander of the American Expeditionary Forces, sent regiments in the 93 Division to over, since France had experience fighting alongside Black soldiers from their Senegalese French Colonial army. The 93 Division’s 369 regiment, nicknamed the Harlem Hellfighters , fought so gallantly, with a total of 191 days on the front lines, longer than any AEF regiment, that France awarded them the Croix de Guerre for their heroism. More than 350,000 African American soldiers would serve in World War I in various capacities.

Toward Armistice

By the fall of 1918, the Central Powers were unraveling on all fronts.

Despite the Turkish victory at Gallipoli, later defeats by invading forces and an Arab revolt that destroyed the Ottoman economy and devastated its land, and the Turks signed a treaty with the Allies in late October 1918.

Austria-Hungary, dissolving from within due to growing nationalist movements among its diverse population, reached an armistice on November 4. Facing dwindling resources on the battlefield, discontent on the homefront and the surrender of its allies, Germany was finally forced to seek an armistice on November 11, 1918, ending World War I.

Treaty of Versailles

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Allied leaders stated their desire to build a post-war world that would safeguard itself against future conflicts of such a devastating scale.

Some hopeful participants had even begun calling World War I “the War to End All Wars.” But the Treaty of Versailles , signed on June 28, 1919, would not achieve that lofty goal.

Saddled with war guilt, heavy reparations and denied entrance into the League of Nations , Germany felt tricked into signing the treaty, having believed any peace would be a “peace without victory,” as put forward by President Wilson in his famous Fourteen Points speech of January 1918.

As the years passed, hatred of the Versailles treaty and its authors settled into a smoldering resentment in Germany that would, two decades later, be counted among the causes of World War II .

World War I Casualties

World War I took the lives of more than 9 million soldiers; 21 million more were wounded. Civilian casualties numbered close to 10 million. The two nations most affected were Germany and France, each of which sent some 80 percent of their male populations between the ages of 15 and 49 into battle.

The political disruption surrounding World War I also contributed to the fall of four venerable imperial dynasties: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey.

Legacy of World War I

World War I brought about massive social upheaval, as millions of women entered the workforce to replace men who went to war and those who never came back. The first global war also helped to spread one of the world’s deadliest global pandemics, the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918, which killed an estimated 20 to 50 million people.

World War I has also been referred to as “the first modern war.” Many of the technologies now associated with military conflict—machine guns, tanks , aerial combat and radio communications—were introduced on a massive scale during World War I.

The severe effects that chemical weapons such as mustard gas and phosgene had on soldiers and civilians during World War I galvanized public and military attitudes against their continued use. The Geneva Convention agreements, signed in 1925, restricted the use of chemical and biological agents in warfare and remain in effect today.

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Causes of the First World War

What were the main causes of the first world war.

There are many reasons why Europe was on the brink of war in 1914. Militarism, the Alliance System, Imperialism and Nationalism combined to make the build up of arms in Europe inevitable. The causes of the First World War are complex. Historians have formed various views on the precise nature of the causes. Historiography of the outbreak of the Great War has seen each of the ‘Main’ areas emphasised as the primary cause by different historians over the years. This ranges from German aggression, as seen in the war guilt clauses, to explanations looking at the financial or domestic political reasons for the outbreak of war.

For historiography of the causes of the Great War see this unit, aimed at A Level and above. For a broader overview of  the reasons why the war broke out, see below. Our main section on the First World War can be found here .

[products limit=”4″ columns=”4″ category=”first-world-war” cat_operator=”AND”]

Below are short explanations of how each contributed to this build up:

Long term reasons for the militarisation of Europe:

A. nationalism.

Many European countries believed that their country was more important than any other and wanted to give the impression of being strong. In order to do this they needed a ‘show of strength’ and increasing the size of the armed forces and ‘showing it off’ was one way of demonstrating this. History also plays a role here as Nationalism led leaders of different countries to use great military victories as examples of greatness. This increases national pride but also can make a nation look aggressive, leading to its neighbours considering increased military spending.

B. Economic rivalry

Many European countries began to build up tariffs against each other from the 1880’s onwards. England was the only exception. This led to a great deal of tension between the various countries and necessitated increased expenditure on the military to safeguard trading routes.

C. Imperial rivalry

As the various European countries tried to gain colonies for themselves before the war a great deal of trouble was caused. Britain and France had clashed on occasions. Germany also created a great deal of tension, especially over Morocco. The Kaiser claimed Germany had a right to their “place in the sun”. Colonies needed protecting, both from aggressive neighbours and from people living in the colonies who wanted independence. This required increased armed forces which could be stationed either at home or in the colonies: and if expansion of an empire was intended, again increased military expenditure was required.

In 1905 and 1911 Imperial Rivalry caused massive tension. In both cases the location that prompted a serious diplomatic situation was Morocco. Morocco was controlled by the French but there were a number of German firms there. In 1911 the Germans send the gun ship Panther to Morocco to ‘safeguard’ German economic interests there. This was probably designed to test the resolve of the French and the strength of the Triple Entente. If the British didn’t support France, then Germany could make audacious moves on territories they didn’t already control. The result was a statement from the British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, gave a speech in which he said that National Honour was more precious than peace: a veiled threat that the Germans needed to act carefully or face the consequences.

The German gunship Panther.

After a series of talks a compromise was reached which allowed German firms to continue trading in Morocco and agreements made over the control of a number of disputed areas in Africa.

D. Power blocs

Two power blocs had developed in Europe before the war. The first time they really became apparent was over the 1903 annexation of Bosnia. The Alliance system required military assistance to be given in certain circumstances and ensured that the major powers would maintain large armed forces.

The Alliance System at the outbreak of the First Word War

E. Militarism

A combination of the previous factors led to an arms race between the major powers. The British and Germans engaged in a ‘naval race’ where the Germans attempted to try and compete with the Royal Navy and the British, in turn, responded to increased German naval capability by building more, bigger and better, ships.

The British Grand Fleet

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Short Term Causes of the First World War

A. the kaiser and german attitude.

German foreign policy before the war was uncertain and insecure. It was mainly the fault of the Kaiser. He had little idea of what was involved and more often than not made errors of judgement which were difficult to overcome. One example was an interview he gave to the Daily Telegraph. ( Full version can be read here ).

Kaiser Wilhelm II

Extract from the Daily Telegraph interview:

“But, you will say, what of the German navy? Surely, that is a menace to England! Against whom but England are my squadrons being prepared? If England is not in the minds of those Germans who are bent on creating a powerful fleet, why is Germany asked to consent to such new and heavy burdens of taxation? My answer is clear. Germany is a young and growing empire. She has a worldwide commerce which is rapidly expanding, and to which the legitimate ambition of patriotic Germans refuses to assign any bounds. Germany must have a powerful fleet to protect that commerce and her manifold interests in even the most distant seas. She expects those interests to go on growing, and she must be able to champion them manfully in any quarter of the globe. Her horizons stretch far away.”

B. Series of Crises

It has been argued that the series of crises before the war led to many problems. Tension increased throughout the period as the European countries became involved in incident after incident. For example the Moroccan Crises noted above.

C. Anglo-German rivalry

These two clashed in many different areas before the war. The most important was over the question of navies. Britain had. always, regarded herself as supreme in naval affairs In 1898 Germany began to develop her own navy under the direction of Admiral Tirpitz. they claimed that they needed a navy to protect her colonies. Germany began to spend large amounts of money and so did Britain. Eventually in 1906 Britain launched a new and far superior type of ship called a ‘Dreadnought’. This made all existing ships obsolete (out of date). Inside two years Germany was also producing its own ships of the ‘Dreadnought’ class. Attempts were made to slow down naval rivalry but were never successful. By 1914 Britain had 19 at sea and Germany had 13. The effect of naval rivalry was once again to increase the many problems facing European countries.

D. Failure of Disarmament

Disarmament may have reduced tension across Europe. Each time a nation increased its spending on the military, others felt compelled to do the same. The German authorities were aware that the Russian and French militaries were spending at a level that may have seen them far in advance of the German army within a few years. This had to be countered. Military spending was also influenced by colonial wars. While this tended to be short term increases due to additional resources being needed, it led to the number of weapons and vehicles being readily available increasing. There was little done to prevent this escalating.

E. The Balkan Wars

The wars in the Balkans from 1912 to 1913 created great deal of trouble for the rest of Europe. Austria-Hungary in particular became concerned at the possibility of losing influence in the Balkans.

Historians views on the causes of the first world war

Historians have debated the causes of the first world war. Some argue that Germany was at fault. This was the prevalent belief for quite some time after the war. Since then, other historians have analysed evidence about the July Crisis and the way it triggered a wider conflict. A German historian, Fischer, used German archives to suggest that the war was calculated and deliberate on Germany’s part. More radical historical views include suggestions that the war was actually caused by domestic, home affairs in the most powerful European nations, not by foreign policies.

First World War

Causes of the First World War  –  Timeline of Causes  –  Forgotten Causes  –  Assassination of Franz Ferdinand  –  The Schlieffen Plan  – Historiography of the Causes of the First World War

Outbreak of War  (Public reaction in Britain)  –  The British Expeditionary Force in 1914

Trench Warfare  –  Simulation: Would you make a good officer in the trenches?  –  British contribution to the Western Front

Battles of the First World War  –  First Battle of the Marne  –  The Gallipoli Campaign  –  Battle of Verdun  –  Battle of Jutland  –  Brusilov Offensive  –  Battle of the Somme  –  Battle of Passchendaele  –  The Spring Offensive  –  Battle of Amiens  –  Victory on the Western Front?

The Home Front  –  Revision exercise  –  Changing role of Women  –  Propaganda  –  Censorship  –  Conscientious Objectors  –  Rationing and Recruitment

Personalities  –  Douglas Haig and the Somme  –  Charles Gass  –  Billy Bishop  –  Ludendorff  –  The Bradford Pals  – Black History and the First World War

Technology and New Weapons  –  British Tanks  –  Machine Guns

Medicine in the First World War

Other wars:

The Norman Conquest – The Wars of the Roses – The British and English Civil Wars – The Second World War  – Vietnam War – Cold War

Famous Battles:

Battle of Hastings  – Battle of Towton – Battle of Bosworth – D Day

Related Content:

The British Empire – The Treaty of Versailles – Impact of the War on Germany  – Primary History – History Teachers Resources

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IB/Group 3/History/Route 2/Causes and Effects of World War One

• 1.1 Task: Introducing the topic
• 1.2.1 1900-1918: From Conquest to Catastrophe
• 2 Success criteria
• 3 Inquiry questions
• 4 Key concepts
• 5.1.1 Unification of Germany and the Franco-Prussian War of 1871
• 5.1.2.1 The naval arms race
• 5.1.3 Alliance system
• 5.1.4 Links to external sites discussing alliances
• 5.1.5.1 Task: Imperial Rivalries source analysis
• 5.1.6 Nationalism
• 5.1.7 Revision tasks: Long-term causes
• 5.1.8 Revision questions: Long-term causes
• 5.2.1 Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
• 5.2.2 The July Days/Crisis
• 5.2.3 The Blank Cheque
• 5.2.4 The Ultimatum
• 5.2.5 Mobilization
• 5.3.1 Alternative point of view: Economic causes of war from a Marxist perspective
• 5.3.2.1 Economic causes: Reflection questions
• 5.4 Ideological causes
• 5.5 Political causes
• 5.6 Territorial causes
• 5.7.1.1 The Von Schlieffen Plan
• 5.7.1.2 Plan XVII/Plan 17
• 5.7.2 Kaiser Wilhelm's personality and actions
• 5.8.1 Perspectives: Why are historians still fighting WW1?
• 5.8.2 Links to external sites discussing the causes of WW1
• 5.8.3 Revision tasks: Historiography
• 5.9 Causes of WW1 Review Tasks
• 5.10 Causes of WW1 Review Questions
• 6.1 Franco-Prussian War (1870−1871)
• 6.2.1 Germany
• 6.2.2 France
• 6.2.3 Britain
• 6.2.4 Austria-Hungary
• 6.2.5 Russia
• 6.2.6 Turkey
• 6.3.1 Bismarck's web of alliances
• 6.3.2 The New Course and Weltpolitik
• 6.3.3 Imperialism
• 6.3.4 The emergence of the Alliance System
• 6.3.5 The naval race
• 6.3.6 The situation in the Balkans
• 6.4.1 The First Moroccan (Tangier) Crisis (1905)
• 6.4.2 The Bosnian Crisis (1908)
• 6.4.3 The Second Moroccan (Agadir) Crisis (1911)
• 6.4.4 The First Balkan War (1912)
• 6.4.5 The Second Balkan War (1913)
• 6.4.6 The international situation by 1913
• 6.5.1 The will to make war
• 6.5.2 The arms race and militarism
• 6.5.3 War plans
• 6.6 The immediate causes of the war: July Crisis (1914)
• 6.7.1 Germany
• 6.7.2 Austria-Hungary
• 6.7.3 Russia
• 6.7.4 France
• 6.7.5 Britain
• 6.8.1 Fritz Fischer
• 6.8.2 After Fischer
• 6.8.3 John Keegan
• 6.8.4 James Joll
• 6.8.5 Niall Ferguson
• 6.9.1 Types of war: World War One as a Total War
• 6.9.2.1 Failure of the Von Schlieffen Plan
• 6.9.2.2 Race To the Sea
• 6.9.2.3 Trench Warfare/Deadlock on the Western Front
• 6.9.2.4 Task: Trench Warfare
• 6.9.2.5.1 Video: Historian Dan Snow on trench warfare
• 6.9.2.6.1 Historiography: Historian Gary Sheffield on the first day of the Somme
• 6.9.2.6.2.1 Perspective 1: The Blackadder/Popular culture idea -Lions were led by Donkeys
• 6.9.2.7.1 Historiography: Historian Nigel Jones on German Tactics during Operation Michael
• 6.9.2.8.1 Historiography: Historian Nick Lloyd on British tactics at the Battle of Amiens 1918
• 6.9.2.9.1 Historiography: Historian John Bourne on technological developments on the Western Front from 1914-1918
• 6.9.2.9.2 Historiography: Historian Gary Sheffield on technological developments on the Western Front from 1914-1918
• 6.9.3.1 Battle of Tannenberg
• 6.9.3.2 Brusilov Offensive
• 6.9.4.1 The Battle of Jutland
• 6.9.4.2 Development of Q Ships
• 6.9.4.3.1 Historiography: Historian Hew Strachan on the German decision to engage in unrestricted submarine warfare
• 6.9.4.4 The Sinking of the Lusitania
• 6.9.4.5.1 Historiography: Historian Alexander Watson on convoy tactics
• 6.9.4.5.2 Historiography: Historian B.J.C. McKercher on the failure of the U-Boat campaign to starve Britain
• 6.9.4.6 British Naval Blockade of Germany
• 6.9.5 Air warfare: Technological developments
• 6.9.6 The extent of the mobilization of human and economic resources
• 6.9.7.1 Involvement of imperial and colonial forces
• 6.9.7.2 Gallipoli
• 6.9.7.3 Japan and Germany's Asian possessions
• 6.9.7.4 China and the Western Front
• 6.9.7.5 World War One in East Africa
• 6.9.7.6.1 The Zimmerman telegram
• 6.9.7.7 Review questions: The influence and/or involvement of foreign powers
• 6.9.8.1 Task: Website Activity
• 6.9.9 Practices of WW1 Review Questions
• 6.10.1.1 Treaty of Brest-Litvosk
• 6.10.1.2 Treaty of Versailles
• 6.10.1.3 Peace Treaties: Review Questions
• 6.10.2 Territorial changes
• 6.10.3.1 Short-term
• 6.10.3.2 Russian Revolutions
• 6.10.3.3 Long-term
• 6.10.4 Economic impacts
• 6.10.5 Social impacts
• 6.10.6.1.1 Historiography: Historian Professor Susan R Grayzel on how WW1 Impacted Women's Daily Lives
• 6.10.6.1.2 Historiography: Historians Cawood and McKinning Bell on employment of British women during WW1
• 6.10.6.1.3 Historiography: Historian Professor Susan R Grayzel on how WW1 Impacted Cultural Change around Gender
• 6.10.6.1.4 Historiography: Historian Professor Susan R Grayzel on the overall impact of WW1 on the role and status of Women
• 6.10.7 Effects of WW1 review tasks
• 6.10.8 Effects of WW1 review questions
• 6.11.1 Instructions
• 6.11.2 Exam style questions
• 6.11.3 Essay or debate questions
• 6.12 References

Introduction [ edit | edit source ]

This textbook is structured around the requirements of the 2020 International Baccalaureate History Guide and in particular World history topic 11: Causes and effects of 20th century wars. In order to stop it getting too large and never being finished, this text book only focuses on the causes, practice and effects of World War One. This textbook explores the causes of World War One, as well as the way in which warfare was conducted in different operational theatres. The textbook also looks at World War One as a total war, the use of technology, and the impact these factors had upon the outcome.Teachers should be aware that covering only one war will not be enough for students to be successful in final examinations due to the comparative nature of exam style questions and other wars should be looked at as well. It is hoped that this textbook will be kept updated and modified as the official guides change in the future. It is written as a textbook so there are both questions and examples throughout. Teachers should be aware that exam style questions are not actual past paper questions in case there are any copyright issues with those but rather practice questions written in exam format. Lastly, while the audience for this textbook is primarily students, all textbooks benefit from having teaching guidance explicitly stated throughout rather than in a separate teachers' book (which no-one ever reads), so teaching notes have been added where appropriate.

Task: Introducing the topic [ edit | edit source ]

Often teachers like to start any new topic with some variation of a "what do you know already" style task typically done with a time limit and then returned to and revised as knowledge develops over the course of study. These type of tasks take various forms from mindmaps to discussions and for those self-studying this can also be a good idea.

• One way a diligent student may choose to structure their "What do you know already about WW1 task is around the "Who?" "What?" "Why" "How?" "When?" questions.
• The wise student will go back to their initial mindmap and keep updating it throughout the course so it becomes an organic visual display of your increasing expertise in the topic

Another pathway for introducing the topic: Teacher led discussion, make sure you give wait time between each question, then think, pair, share and gradually build up the shift from now to 1900

• What makes a super power/great power?
• Who are the great powers in the world now?
• What is a military alliance?
• What are the major alliances or unions of countries now?
• Are there any major military alliances you know of?
• Who do you think were the great powers in 1900?

After students have discussed and you've fed back, introduce the overview.

Overviews [ edit | edit source ]

After doing the task above, you may wish to read the overview below and/or watch the overview video linked below and then redo/improve your answer to the task above.

1900-1918: From Conquest to Catastrophe [ edit | edit source ]

At some point in the 1700s Europe began to diverge from the rest of the world in terms of economic might. This great divergence was hastened by the twin impacts of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. These political and technological revolutions allowed Europe and her offshoots such as the United States of America, the ability to project military and economic might across the globe on a scale that had not been possible previously. By 1900 much of the world was ruled either indirectly or directly by the Great European Powers and their empires, European dominance was largely unrivaled. These empires which had been built at great benefit to Europe but often at terrible human cost to other parts of the world. These empires would be both a source of rivalry and tension in the build up to war and also an enormous source of manpower and resources for the conflict when it came. Beginning in the Balkans in Europe after the assassination of Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand, WW1 led to the mobilization of more than 70 million military personnel. A conflict on an entirely new scale, that lasted from 1914-1918 the First World War led to an estimated 8.5 million combatant deaths and 13 million civilian deaths directly and millions more indirectly through flu, genocide and continued regional conflicts after its end. It was during WW1 that many of the tactics and strategies of modern warfare were born and WW1 led directly to the fall of three empires, Russia, Germany and Austro-Hungary and must be seen as the final nail in the coffin of a fourth, the Ottoman empire which ended in 1922. The ending carried within it the seeds of the even greater and more destructive conflict that would follow as well as the birth of communism, an ideology whose impact would play a key role in shaping much of the 20th Century.

• Video: World War One in 6 minutes

Task: Source analysis of The Rhodes Colossus Cartoon

• Analyze the source below look for features in the cartoon
• What is the underlying message of the cartoon?

Success criteria [ edit | edit source ]

As you work through the sections either with a teacher or on your own, as this is a specification specific textbook rather than a general textbook about WW1 it is often useful to keep the examination board success criteria in mind as you plan your answers both for written answers and discussion or debate activities. The following are adapted from the top band of the Paper 2 mark scheme and are useful as general success criteria.

• Responses are clearly focused, showing a high degree of awareness of the demands and implications of the question.
• Responses are well structured and effectively organized.
• Knowledge of the world history topic is accurate and relevant.
• Events are placed in their historical context
• There is a clear understanding of historical concepts.
• The examples that the student chooses to discuss are appropriate and relevant, and are used effectively to support the analysis/evaluation.
• The response makes effective links and/or comparisons (as appropriate to the question).
• The response contains clear and coherent critical analysis.
• There is evaluation of different perspectives, and this evaluation is integrated effectively into the answer.
• All, or nearly all, of the main points are substantiated
• The response argues to a consistent conclusion.

Inquiry questions [ edit | edit source ]

These are some overarching questions to help structure your study of World War One.

• How do wars between nation-states start?
• To what extent did the long-term causes of the war make conflict likely by 1914?
• How far were the short-term causes to blame for the outbreak of war in 1914?
• To what extent should Germany be blamed for causing the First World War?
• Why did trench warfare develop on the western front and what attempts were there to break the deadlock?
• How far was World War One a world war?
• To what extent did World War One change the world?
• Why are historians still fighting WW1?

Key concepts [ edit | edit source ]

The IB guide expects students to be familiar with the six historical concepts as these interact with historical knowledge and historical skills to develop a nuanced and sophisticated understanding of the past. They are as follows:

• Consequence
• Significance
• Perspectives

Examples below will demonstrate how to use the key concepts to deepen understanding of the WW1 topic and will be in bold . The key concepts are also excellent ways of structuring your Internal Assessment research question when you come to that.

I. Causes of World War One [ edit | edit source ]

Long-term causes [ edit | edit source ], unification of germany and the franco-prussian war of 1871 [ edit | edit source ].

The Franco-Prussian war of 1871 led to the defeat of France and the unification of Germany. While defeat in the Franco-Prussian War did led to the birth of revanchism (French for revenge-ism") in France towards Germany this is better seen as a background factor by 1914 rather than a direct cause of war. Particularly upsetting to the French was the territorial loss of Alsace and Lorraine although again that had largely faded as a direct cause of tension by 1914. Stronger links between the Franco-Prussian war and the outbreak of WW1 can be seen in two areas, the first being the creation of a very powerful Germany in the heart of Europe with a strong culture of nationalism and Prussian style militarism. The second was the influence Prussian victory had had on other countries and the resulting move towards larger armies based around the mobilizing of reservists. If you are using MAIN to help you remember the long term causes (and many people do) then this factor would go under either militarism or nationalism.

Militarism [ edit | edit source ]

The growth of militarism in Europe can be seen as a cause of war in three major ways, firstly the glorification of war as well as a feeling that war was inevitable meant that a military solution and an overly strong influence of serving military officers on political decision making was apparent particularly in Germany. Secondly and linked to this was an increasingly large amount of money being spent on the European militaries and generally an increase in the size of the armies which could be made much larger quickly by calling up reserve forces. Thirdly, the development of new military technology led to a naval arms race between Britain and Germany which further heightened tensions.

The naval arms race [ edit | edit source ]

Britain's global imperial power was backed by its navy and so when the German Navy Bill of 1900 was passed with a mandate to dramatically increase the size of the German navy, the British saw this as a potential threat to their empire and mastery of the oceans. The British in response launched their own shipbuilding program including the development of a new more powerful class of ship with the launching of the HMS Dreadnought, in 1906. The Dreadnought was a fearsome beast, heavily armoured and capable of striking from large distances and soon both Germany and Britain were rushing to produce them.

Alliance system [ edit | edit source ]

The development of two rival alliances with two distinct "sides" is often seen as an important linking factor that ensured a local war would grow rapidly to become a global one. By 1914, two different groupings of states had appeared based on a series of treaties and agreements starting with the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879:

• The Triple Alliance: Austria, Germany and Italy
• The Triple Entente: France, Russia and Britain

While the alliances were intended to be defensive they did have the following two major "side effects":

• The countries involved began to think in terms of two opposing sides with some key people beginning to think war was inevitable.
• With France on one side and Russia on the other, Germany now had a potentially hostile power on each side increasing the feeling of encirclement.

Links to external sites discussing alliances [ edit | edit source ]

• Video: Sal Khan on the alliance system before WW1
• Video: The Alliance system

Imperial rivalries [ edit | edit source ]

While imperial rivalries undoubtedly contributed to increased tension between the Great Powers and other states, most notably over the Russo-Japanese war and the Moroccan Crises, and Africa and China were other sources of tension as well. Despite these, it is unlikely that imperial rivalries alone can explain the outbreak of World War One. One of the strongest arguments to show this, is that Britain's huge global empire brought her into conflict with both France in North Africa and Russia at the Indian frontier and yet Britain ended up allied with both powers during WW1. Another example of this is the imperial rivalry between Russia and Japan which had led to the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905 and yet both fought on the same side in World War One. That said, the Germany Kaiser's quest for a "place in the sun" namely more German colonies and particularly the building of a German fleet were undoubtedly unpopular in Britain and seen as a potential future threat to the British empire.

Task: Imperial Rivalries source analysis [ edit | edit source ]

Nationalism [ edit | edit source ]

Nationalism can be defined simply in a belief in the existence of the nation as a political unit. It can however in its extreme forms, be linked to political extremism. Nationalism undeniably played a key role leading up to World War I with Serbian nationalism in particular, playing a key role particularly with its connections to pan-slavic nationalism. It is connected to the outbreak of WW in two major ways: firstly in the Balkans, Serbs sought independence from Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, secondly Serbian nationalism was linked to the use of political violence to further their agenda. These two elements would combine in the assassination of the Archduke of Austria in 1914 by a Bosnian Serb, Gavrillo Princep, which would in turn trigger the start of the Great War.

Revision tasks: Long-term causes [ edit | edit source ]

• Website: John D Clare's Website is aimed at G9/10 students rather than G11/12 but it is still superbly clear and very useful as you begin the topic or if you find this textbook unclear. Go to this page and see if there's any information about long term causes you would add to the mind map you began at the start of this textbook.

Revision questions: Long-term causes [ edit | edit source ]

• How important were long-term factors in causing the First World War?
• How significant were the crises of the years 1905 to 1912 in creating tension in Europe?
• What other developments created tension in Europe between 1900 to 1913?
• Define Militarism
• Define Nationalism
• Define Alliances
• Define Imperialism

Short-term causes [ edit | edit source ]

Assassination of franz ferdinand [ edit | edit source ].

Video: Did a wrong turn start WW1?

Video: How the assassination of Franz Ferdinand unfolded .

The July Days/Crisis [ edit | edit source ]

The blank cheque [ edit | edit source ], the ultimatum [ edit | edit source ], mobilization [ edit | edit source ], economic causes [ edit | edit source ].

While economic causes have been stated as a cause of WW1, and in particular conflict over markets and trade, there is little strong evidence that economic factors played more than a contributing role to the outbreak WW1, that said this opinion is disputed by some and another point of view are included below. While it is undoubtedly the case that all the Great Powers and other leading nations did see massive industrial growth during the 19th century particularly with regards to manufacturing, and there were certainly elements of rivalry such as the newly unified Germany beginning to surpass Britain in certain areas, it is harder to make the necessary link between these and the short term causes such as the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, that led to war. Elements of rivalry that did exist were tied to imperialism and competition for access to raw materials and the ability to sell goods overseas. While it is true many countries had introduced customs duties to protect their industries from foreign competition, the economic superpower Britain had remained a free trade nation and other than having the economic might to build and equip huge armies, connecting economic causes directly to the outbreak of war is not easy to do.

Alternative point of view: Economic causes of war from a Marxist perspective [ edit | edit source ]

In this point of view WW1 was caused by the capitalist economic forces underpinning imperialism leading inevitably to conflict between rival powers. This argument is based on the idea that imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism would inevitably lead to financial monopolies as companies looked for ever increasing profits through the acquisition of new markets, extracting raw materials and exploiting cheap labour from the rest of the world.  This would in turn lead to imperial competition and these imperial rivalries would inevitably lead to war.  From this perspective World War One should be seen as a ‘capitalist imperialist war’. While simplified for this textbook, this is broadly the line of argument that Lenin would use.

Historiography: Historian Hew Strachan on the Marxist perspective [ edit | edit source ]

“Even if economic factors are helpful in explaining the long-range causes, it is hard to see how they fit into the precise mechanics of the July crisis itself. Commercial circles in July were appalled at the prospect of war and anticipated the collapse of credit; Bethman Hollweg, the Tsar, and Gray envisaged economic dislocation and social collapse.” [1]

Economic causes: Reflection questions [ edit | edit source ]

• Why is it hard to make a direct link between economic causes and the outbreak of war in 1914?
• How might a marxist perspective argue economic causes led to war in Europe in 1914?
• According to Strachan what type of causes of WW1 can economic factors not explain?
• What reasoning does he use to support this conclusion?

Ideological causes [ edit | edit source ]

Political causes [ edit | edit source ], territorial causes [ edit | edit source ], other causes [ edit | edit source ], military planning [ edit | edit source ], the von schlieffen plan [ edit | edit source ], plan xvii/plan 17 [ edit | edit source ], kaiser wilhelm's personality and actions [ edit | edit source ], historiography [ edit | edit source ], perspectives: why are historians still fighting ww1 [ edit | edit source ].

The historiography and the arguments surrounding the causes of WW1 began almost as soon as the war began and continue to this day. This section will give a brief overview of some of the major schools of thought and for those interested in pursuing this topic further there are some links to external sites.

Links to external sites discussing the causes of WW1 [ edit | edit source ]

• The Historiography of the Origins of the First World War
• 10 interpretations of who started WW1

Revision tasks: Historiography [ edit | edit source ]

• Read the 10 interpretations from the BBC of who started WW1
• Which one do you agree with the most? Explain your reasoning
• Which one do you agree with the least? Explain your reasoning
• Create your own short answer to the question of "Who was most to blame for the start of WW1?" in the same style as the examples.

Causes of WW1 Review Tasks [ edit | edit source ]

• Key concept Causation: Watch the Alphonse the Camel Video . Which causes and individuals were most to blame for Alphonse's death? How did the causes combine? Where did responsibility lie?
• Now apply the same reasoning to your knowledge of the causes of WW1 and answer this exam style question: To what extent was Austria-Hungary to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1914?

Causes of WW1 Review Questions [ edit | edit source ]

These questions can be used in a variety of ways, as quick retrieval practice tasks or even for discussion tasks. If you are planning to use them for retrieval practice make sure you don't look at the answers until you've thought hard about them yourself, even better to have someone ask you the questions and then they can give you feedback on the answers.

• How did global imperialism contribute to tensions in Europe by 1914?
• How far was nationalism the cause of war?
• What were the aims of Kaiser Wilhelm II’s 1890 Weltpolitik policy?
• What was the Schlieffen Plan? What were its aims?
• What was HMS Dreadnought and why was it significant as a cause of WW1?
• How did the Schlieffen Plan play a role in bringing Britain into the war?
• In what ways did the existence of military plans before 1914 contribute to the likelihood of war?
• Give some examples of militarism in Europe prior to 1914
• Why did the naval arms race create tension between Britain and Germany?
• Why was the Austro-Hungarian empire vulnerable to nationalism?
• Why has Kaiser Wilhelm's personality been seen as a cause of war?
• How did the rise in Balkan nationalism contribute to causing the war?
• In your opinion, how significant were a) economic b) ideological c) territorial factors in causing the First World War?
• How important were political reasons in causing the First World War?
• Why did disputes over Morocco increase European tension?
• What are historians' views on the causes of the First World War?
• Did the Alliance System make war more likely or less likely?
• How far did colonial problems create tensions between the Great Powers? Give at least one example
• Why were there problems in the Balkans prior to 1914?
• How did the Alliance System lead to a limited local war in the Balkans expanding into a world war very quickly? Give some examples

Summary of The Causes of World War I [ edit | edit source ]

< IB ‎ | Group 3 ‎ | History ‎ | Route 2 ‎ | Causes, Practices, and Effects of Wars ‎ | The Causes of World War I

Franco-Prussian War (1870−1871) [ edit | edit source ]

• The Prussians hoped to consolidate the smaller states into a new German state; creating a dominant new power head within Europe (as threat to Austria).
• The Prussian Army humiliated France in these Franco-Prussian wars. This was as a result of the effective modern technology such as railways.
• France lost the territory of Alsace-Lorraine and had to pay an indemnity of 5,000 million marks.
• Germany was a new power of Europe and France suffered from political and socio-economic problems following their defeat. This spurred later revenge .

Characteristics of Great European Powers c. 1900 [ edit | edit source ]

Germany [ edit | edit source ].

• Germany was a democratic monarchy that had a German parliament, The Reichstag, that held limited powers.
• After the Franco-Prussian War, it was the strongest industrial power in Europe, overtaking Britain.
• Suffered from socio-economic problems from the large working class as a result of rapid industrialisation.
• Germany wanted to pursue imperialism and wanted to develop its empire into an overseas empire (colonies in Africa).
• One country stood in its way, Britain.

France [ edit | edit source ]

• France was a democratic republic with extensive civil liberties.
• Agriculturally based with most civilians living in rural areas.
• Wealthy, and had a large empire.
• Economically unstable as a result of the "swinging economy" before "pacifist" left and "revanchist" right wing parties.
• Wanted Alsace-Lorraine back from Germany.

Britain [ edit | edit source ]

• Established parliamentary democracy; monarchy retained limited powers.
• Built a vast overseas empire as a result of early industrial revolution - the most powerful international trade of the 19th century.
• The turn of the century meant that the USA and Germany had overtaken in industrial production strength.
• Followed a policy of "Splendid Isolation" in order to circumvent conflicts with other nations.
• Its great navy meant Britain could not attack, only defend and its Navy was the source of its strength.

Austria-Hungary [ edit | edit source ]

• A dual monarchy that had two heavily bureaucratic and inefficient parliaments.
• Lacked military strength and felt national liberation from states within its empire as a consequence of the growing nationalist forces and ambitions rising within Europe.
• The Slavic people strived fro independence from the Ottomans and wished to unite with the Habsburg Empire.
• "A multi-national European empire within the age of nationalism."
• Russia was the great defender of the Slavic people.

Russia [ edit | edit source ]

• An autocratic divine monarchy with the Tsar being perceived as having been appointed by God.
• Heavily bureaucratic and ineffective government with rapid (and outdated) industrialisation and large work force classed as peasants.
• Russian revolution of 1905 after the disastrous war against Japan. Nothing improved, Russian people were unhappy at the turn of the century.
• Wanted Slavic nationalism in the Balkans to establish its own influence and wanted to prevent Austia-Hungary expansion.

Turkey [ edit | edit source ]

• Turkey was the 'sick man of Europe' whose regime was corrupt and ineffective.
• Many revolts by nationalist and Islamic groups could not be contained and its weakness was exploited for commercial interest by other European powers.
• The Sultan was overthrown in 1909 by the "Young Turks" a group who wished to modernise Turkey.
• Many European Powers saw the slow decay of the Ottoman empire a threat as a result of the "power vacuum" that would occur.
• Emphasis on modernising and promotion of self-government was to occur. Austria-Hungary did not like this.

Long-term causes of World War I [ edit | edit source ]

Bismarck's web of alliances [ edit | edit source ].

• After its economic, military, and imperial potential, many powers in Europe began to feel nervous.
• Germany had to consolidate its new position in Europe, and Germany's chancellor Otto von Bismarck wanted to create a web of alliances to protect Germany from future attack.
• The Three Emperors' League (1887) or Dreikaiserbund joined Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary.
• The Dual Alliance (1879) helped fix the collapsed Dreikaiserbund after Russia came into conflict in the Balkans with Austria-Hungary.
• The Three Emperors' Alliance (1881) renewed the Dreikaiserbund with Russia.
• The Triple Alliance (1882) allied Germany with Austria-Hungary and Italy.
• The Reinsurance Treaty (1887) , much like the Dual Alliance, served to piece together problems after problems in the Balkans in 1885.

The New Course and Weltpolitik [ edit | edit source ]

• The young and ambitious new Kaiser Wilhelm II and new chancellor Leo von Caprivi took German foreign policy on a 'new course' that would destroy Bismarck's web of alliances.
• German policy makers from the mid 1890s began to look beyond Europe in the hope to make Germany a colonial power with an overseas empire and navy.
• Such policies would divert German population away from social and political problems at home.

Imperialism [ edit | edit source ]

• One of the major causes of tension between the European powers in 1880–1905 was colonial rivalries.
• The effort of building their empires was initially driven by economic motives (cheap raw materials, new markets, low-cost labour).
• Over time, however, it became a mixture of Social Darwinism.

The emergence of the Alliance System [ edit | edit source ]

• Weltpolitik brought Germany in to trouble and Admiral von Tripitz , Secretary of State for the Navy shared the Kaiser's beliefs.
• von Tripitz thought Germany should mount a naval challenge to Britain, and pushed the Naval Law through the Reichstag.
• Britain's position of Splendid Isolation was no longer appropriate or useful, and sought security through Alliances as a result of its threat to its naval supremacy.
• After Russia, France, and Britain were joined together in the Triple Entente , Germany was 'encircled'.
• Europe was now divided into two main alliance systems; the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance .

The naval race [ edit | edit source ]

• Britain's threat lead to the launch of a super-battleship known as the HMS Dreadnought.
• The irony of its creation was that it nullified Britain's historical naval advantage as it made all other British battleships obsolete.
• Competitors began constructing similar ships and this triggered a 'naval scare' in the winter of 1908–09.
• The naval race changed the mood in Britain, and as Normal Lowe observes, Britain's willingness to go to war in 1914 owed a lot to the tensions generated by the naval race .

The situation in the Balkans [ edit | edit source ]

• The Balkans was a very unstable area that contributed to the tension in Europe before 1914.
• Turkey, once ruler of the entire Balkans, was now impotent, and many Serbs, Greeks, and Bulgars had already revolted and set up independent states.
• The Austrians lost grip of their multi-ethnic empire, and Slavs within the country wanted to break away. Serbia was thus seen as a threat to Austria-Hungary.
• Russia saw itself as the champion of the Slav people and wanted the straits of Constantinople to be kept open for ships to move from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea.
• A tariff war began in 1905–06 that dragged France in for financial support. The new Russophile King Peter believed an aggressive foreign policy would demonstrate that Austria still had power.

Short-term causes: the crisis years (1905-13) [ edit | edit source ]

The first moroccan (tangier) crisis (1905) [ edit | edit source ].

• Germany was worried by the new relationship between Britain and France and set to break it.
• As part of the entente, Britain supported a French takeover of Morocco in return for France recognising British Egypt.
• Germany had not gained notable concessions in North Africa, which was a failure for Weltpolitik and a blow for German pride.
• Germany had not undermined the Entente Cordiale - they had strengthened it.
• Several states had considered war as a possible outcome of the crisis, thus signalling an end to the relatively long period of peaceful relations in Europe.
• Germany was now seen as the key threat to British interests .

The Bosnian Crisis (1908) [ edit | edit source ]

• Following the Tangier Crisis, the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 was signed which confirmed conspiracy of 'encirclement' around Germany.
• This fear force Germany and Austria-Hungary into a closer relationship.
• An internal crisis in the Ottoman Empire led Austria-Hungary to annex two provinces of Bosnia, which outrage in Serbia, that caused Germany to stand 'shoulder to shoulder' with its Ally, and recognise the annexation.
• Russia, which had supported Serbia, suffered another international humiliation following its defeat from Japan. This meant that Russia was unlikely to back down from another crisis, in order to retain political stability and international influence.
• Russia began rearming.
• The alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary appeared stronger than commitments of the Triple Entente.
• Germany had opted to encourage Austro-Hungarian expansion.

The Second Moroccan (Agadir) Crisis (1911) [ edit | edit source ]

• Germany misinterpreted a French move in suppressing a revolt that had broken out in Morocco as a takeover; hence making ambitious and assertive claims that was popular back in Germany.
• Germany's 'gunboat diplomacy' was seen as a threat of war by Britain, and David Lloyd George gave a speech (the Mansion House Speech ) to warn Germany off.
• Germany received two strips of the French Congo and increase the tension and hostility between Germany and Britain.
• German public opinion was hostile to the settlement and critical of their government's handling of the crisis; a failure of Weltpolitik .
• The entente between Britain and France was again strengthened.

The First Balkan War (1912) [ edit | edit source ]

• The Balkan League, forced by the Russians and consisting of Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro, sought to force Turkey from the Balkans by dividing Macedonia.
• Turkey was already weak as a result of the war between Italy over Totalitarian.
• Austria could not accept a stronger Serbia, and Russia would support its ally.
• The nervous Sir Edward Grey , British Foreign Secretary, managed to execute the Balkan Leagues goal and contain Austria-Hungary.
• This agreement, however, still caused resentment.

The Second Balkan War (1913) [ edit | edit source ]

• Due to the spoils of the First Balkan War, a second war broke out in July 1913.
• The Bulgarians felt as though there were to many Bulgarians living in Serbia and Greece, and thus attacked.
• Serbia was again successful. This fact encouraged the already strong nationalist feeling within Serbia.
• Serbia had doubled in size as a result of the two Balkan wars.
• Serbia had proved itself militarily, and had an army of 200,000 men.
• Serbia's victories were diplomatic success for Russia, and encouraged Russia to stand by its ally.
• Austria-Hungary was now convinced that it needed to crush Serbia.
• By association, the outcome of the two wars was a diplomatic defeat for Germany, which now drew ever closer to Austria-Hungary.

The international situation by 1913 [ edit | edit source ]

• The crises of 1905-13 had seen a marked deterioration in international relations.
• Each crisis had passed without a major European war, nevertheless increased tension between the two alliance blocs in Europe and also created greater instability in the Balkans.
• War was by no means inevitable at this stage, however.

Other developments, 1900-13 [ edit | edit source ]

The will to make war [ edit | edit source ].

• Literature, the press, and education portrayed war as short and heroic.
• Nationalism had become aggressive in major states, and this trend was encouraged by popular press, which exaggerated international incidents.
• James Joll indicated that " the reactions of ordinary people in the crisis of 1914 were the result of the history they had learnt at school ".

The arms race and militarism [ edit | edit source ]

• Between 1870 and 1914, military spending by European powers increased by 300 percent.
• Although some attempts were made to stop arms build-up, for instance, the conference of The Hague in 1899 and 1907 .
• However, no limits on production or war practices were agreed upon.

War plans [ edit | edit source ]

• Every European power made detailed plans regarding what to do should war break out.
• Reading: The Von Schlieffen Plan from the Open University

The immediate causes of the war: July Crisis (1914) [ edit | edit source ]

• There was optimism that should another conflict in the Balkans erupt, it would be contained locally.
• Archduke Franz Ferdinand, symbol of the Austria-Hungarian regime, was assassinated on the 28th of June 1914, by Gavrilo Princip, part of the Black Hand movement.
• Germany came to Austria-Hungary's assistance, and issued a blank cheque on the 5th of July 1914, that guaranteed unconditional support.
• Austria-Hungary took the opportunity to impose a severe ultimatum on Serbia a month later; hence seeming calculated.
• Serbia accepted all but one term of the harsh ultimatum, however, Austria-Hungary claimed it was too late and declared war on Serbia.
• Russia ordered a general mobilisation (for intimidation and preparation) on the 30th of July; causing Germany to declare war on Russia, and France (upon demands for neutrality that were rejected).
• Germany passed through Belgium to attack France, Britain upheld the 1839 treaty with Belgium and declared war on Germany.

What was the contribution of each of the European Powers during the July Crisis to the outbreak of war? [ edit | edit source ]

• The Kaiser had encouraged the Austro-Hungarians to seize the opportunity to attack Serbia on the 5th of July with the Blank Cheque.
• Russia's military modernisations were increasing the country's potential for mobilisation, and this would undermine the Schlieffen Plan.
• German generals, such as von Moltke believed that it was a favourable time for war.
• War would provide a good distraction, and unifying effect, to overcome rising domestic problems in Germany.
• War would improve the popularity of the Kaiser.
• John Lowe observed that Russia did not want a major war, and its mobilisation was a sign for preparation rather than the declaration that Germany had misinterpreted.
• Austria-Hungary exaggerated the potential threat of Serbia and saw the assassination as an opportunity to 'eliminate Serbia as a potential factor in the Balkans'.
• It delayed its response to Serbia, and added tension to the July Crisis.
• It was the first to declare war on Serbia on the 28th of July.
• It refused to halt its military actions though negotiations with Russia were scheduled for the 30th of July.
• Russia wanted to prove itself after its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, it acted as an ally to support Serbia; thus not restrain Serb nationalism.
• Its mobilisation triggered a general European war.
• After its ignominious defeat in 1871, it did not want to provoke a general war.
• France was swept into a war, and did not have any say.
• Luigi Albertini argues that Britain should have never made it clear it would stand 'shoulder to shoulder' with the French which may have deterred the Schlieffen Plan.
• Britain should have made its position clear during the July Crisis.
• John Lowe points out that Britain's talks with Russia in 1914 confirmed Germany's suspicion of a "ring of encirclement".
• The German Foreign Office was already preparing documents from their archives attempting to prove that all belligerents states were to blame.
• Other governments felt the same urge and produced their own volumes of archives.
• Lloyd George, writing in his memoirs in the 1930s, explained that "the nations slithered over the bring into the boiling cauldron of war."
• S. B. Fay and H. E. Barnes were two American historians who supported the revisions arguments put forward by Germany regarding the causes of World War I.
• Luigi Albertini wrote a thorough and coherent response to the revisions arguments in the 1940s and put forward Austria-Hungary and Germany as responsible for war in the immediate term.

Fritz Fischer [ edit | edit source ]

• Fischer's argument focused the responsibility on Germany.
• He discovered the September Programme written by German Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg , dated 9th of September 1914, which described Germany's aims for dominating Europe.
• He also indicated that the War Council of 1912 proved that Germany planned to launch a continent war in 1914, where von Moltke had indicated "war is inevitable and sooner the better."
• Fischer's argument is persuasive as he links longer-term policies from 1897 to short- and immediate-term actions in the July Crisis.
• However, Fischer's arguments have been criticised as a result of his limited evidence of the December War Council.
• Furthermore, it can be argued that German policy lacked coherency in the decade before 1914.

After Fischer [ edit | edit source ]

• Conservative German Historian Gerhard Ritter rejected Fischer's view in the 1960s.
• Immanuel Geiss Defended Fischer by publishing his own book of German documents undermining the revisionist arguments in the 1920s.
• Ruth Henig indicated that German desire to profit diplomatically and militarily from the crisis widened its containment from an Eastern Europe one to a continental and war.

John Keegan [ edit | edit source ]

• War was not inevitable despite the long- and short-term tension in Europe.
• The key to Keegan's theory is the lack of communication during the July Crisis.
• He indicates that Austria-Hungary wanted to punish Serbia, but lacked the courage to act alone, and this was not communicated.
• Also, Germany had wanted diplomatic success that would leave Austria-Hungary a stronger ally. Germany, also, did not want a full European war.
• Russia only wanted to support Serbia
• France did not mobilise and was worried about Germany
• Britain only awoke to the dangers of the July Crisis on the 25th of July, and hoped Russia could tolerate Serbia's punishments.
• The Serbs had been forgotten after the incompatible nations began to break the tangled web of alliances.

James Joll [ edit | edit source ]

• Joll suggests an atmosphere of intense tension was created by impersonal forces in the long- and short-terms with the personal decisions made in the July Crisis that led to war.
• Personal expansionist aims versus capitalism.
• Various war plans as developed by governments versus international anarchy.
• Calculated decisions versus alliances.

Niall Ferguson [ edit | edit source ]

• Ferguson suggests that Germany was moving away from militaristic tenancies prior to World War I.
• He argues that German Social Democrat Party was on a rise and that influenced the Kaiser's regime.
• Britain had misinterpreted German ambitious and decided to act on impede German expansionism.
• War was not inevitable in 1913, despite militarism, imperialism, and secret diplomacy.

II. Practices of World War One and their impact on the outcome [ edit | edit source ]

Types of war: world war one as a total war [ edit | edit source ], land warfare- the western front [ edit | edit source ], failure of the von schlieffen plan [ edit | edit source ].

As you read above, the Von Schlieffen plan was bold and ambitious and despite initial success, it also soon ran into trouble. Intended to knock the French out of the war quickly, the German advance through Belgium triggered British involvement in the war ostensibly to protect Belgian neutrality. It seems likely however that for the British there were other motives in getting involved, specifically a German victory in the west would have been too threatening to British imperial interests. The German advance was slowed by fierce resistance in Belgium and by sheer exhaustion as once troops left railway lines they were able to move no faster than Julius Caesar's legions in their conquest of Gaul. With German supply lines stretched and the professional soldiers of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) able to delay further German troops at the Battles of Mons on 23 August, the Schlieffen plan's aim of a quick knock out blow of the French was now looking less and less likely. The plan's final failure came as the German army's advance was halted and then reversed by the combined French and British counterattack along the Marne River in early September.

Video: The Failure of the Von Schlieffen Plan

Race To the Sea [ edit | edit source ]

After the Battle of the Marne, both sides began to dig trenches to provide shelter for their troops. After attempts to break through the German lines failed both sides rushed to outflank each other and in particular gain control of the channel ports. This "race to the sea" ended in stalemate with more permanent trenches being dug to protect troops from artillery. These networks of trenches would dominate the war on the Western Front.

Video: Belgian resistance and the race to the Sea

Trench Warfare/Deadlock on the Western Front [ edit | edit source ]

Trench warfare developed very quickly on the western front and soon the war of manoeuvre had become a grinding war of attrition. Huge complexes of trenches soon stretched over western Europe from 1914–1918 as both sides constructed elaborate trench networks, underground tunnels, and elaborate dugout systems facing the enemy. The trenches were typically protected from assault by barbed wire which slowed the advance of attacking forces and left them vulnerable to machine gun fire. The area between opposing trench lines (known as "no man's land") was fully exposed to artillery fire from both sides. Attacks, even if successful, often sustained severe casualties. The deadlock would not be broken until more advanced technology and tactics such as the use of combined arms were developed throughout the war.

Website: The Imperial War Museum has lots of super resources and artefacts on Trench Warfare here.

Task: Trench Warfare [ edit | edit source ]

• Examine the 10 photographs from the Imperial War Museum of trench life in WW1 , then create a Cornell notes on Trench Warfare. Once you've finished go back to the photographs and see if you've missed any details, then add those details in. Make sure you use your own knowledge and not just what's in the photographs. Now add questions that you may still have to the section on the left of your paper. Lastly complete a summary.

Historiography: Historian Hew Strachan on Trench warfare [ edit | edit source ]

“Trenches created health problems but they saved lives. To speak of the horror of the trenches is to substitute hyperbole for common sense: the war would have been far more horrific if there had been no trenches. They protected flesh and blood from the worst effects of the firepower revolution of the late nineteenth century….The dangers rose when men left the embrace of the trenches to go over the top, and when war was fluid and mobile.” [2]

• What does Professor Strachan argue about trenches?
• Is his view a positive or a negative one about trenches, explain your reasoning

Video: Historian Dan Snow on trench warfare [ edit | edit source ]

• Watch these two videos from Dan Snow, video A and video B ,
• Which aspects of the videos support Professor Strachan's points about trench warfare ultimately saving lives?

The Battle of the Somme [ edit | edit source ]

Historiography: historian gary sheffield on the first day of the somme [ edit | edit source ].

"The British artillery were set three main tasks: cutting the barbed wire in front of the German positions with shrapnel; the destruction of German trenches; and counter-battery work, that is destroying or at least neutralizing the German artillery. The watching infantry were impressed by the power of the bombardment. ……..On much of the front, however, the bombardment was visually impressive but was ultimately unsuccessful. Banks of barbed wire remained uncut; German trenches, although battered, still contained determined groups of defenders; and sufficient German artillery survived the counter-battery work to inflict dreadful casualties on the attackers." [3]

• What were the British intending to do?
• What had not gone according to plan for the British?

Historiography/ Perspectives: Were lions led by Donkeys during WW1? [ edit | edit source ]

A bit part of IB History is challenging and critiquing multiple perspectives of the past, and to compare them and corroborate them with historical evidence. While it is the case that for every event recorded in the past, there are invariably multiple contrasting or differing perspectives one of the most interesting examples of this in the context of WW1 is the Lions led by Donkeys question which is the popular idea that the Lions, the ordinary soldiers were led to their deaths by the Donkeys, the generals of WW1. This gives rise to many different inquiry questions around the theme of "Were Lions led by Donkeys in WW1?" Some different perspectives and tasks are below:

Perspective 1: The Blackadder/Popular culture idea -Lions were led by Donkeys [ edit | edit source ]

• Task: Watch this famous clip from comedy series Blackadder . Analyze how it portrays Fieldmarshall Haig and by extension the other generals of the war
• Task: Read this alternative view on the WW1 Generals from a professional Historian . How does it contrast with the popular view?
• Task: Now explore the issue further and generate your own view (this is also a great intro for a debate style task) sources and worksheets from the national archives are here and there's more here including an extract from the alternative view above.

Operation Michael [ edit | edit source ]

Historiography: Historian Nigel Jones on German Tactics during Operation Michael [ edit | edit source ]

“The stormtroopers were trained to move in small groups across the battlefield, probing for the enemy’s weakest points like a surgeon’s knife. Any strongpoints were avoided; the stormers merely skirted them and pushed onwards, leaving the essential but unglamorous mopping up to the humble infantry trailing in their wake. The stormers sped gloriously ahead, moving fastest and furthest, set apart from their former comrades even in the hottest moments of action. This conscious separation only served to further heighten the stormers’ sense of being a chosen order destined to conquer and rule. The German armies, with their stormtroop vanguard, accomplished much in the series of great offensives launched by Ludendorff. The first, codenamed ‘Michael’, on 21 March, put the British Fifth Army to inglorious flight, bit out a great chunk of territory and almost succeeded in severing the British from the French. The second blow, Operation ‘Georgette’, struck the following month over the blasted old battlegrounds of Flanders and drove the British back to within sight of the Channel. A third offensive – ‘Blücher’ – let loose at the end of May, utterly broke the Franco-British forces along the Aisne, and brought the Germans, as in 1914, back to the banks of the Marne and within artillery range of Paris.” [4]

• What new tactics did the German Army develop for Operation Michael?
• What evidence is there that these new tactics were successful (at least initially)?

The 100 days [ edit | edit source ]

The 100 days was the Entente counterattack after Operation Michael/The Ludendorff offensive. The Ludendorff offensive had left the German military exhausted and exposed and beginning with skillful use of surprise and combined arms at the 1918 Battle of Amiens, the Entente counterattack was savage, relentless and ultimately broke the back of the German army. You can read more about combined arms and technological developments below.

Video: The Battle of Amiens from the BBC

Historiography: Historian Nick Lloyd on British tactics at the Battle of Amiens 1918 [ edit | edit source ]

“8 August would be one of the most remarkable days of the war. Although the position of all units was not known, the Allied assault had driven between six and eight miles into the German lines, shattering Second Army and unhinging the flank of Eighteenth Army on its left. German casualties had been staggering. The official history estimated that they were as high as 48,000 men, including 33,000 missing or taken prisoner. Four hundred guns had been lost as well as hundreds of machine-guns and trench mortars. For the battalions in the front line, often only small groups of survivors remained. 41st Division, which had faced the Australians opposite Villers-Bretonneux, was almost wiped out. It had lost all but three of its guns, and little remained of its front and supporting battalions. Equally unnerving was the sight of the survivors from the opening attack. Numerous front-line battalions had been reduced to the size of companies. All that remained were clusters of shell-shocked men; their will utterly broken; their faces grimy; their eyes glassy, staring straight ahead. Their stories were always the same: horrifying accounts of iron monsters clanking out of the mist towards them; of mass infantry attacks; of being cut off and surrounded; of waiting for counter-attacks that never came. Some did not – or perhaps could not – say anything at all. Ludendorff’s worst nightmare was, it seemed, coming true.” [5]

• Explain why the 8th August 1918 was such a bad day for the German army?
• What evidence is there from the passage above that by 1918 warfare on the Western front was no longer static?

Technological developments [ edit | edit source ]

Historiography: historian john bourne on technological developments on the western front from 1914-1918 [ edit | edit source ].

“In 1914 the British soldier went to war dressed like a gamekeeper in a soft cap, armed only with rifle and bayonet. In 1918 he went into battle dressed like an industrial worker in a steel helmet, protected by a respirator against poison gas, armed with automatic weapons and mortars, supported by tanks and ground aircraft and preceded by a creeping artillery barrage of crushing intensity. Firepower replaced manpower as the instrument of victory. This represented a revolution in the conduct of war.'” [6]

• What had changed since 1914 for the infantry soldier?
• How were the infantry used in combination with other parts of the military (combined arms)?

Historiography: Historian Gary Sheffield on technological developments on the Western Front from 1914-1918 [ edit | edit source ]

"The problem was that in 1914 tactics had yet to catch up with the range and effectiveness of modern artillery and machine guns. Warfare still looked back to the age of Napoleon. By 1918, much had changed. At the Battle of Amiens on 8 August 1918, the BEF put into practice the lessons learned, so painfully and at such a heavy cost, over the previous four years. In a surprise attack, massed artillery opened up in a brief but devastating bombardment, targeting German gun batteries and other key positions. The accuracy of the shelling, and the fact that the guns had not had to give the game away by firing some preliminary shots to test the range, was testimony to the startling advances in technique which had turned gunnery from a rule of thumb affair into a highly scientific business. Then, behind a 'creeping barrage' of shells, perfected since its introduction in late 1915, British, French, Canadian and Australian infantry advanced in support of 552 tanks. The tank was a British invention which had made its debut on the Somme in September 1916. Overhead flew the aeroplanes of the Royal Air Force, created in April 1918 from the old Royal Flying Corps and Royal Naval Air Service. The aeroplane had come a long way from its 1914 incarnation as an extremely primitive assemblage of struts and canvas, its task confined to reconnaissance. " [7]

• Why was there a mismatch between military tactics and modern technology in 1914?
• What could British artillery do by 1918?
• What was a "creeping barrage"?
• From the extract what examples of "combined arms" can you find?

Video: Development of tanks in WW1 from the BBC

Land warfare-the Eastern Front [ edit | edit source ]

Battle of tannenberg [ edit | edit source ], brusilov offensive [ edit | edit source ], naval warfare: technological developments [ edit | edit source ], the battle of jutland [ edit | edit source ], development of q ships [ edit | edit source ], unrestricted submarine warfare [ edit | edit source ], historiography: historian hew strachan on the german decision to engage in unrestricted submarine warfare [ edit | edit source ].

“Scheer was not prepared to accept such passivity, and after Jutland his assertion that the submarine was the most obvious weapon with which to strike Britain gained in stridency. He now had powerful support from the army. Falkenhayn had proposed a U-boat campaign against Britain to accompany his attack on France at Verdun, and when Hindenburg and Ludendorff replaced him they, too, accepted that economic warfare, not direct confrontation on the battlefields of France and Flanders, was the way to tackle Britain.” [8]

• How did the Battle of Jutland change the German naval strategy?
• What was the ultimate aim of this new strategy?

The Sinking of the Lusitania [ edit | edit source ]

In May 1915 the ship Lusitania was returning from New York to Liverpool with 128 US citizens on board when she was sunk by a German U-Boat without warning. The Germans felt fully justified in this as she was carrying munitions to help the British war effort. While this sinking did not lead directly to American entry into the war on the Entente side, it certainly did play a role in turning American public opinion against the Germans.

Website: The US Library of Congress has a host of Lusitania resources here.

Convoy system [ edit | edit source ]

The Royal Navy developed convoy tactics in 1917 in order to see off the U-Boat threat after the Germans began their campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare. It worked by providing escort vessels for groups of ships. The escorts dropped depth charges in areas where German 'U-boats' were known to operate and engaged U-Boats when they surfaced to fire as at this point technology had not developed enough for U-Boats to fire at shipping while under water.

Historiography: Historian Alexander Watson on convoy tactics [ edit | edit source ]

“Nonetheless, if convoys did not eliminate the U-boat threat, they were the key factor in retarding it so significantly. The convoys not only emptied the seas of easy targets by concentrating and protecting shipping but they themselves proved unexpectedly difficult for submarines to locate. Between October and December 1917 just 39 of the 219 Atlantic convoys that sailed were even sighted by submarines. Their low detection rate was a consequence not just of the vastness of the seas but also of the British Admiralty’s ability to reroute the ships around danger. Warships, unlike most merchantmen, had powerful wirelesses, which could receive messages from London about the location of U-boats based on sightings or the interception of their radio communications. The Germans found no answer to this problem.” [9]

• Explain how the introduction of convoy tactics helped neutralize the U-Boat threat in WW1?
• How was technology used to neutralise the U-Boat threat?

Historiography: Historian B.J.C. McKercher on the failure of the U-Boat campaign to starve Britain [ edit | edit source ]

“Beginning in February 1917, German submarines conducted the kind of operations envisaged by Ballin and others two years before. Through the spring and summer of 1917, this German offensive saw mounting shipping losses for Britain and its allies—1,505 merchantmen (2,775,406 tons) in six months. However, supported by the United States navy, the Royal Navy responded with effective defensive measures: heavily protected convoys, improved employment of depth charges and mines, air cover, and better use of intelligence. By late 1917, although the British had to ration food, and some basic commodities were in short supply, Germany’s ability to disrupt allied economic life via the submarine offensive abated (617 sinkings in five months). Attacks on allied shipping continued into 1918 with limited effectiveness, but the Central Powers had lost this critical element of the economic war by the time the Germans forced the Bolshevik Russian regime to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and embarked on their great, and ultimately unsuccessful, offensive in 1918.” [10]

• What evidence is there that the U-Boat campaign was initially successful?
• How did the British and Americans respond?
• How successful was the response?

British Naval Blockade of Germany [ edit | edit source ]

Historiography: Historian B.J.C. McKercher on the success of the British naval blockade of Germany

"Allied success is undeniable. For instance, before the war, the weekly per capita German urban consumption of meat was 2.3 pounds; by 1917–18, it fell to 0.3 pounds. Additionally, the number of German civilian deaths attributed to the blockade in 1915 was 88,235 (9.5 per cent above the 1913 total); by 1918, this figure had climbed to 293,000 (37 per cent above the 1913 total). There is controversy about whether the German people actually starved during the war, especially in the difficult winter of 1917–18. The argument is made that weight loss results in a demand for less food and that, when the body adjusts, it can be made to work as hard as ever. In all of this, moreover, it must be admitted that between 1914 and 1918, the blockade impaired little the fighting efficiency of the German armed forces. But the blockade had a social and psychological and, therefore, a political impact on Germany. As General Kuhl, a senior staff officer, argued: ‘Many things combined to bring down the German people...but I consider the blockade the most important of them. It disheartened the nation.’ Economic hardship was one factor that saw many Germans become critical of their government after 1915. Disparities existed in the distribution of food and necessary commodities. For instance, rural areas had reasonable supplies of food, whilst urban areas did not. Within cities, disparity also existed between and within classes. Those people with money or political influence could obtain products on the black market. Within the working class, armament workers were better provided for than unskilled workers, white-collar workers, and even minor government officials. Public discomfort grew as a range of ordinary consumer goods like woollen blankets and leather shoes were in short supply and German prices inflated because of scarcities; over fifty food riots occurred in Germany in 1916, a number that increased in 1917–18. Along with food rationing—the harsh winter of 1917–18 compounded German unease—the impact of the blockade played a part in the revolution of November 1918 that led to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and the advent of the Weimar Republic." [11]

• McKercher says that the blockade didn't really impair the fighting efficiency of the German armed forces. Why then does he consider the blockade such a success?
• How does McKercher deploy primary source evidence to illustrate his point?

Air warfare: Technological developments [ edit | edit source ]

Video: Dan Snow on the development of air technology during WW1

Historiography: Historian Gary Sheffield on the development of airpower during WW1

“By 1916 battles were fought in three dimensions, and this was the year that airpower came of age. Before the war, military aviation had largely been seen as the preserve of a few specialists. Some senior commanders had been dismissive of the military potential of the aeroplane. The emergence of trench warfare opened the eyes of most of the doubters. Aeroplanes could fulfil the role that was now denied to the traditional instrument of reconnaissance, cavalry. More than that, as it became clear that the battlefield was dominated by artillery, aircraft proved highly useful in spotting for the gunners: indicating the fall of shot, and thus improving the accuracy of artillery fire. During 1915 various techniques associated with this new role were developed, key among them photographing the enemy trenches and interpreting the resulting images, and establishing wireless communications between air and ground. So valuable was aerial reconnaissance that aircraft, mostly unarmed at the outbreak of war, spawned a type that would later be termed fighters, which sought to prevent enemy observation aeroplanes from crossing friendly lines, or to protect friendly machines in their role of observation. Thus a battle for control of the air began to develop.” [12]

• Explain how the role of aircraft developed during WW1?
• Explain how aircraft were used in combination with artillery during WW1?

Historiography: Historian Nick Lloyd on allied use of airpower during the Allies hundred days offensive at the end of the war

“The constant Allied air attacks gnawed away at morale even further. German columns of infantry, marching to the front, would regularly have to scatter as British and French biplanes swooped low overhead, firing machine-guns and dropping bombs. Although the physical damage that such aircraft could do was undoubtedly limited (with only 25lb bombs), its effect on tired and nervous soldiers can well be imagined.” [13]

• Explain how aircraft were used during the 100 days?
• What evidence is there from the passage that despite the technological advances, aircraft only played a supporting role during WW1?

The extent of the mobilization of human and economic resources [ edit | edit source ]

The influence and/or involvement of foreign powers [ edit | edit source ].

World War 1 was a global war both in terms of the participants and where it was fought. This task puts the global dimension in perspective.

Task: Use this interactive map of WW1 to explore the geographic spread of WW1.

• Select an area on the map to find countries and territories from that region.
• Navigate through the menu to read about battles, life on a country’s or colony’s Home Front

Involvement of imperial and colonial forces [ edit | edit source ]

Video: Historian David Olusoga on the global soldiery of WW1

Video: Historian David Olusoga on the forgotten soldiers of WW1

Video: India and the Great War

Gallipoli [ edit | edit source ]

Japan and germany's asian possessions [ edit | edit source ], china and the western front [ edit | edit source ].

While the Chinese did not send front line troops, they did send labourers to the western front who did play an important role both in terms of logistics and in freeing up European and imperial troops to fight on the front lines. China hoped by being on the winning side they would receive fairer treatment from the imperial powers after the war particularly with regards to receiving back Germany's Chinese possessions stolen from China in the previous century. This was not to be the case and at the Paris Peace Conference the Chinese delegation walked out of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in protest.

World War One in East Africa [ edit | edit source ]

Website: The British Library has extensive resources on WW1 in East Africa here . With a suitably strong research question this would be an excellent topic for the student selected Internal Assessment research task

American entry to the War [ edit | edit source ]

Initially America pursued a policy of neutrality in the war. However, the German policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, and in particular the sinking of the Lusitania and a very clumsy German espionage attempt you can read about below, led to America joining the war on the Entente side in 1917. It has been suggested that in part the reason for the timing of the last great German offensive of the war, Operation Michael (also called the Ludendorff offensive) was in order to defeat Britain and France before the arrival of fresh American troops in large enough quantities to turn the tide of war completely against Germany.

Website: The US Library of Congress have made the American declarations of war against the central powers available here.

The Zimmerman telegram [ edit | edit source ]

The discovery and publication of the Zimmermann Telegram played a crucial role in generating American public support for the entering the war on the side of the Entente forces. The Telegram itself was a top secret diplomatic communication issued from the German Foreign Office in January 1917 proposing a military alliance between Germany and Mexico if the United States entered World War I against Germany. In exchange for their intervention, Mexico would recover Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. In a stunning intelligence coup, British Naval intelligence intercepted and decoded the telegram before releasing it to the Americans. Honestly if naively, German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann publicly admitted on March 3 that the telegram was genuine further enraging American public opinion and in turn generating support for the American declaration of war on Germany on April 4th 1917.

Review questions: The influence and/or involvement of foreign powers [ edit | edit source ]

• What contribution did imperial and colonial forces make to the war?
• To what extent is it accurate to describe WW1 as a World War?
• What evidence is there that the role of imperial and colonial forces has been underrepresented?
• What role did the Indian army play on the Western front?
• Why is there a Chinese war grave in France? What did China contribute to war effort?
• What role did Japan play in the war?
• Who were the ANZACS?
• Why did the Gallipoli campaign of 1915 fail?
• Why did the United States join the war?
• How important to the outcome was the entry in 1917 of the United States of America to the war?

The Armistice [ edit | edit source ]

While not a formal diplomatic end to the war, the Armistice of 11 November 1918 signaled the end to the fighting between the allies and Germany. Previous armistices had already been signed with Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire so this was the last one. The armistice came into force at 11:00 a.m. Paris time on 11 November 1918 hence the special significance of the 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month. As well as an end to the fighting, the armistice terms included the withdrawal of German forces from west of the Rhine, the surrender of aircraft, warships, and military equipment, the release of Allied prisoners of war and interned civilians, as well as provision for future reparations. In light of the stabbed in the back myth , it is worth emphasizing that this was very much not a neutral agreement and signaled a defeat for Germany. This can be seen in the fact there was no release of German prisoners and no immediate relaxation of the British naval blockade of Germany which as you read above was causing real suffering to the German people. Particularly tragically, fighting continued right up to 11 o'clock on Armistice day, with 2,738 men dying on the last day of the war.

Task: Website Activity [ edit | edit source ]

• Armistice Day from the BBC

Practices of WW1 Review Questions [ edit | edit source ]

• What type of war was WW1? What made it so?
• What is a war of attrition?
• What is a war of maneuver?
• Why did the Von Schlieffen plan fail?
• What was the race to the Sea?
• Why did the Battle of the Marne matter?
• Which was more important in causing the failure of the Schlieffen Plan, the changes to the Plan or the actions of the British Expeditionary Force? Explain your answer
• Why did the race to the sea lead to stalemate on the Western front?
• How and why did trench warfare develop?
• Describe how trenches were constructed
• What was living in a trench like?
• Why was there such a high number of casualties in the First World War?
• What was an artillery bombardment?
• How can it be argued that WW1 was a truly global war?
• Why was attacking across ‘no man’s land’ so difficult?
• How important was barbed wire as a reason for a prolonged war on the Western Front? Explain your answer.
• What was a creeping barrage?
• How did Germans use "stormtroopers" to attempt to break the deadlock?
• What were combined arms tactics?
• What was the 100 days offensive?

III. Effects of World War One [ edit | edit source ]

The successes and failures of peacemaking [ edit | edit source ], treaty of brest-litvosk [ edit | edit source ], treaty of versailles [ edit | edit source ].

Peace Treaties: Review Questions [ edit | edit source ]

• What problems faced the peacemakers in 1918?
• What were the other major peace treaties?
• What do the major provisions of the treaty of Brest-Litvosk (and Bucharest) imply about the likely nature of a similar peace treaty with France and Britain if Germany had won the war?
• What was Article 231 and why was it included in the Treaty of Versailles?
• Why did China refuse to sign the Treaty of Versailles?
• To what extent did the Treaty of Versailles create a Carthaginian peace ?
• To what extent is the claim that the Treaty of Versailles did not go far enough supported by the evidence?
• Why were the peacemakers at Versailles so severe on Germany?
• Why did British Prime Minister Lloyd George favour a moderate peace settlement with Germany and why did Clemenceau disagree?
• ‘German reaction to the Treaty of Versailles was understandable.’ How far do you agree with this statement?

Territorial changes [ edit | edit source ]

Political impacts [ edit | edit source ], short-term [ edit | edit source ], russian revolutions [ edit | edit source ], long-term [ edit | edit source ], economic impacts [ edit | edit source ], social impacts [ edit | edit source ], demographic impacts [ edit | edit source ], changes in the role and status of women [ edit | edit source ].

Historiography: Historian Professor Susan R Grayzel on how WW1 Impacted Women's Daily Lives [ edit | edit source ]

“The scope and duration of the war meant that governments enlisted women in the war effort by reorganising basic aspects of their lives. By rationing, governments could alter the food women could obtain and eat; by imposing censorship, they tried to restrict the information they could know or share. The waging of the war placed enormous expectations upon able-bodied men in the prime of life to serve in the military and upon their female counterparts to contribute to the war effort in many ways, in addition to maintaining their domestic roles.” [14]

• What two examples of historical change does Professor Grayzel see WW1 causing for women?
• What one example of historical continuity from the prewar period does Professor Grayzel see for women during the war?

Historiography: Historians Cawood and McKinning Bell on employment of British women during WW1 [ edit | edit source ]

"In Britain, the number of women employed increased from 3,224,600 in July 1914 to 4,814,600 in January 1918. Nearly 200,000 women were employed in government departments, with half a million becoming clerical workers in private offices and a quarter of a million working on the land. The greatest increase of women workers was in engineering. Over 700,000 of these women worked in the highly dangerous munitions industry.Whereas in 1914 there were 212,000 women working in the munitions industry, by the end of the war it had increased to 950,000. Christopher Addison, who succeeded David Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, estimated in June 1917 that about 80 per cent of all weapons and shells were being produced by ‘munitionettes’. The work was extremely dangerous and accidents at munitions factories resulted in over 200 deaths in Britain alone. Others suffered health problems such as TNT poisoning because of the dangerous chemicals the women were using." [15]

• Which conclusions can be drawn from the statistics Cawood and McKinning Bell quote regarding female employment during WW1?

Historiography: Historian Professor Susan R Grayzel on how WW1 Impacted Cultural Change around Gender [ edit | edit source ]

“Cultural change may be the hardest to gauge. Certain norms of Western middle-class femininity all but disappeared, and women’s visible appearance before 1914 and after 1918 markedly differed – with many women having shorter hair and wearing shorter skirts or even trousers. New forms of social interaction between the sexes and across class lines became possible, but expectations about family and domestic life as the main concern of women remained unaltered. Furthermore, post-war societies were largely in mourning. The extent to which the process of rebuilding required the combined efforts of men and women in public and perhaps even more so in private shows the shared human toll of this extraordinary conflict.” [14]

• What one example of historical cultural change does Professor Grayzel see WW1 causing?
• What one example of historical cultural continuity does Professor Grayzel see WW1 maintaining?

Historiography: Historian Professor Susan R Grayzel on the overall impact of WW1 on the role and status of Women [ edit | edit source ]

“Because the war destroyed so many lives and reshaped the international political order, it is understandable to view it as a catalyst for enormous changes in all aspects of life, including ideas about gender and the behaviour of women and men. The messy reality of the lives of individual men and women is much harder to generalise about. There were visible changes in European politics, society, and culture but also a certain degree of continuity. Most notably, the aftermath of the war witnessed women gaining voting rights in many nations for the first time. Yet women’s full participation in political life remained limited, and some states did not enfranchise their female inhabitants until much later (1944 in France). Imperial subjects and racial minorities, such as those in the United States, continued to be unable to exercise their full political rights. Socially, certain demographic trends that were prevalent before the war persisted after it. Family sizes continued to shrink despite renewed anxiety about falling birth rates and ongoing insistence on the significance of motherhood for women and their nations. Economically, returning men displaced many women from their wartime occupations, and many households now headed by women due to the loss of male breadwinners faced new levels of hardship. Women did not gain or retain access to all professions, and they did not come close to gaining equal pay for comparable work.” [14]

• Why does Professor Grayzel argue that WW1's impact on voting rights for women was limited?
• Which specific evidence does she deploy to prove her point on voting rights?
• What other groups remained politically discriminated against after the war? Give an example from the passage.
• Which example of continuity around demographic trends does she give?
• Give example of how women were still disadvantaged economically after the war.

Effects of WW1 review tasks [ edit | edit source ]

Task: Research and discuss the social effects of World War I in at least two countries. Don't forget to cite your sources.

• How did ordinary people live, during and after the war?
• What changed?

Effects of WW1 review questions [ edit | edit source ]

• How far were the peace treaties a success?
• Why did Russia leave the war?
• What system of Government was in Russia by the end of the war?
• Why was the armistice signed?
• Why did revolution break out in Germany in October 1918
• How far did WW1 change the role and status of women?
• What was the impact of war on civilian populations?
• How far did the First World War have a positive effect on Britain’s civilian population?
• What economic and social changes arose after WW1?
• What happened to the Armenians?
• What were the immediate wider implications of the war for international relations?
• To what extend did World War I affect the social, political and economic status of women?

Exam style questions for practice [ edit | edit source ]

Instructions [ edit | edit source ].

• These questions cover all three areas of the course: causes, practices, effects
• Aim for around 5-7 paragraphs per question.
• Make sure you plan your essay before you start but don't take any more than 5 minutes or so to plan
• These are not actual past paper questions (probably we're not allowed to put them here due to copyright), your teacher should be able to get you the actual past paper questions or just search online.
• Note that for the Paper 2 questions you will probably have to compare at least 2 conflicts, but it's fairly easy to modify them for practice to just cover WW1 and some examples of how to do that are below in the essay questions section.

Exam style questions [ edit | edit source ]

• "Airpower did not alone determine the outcome of wars". Discuss with reference to TWO 20th Century wars.
• "Social change around the role and status of women was the most significant effect of war". Discuss with reference to TWO 20th Century wars

Essay or debate questions [ edit | edit source ]

These are not generally exam style but are useful for debates, planning tasks, and shorter written answers.

• To what extent was Germany to blame for the outbreak of WW1?
• To what extent was Austria-Hungary to blame for the outbreak of WW1?
• Were lions led by donkeys during WW1?

References [ edit | edit source ]

• ↑ H. Strachan. The Outbreak of the First World War. 2004 pg 126, Oxford, ISBN-13: 978-0199257263
• ↑ Strachan, Hew. The First World War (pp. 171-172). Simon & Schuster UK. Kindle Edition.
• ↑ Sheffield, Gary. The Somme: A New History (CASSELL MILITARY PAPERBACKS) . Orion. Kindle Edition.
• ↑ Jones, Nigel. Hitler's Heralds: The story of the Freikorps 1918-1923 (pp. 22-23). Lume Books. Kindle Edition.
• ↑ Lloyd, Nick. Hundred Days (p. 81). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.
• ↑ J. Bourne in Charles Townshend (ed.), The Oxford history of Modern War (OUP) 2005
• ↑ G. Sheffield. The Western Front: Lions Led by Donkeys? BBC History http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwone/lions_donkeys_01.shtml Last updated 2011-03-10
• ↑ Strachan, Hew. The First World War (p. 226). Simon & Schuster UK. Kindle Edition.
• ↑ Watson, Alexander. Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary at War, 1914-1918 (p. 438). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.
• ↑ McKercher, B.J.C. ‘Economic Warfare’ (p. 129). The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War New Edition by Hew Strachan
• ↑ McKercher, B.J.C. ‘Economic Warfare’ (p. 125). The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War New Edition by Hew Strachan
• ↑ Lloyd, Nick. Hundred Days (p. 121). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.
• ↑ a b c Professor Susan R Grayzel. Changing lives: gender expectations and roles during and after World War One British Library Online. Published 29 Jan 2014. https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/changing-lives-gender-expectations
• ↑ Ian J. Cawood, David McKinnon-Bell. Chapter: “The Women’s War” pg 63, Book: The First World War 1st Edition. Imprint Routledge eBook ISBN9780203136942. First Published 2000

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Causes of World War One

Part of History World War One

• In 1914, the most powerful countries in Europe went to war with each other.
• World War One lasted for four years, from 1914 – 1918, and resulted in the deaths of millions of people.
• Some of the causes of the war dated back to the 1800s and long-term tensions.

Causes of World War One activity

Learn more about some of the causes of World War One with this activity.

In 1900, the UK had the largest empire close empire A group of countries controlled by one ruling country or leader. in the world, ruling over 400 million people spread across the UK, Africa and Asia. While people around the world had different experiences of the empire, it brought the UK huge amounts of wealth and power. France also had a large empire, making them a powerful European rival for the UK.

Germany was a relatively new country, formed in 1871. They had ambitions to grow an empire to compete with France and the UK. Kaiser Wilhelm II made a famous speech in Hamburg in 1901, saying he wanted Germany to have ‘a place in the sun.’

Germany’s ambition concerned the UK and France, as they started to see them as a potential threat. Germany interfered in French attempts to colonise close colonise To take over another country and rule over it. Morocco in 1911, sending a gunboat close gunboat A ship armed with weapons. called The Panther to Agadir, on the Moroccan coast. Germany was eventually forced to back down, but they had shown their intent to challenge the UK and France.

The Alliances

In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary close Austria-Hungary Austria and Hungary joined together in 1867, forming a large and powerful union in central Europe. They split into two separate countries in 1918. and Italy entered into an agreement known as the Triple Alliance. Germany had been at war with France in 1871 and feared further conflict. The Triple Alliance meant the three countries promised to defend each other if one of them was attacked.

The Triple Alliance created suspicion in other European countries. In 1894, France and Russia signed an agreement to support each other, forming the Franco-Russian Alliance, as they feared the strength of the Triple Alliance.

In 1904, the UK and France signed the Entente Cordiale close Entente Cordiale An agreement signed by Britain and France on 8th April 1904. It marked the end of almost a thousand years of conflict between the two countries and paved the way for a united approach against German pressures in the decade before World War One. . This was important as they had been rivals for centuries. The fact that the UK and France were willing to put aside their differences shows how concerned they were about the ambition of Germany.

The Triple Entente close Triple Entente Agreement between the UK, Russia and France to work together and support each other. It did not necessarily guarantee they would go to war if one of the members was attacked. was formed in 1907, including the UK, France and Russia. It was a friendly agreement, and the three members did not necessarily guarantee to go to war to support each other. This was significant when Germany made the Schlieffen Plan, as they did not believe the UK would go to war if France was attacked. The Triple Entente was strategically in a better position, as they encircled the countries in the Triple Alliance. This caused a problem for Germany and led to them creating the Schlieffen Plan to try and deal with this threat.

What was the Schlieffen Plan?

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With France to the east and Russia to the west, Germany was surrounded by countries who had united against them in the Triple Entente. Germany created a plan to avoid fighting on their eastern and western fronts at the same time. They planned to invade France by going through Belgium and then circling back to fight Russia on the eastern front. This was called The Schlieffen Plan.

The Schlieffen plan made several assumptions:

• There would be minimal resistance from Belgium.
• Russia would take six weeks to mobilise their army.
• The UK would not get involved.

The plan failed, because:

• The Belgian army managed to slow the German advance, giving the French time to move their army to the border with Belgium.
• Russia mobilised their army in ten days, meaning Germany had to move soldiers to the eastern front.
• The UK declared war on Germany, honouring the Treaty of London, signed in 1839, that said Belgium should be a neutral country. The UK was also concerned about Germany winning control of Belgian ports, giving them a base to invade from.

Having failed with their plan for a quick victory, the German army decided to hold their position, digging 400 miles of trenches from the English Channel to the border with Switzerland. This was to protect soldiers from heavy artillery and machine gunfire.

Activity - Alliances

The naval race.

In order to build an empire, Germany needed to expand their navy to be able to travel across the seas to other countries.

This was a threat to the UK, who at the time had the biggest navy in the world. They had adopted a ‘two-power’ standard, meaning they wanted their navy to be at least as big as the second and third biggest navies combined. Because the UK is an island, a navy was more important than an army for defence. They had a small standing army, compared to the size of France, Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary, but their navy was significantly more powerful.

This led to a naval race, with countries across Europe building up bigger and more powerful weapons and ships. The UK launched HMS Dreadnought in 1906, which was seen as the first modern battleship, and sparked a naval race with Germany, who wanted to challenge the UK’s navy. Future ships built in this style were referred to as Dreadnoughts.

More on World War One

Find out more by working through a topic

What was life like on the front line in World War One?

• count 2 of 6

The end of World War One and the Treaty of Versailles

• count 3 of 6

Why the British West Indies Regiment joined World War One

• count 4 of 6

Segregation and racism of the South African Native Labour Corps

• count 5 of 6

Short Term Causes Of World War 1 Essay

Show More Essay – Causes of WWI World War One from 1914 to 1918 is also known as the Great War. The main causes of the war, Imperialism, Nationalism and Militarism turned many European countries against each other over decades. The short term events that caused the eruption of the Great War were the forming of alliances of many European countries and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. World War One destroyed countries, families and killed over seventeen million people and wounded over twenty million people from all over the world. One of the main long term causes of World War One is Imperialism. “Imperialism is a policy that exists when a powerful nation has political, economic and social cultural control over other …show more content… The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. In the Triple alliance contained Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. They were joined by Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey). In the Triple Entente were France, Great Britain and the Russian Empire. They were joined by Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Greece and Albania. Even though Italy was in the Triple Alliance it was very fickle and changed sides, it fought for whoever was winning. The weakening of the Ottoman Empire was seen as a good time to take over the Balkans trade route by the Russians to increase their strength and control. Austria-Hungary took over Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908, making the Serbian people fuming with national pride for their independence. The conspirators organisation, Blank Hand (Serbians) murdered the heir to Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie which was the catalyst that caused Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia on the 28th of July, 1914. This lead to Russia supporting Serbia which caused the Germans to declare war with Russia, France and Belgium in August 1914. Britain declared war on Germany to support its allies. On the 4th of August 1914, Australia, New Zealand and Canada joined Britain. By the 12th of August 1914 the world was at war. The three main causes of the Great War were imperialism, nationalism and militarism. The short term

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There were various underlying and immediate causes of World War One. The difference between underlying and immediate is an underlying cause is a long term event that indirectly leads to a specific event, and an immediate cause is a short term event and leads directly to another event or series of events. While the immediate cause of World War One was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, there were three main underlying causes. They are Alliances, Militarism, and Nationalism. Alliances, a union or association formed for mutual benefit, especially between countries or organizations.…

Direct Cause Of World War 1 Essay

The direct cause of World War 1 was the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and wife Sophie on June 28, 1914. The assassination was done by a Siberian Nationalist terrorist group. The first attempt failed earlier in the day.…

World War 1 Dbq

World War One was a catastrophic event that involved almost all of the major powers of the twentieth century. When looking at the causes of this major world event one might believe that the sole cause of the war was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary (The DBQ Project, Background Essay). There is reason to believe that the causes of the war had a more lasting effect and were more broader subjects than the assassination of just one man. World War One also called The Great War had four main underlying causes, imperialism, nationalism, alliance systems, and a want for war. Many nations were looking for a reason to start or get involved in a war.…

WWII About Nationalism And Global Power

The Allied Powers Were Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan and the United States. Different cultures ruled by one umbrella. Since Serbia was behind the assassination, everyone knew war was coming and that Russia would help Serbia. Austria Hungary was waiting on getting word from Germany that they would join them. First manifested as beliefs, then as political movements, nationalism reshaped the terrain of Europe (The Origins,…

WW1: The Causes Of The Great War?

The Causes of World War 1/ the Great War The Great War, or what most people know it as World War 1, was an extremely bloody war that took place in Europe from 1914-1919. World War 1 caused an estimated of 10 million soldier deaths and 20 million more wounded. Finally, at the end of 1918, the Versailles Treaty was signed by the countries taking part in the war, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Britain, France and Russia, which was a treaty that ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. The Great War was a war that caused the deaths of many, and people believe it was the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria that really began it.…

What Are The Underlying Causes Of World War 1 Essay

The underlying causes of World War 1 were alliances, nationalism, and powerlust. One of the underlying causes of World War 1 was the alliances. When Russia, France and the United Kingdom began making alliance this made the surrounding countries feel threatened. Since some countries were left out of the alliances, they felt uneasy about the situation. There wasn’t a war going on but they felt as though this would be the start of one.…

Related Topics

• World War II
• World War I
• Adolf Hitler
• League of Nations
• United States
• Treaty of Versailles

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World History Project AP®

Course: world history project ap®   >   unit 7, read: what caused the first world war.

• BEFORE YOU WATCH: How World War I Started – Crash Course World History #209
• WATCH: How World War I Started
• READ: The First World War as a Global War
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Britain and World War I
• WATCH: Britain and World War I
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Southeast Asia and World War I
• WATCH: Southeast Asia and World War I
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: The Middle East and World War I
• WATCH: The Middle East and World War I

First read: preview and skimming for gist

Second read: key ideas and understanding content.

• Who killed Franz Ferdinand? Why did they kill him?
• How did the European alliance system help start the war?
• How did imperialism help start the war?
• Why does the author argue that industrialization made the war inevitable once preparations were started?
• How might the First World War have happened on accident?

Third read: evaluating and corroborating

• To what extent does this article explain the causes and consequences of World War I?
• This article gives three broad explanations for the origins of the First World War. Which view, or argument, do you agree with the most, and why? Why not the others?

What Caused the First World War?

World war why, one shot: the assassination of archduke franz ferdinand, deeper trends: help me help you help me, accidental war: missed the memo, hit the target.

• Yes, these terms can get confusing. Nationalism was introduced to you as the idea that a state should govern itself, and not have some empire as its boss. But at some point, that feeling that you should get to govern yourself can turn into the idea that you are better than other nations, and becomes a kind of extreme patriotism. We call that nationalism as well. As we will see, nationalism is a pretty flexible thing, and it can be used for lots of different purposes.
• Top map by Joe Mabel, CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_German_Empire_-_1914.PNG
• Bottom map by Andrew0921, CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:British_Empire_in_1914.png

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Long Term Causes Of Ww1 Research Paper

The outbreak of World War I (WW1) in 1914 was a result of tensions that had been building between European countries for decades. It was a global conflict fought between two alliances: the Triple Entente and Triple Alliance. The war was as a result of both long and short term causes. A long-term cause is a cause that occurs a long time before the event. During WW1 this included Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism. Short term causes are causes that happened right before the event which in WW1 was the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. In my opinion, the two main long term causes of the WW1 were Imperialism and Nationalism was the thread that linked the causes together. Militarism is the belief that a country should build strong …show more content…

Imperialism is the desire to form an empire so that you can rule other countries and use them to gather resources and increase your power. Britain’s view of imperialization was to maintain and expand trade to have control over the raw materials, which intensified competition. By the 19th Century, the British Empire was the biggest Imperial power in the world. The “Scramble for Africa” between 1884 and 1914 occurred where European nations invaded and took control of Africa, which marked Britain and France as dominant colonial powers. Germany could not stand Britain’s control of oceans and markets and Britain viewed Germany as a threat to Europe. By the time Germany was able to create its own colonies, there was very little left which then increased its annoyance and created tension among European Countries. Colonies like Bosnia didn’t want to be controlled by Austria, so they rebelled, which was a very important factor in causing the war. Imperialism fed by nationalism. Nationalism refers to a sense of pride in one’s country. It is the idea of wanting your country to be the best, or wanting freedom and independence for your country. Nationalism was one of the main causes that led to WW1 as it created competition and tension between nations as each sought to assert their independence and power. Serbian nationalism was rising rapidly with the decline of the Ottoman Empire and was Russia’s ally. Bosnian

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Long Term Causes Of WW1

There were a variety of long-term and short-term causes of World War I. In the short term, one of the immediate causes was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914. This act set off a series of events that quickly led to war.

In the long term, there were several factors that contributed to the outbreak of war. One was the growing sense of nationalism in Europe, which led people to be more loyal to their country than to any other entity. This increased competition between countries and made it more likely for them to go to war with one another.

Another long-term cause was the increasing militarism in Europe. Countries were investing more and more in their militaries, and the arms race was becoming a major issue. This made war seem like a more likely option, as countries felt they needed to be prepared for any potential conflict.

Finally, the long-term cause of imperialism also played a role in the outbreak of war. As countries competed for colonies and resources, they became more likely to go to war with one another.

In 1914, World War I began. The causes of this conflict could be divided into two categories: long and short term. Imperialism, alliances, patriotism, and militarism were among the longer-term factors responsible for it. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand was the quick trigger that caused World War One to break out. Militarism is the advancement of huge and powerful military forces, which is a long-term cause of the Great War.

This in turn led to an arms race, as countries vied to have the most powerful militaries.

Militarism played a large role in the outbreak of WWI because it led to an arms race between the major powers of Europe. These countries were constantly trying to one-up each other in terms of military power, which led to a sense of unease and mistrust. In addition, alliances formed between these countries added to the tension, as each country felt obligated to defend its allies if they were attacked.

Nationalism was also a significant factor in the lead up to the war. This is the belief that one’s country is superior to all others and that it is one’s duty to uphold its honor and power. This intense pride in one’s country led to a sense of competition between the nations of Europe, as each tried to prove that it was the most powerful.

All of these long term causes contributed to the outbreak of war in 1914. However, it was the short term cause of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand that ultimately served as the trigger for World War I.

The assassination occurred on June 28th, 1914, when Ferdinand was visiting Sarajevo, Bosnia. He was shot by Gavrilo Princip, a member of a Serbian terrorist group called the Black Hand. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the death of Ferdinand and used it as an excuse to declare war.

The long and short term causes of World War I led to a conflict that would have far-reaching consequences. The Great War would lead to the downfall of empires, the rise of new nations, and the death of millions of people.

Germany had the world’s most powerful and biggest military at the start of the 20th century. Britain controlled the seas, and both countries were engaged in a race to outdo each other in every way. (Humanities Alive 4, p 5) The rivalry between nations with large military forces generated conflict and tension, engendering suspicion and animosity between countries and alliances. This dispute was most acute between Britain and Germany, with neither country wanting to fight the other.

In Europe, the network of alliances between different countries acted like a pressure cooker. The alliances were made up of two main groups. The first group was known as the Central Powers and it included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The second group was known as the Triple Entente and it included Britain, Russia and France.

These alliances were originally formed to make countries feel more secure, but they also had the effect of dragging other countries into war. For example, if one country in an alliance went to war, the other countries in that same alliance would be forced to go to war as well. This happened in 1914 when Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia (a small country in south-eastern Europe).

Russia, who was allied with Serbia, then declared war on Austria-Hungary. Germany, who was allied with Austria-Hungary, then declared war on Russia. France, who was allied with Russia, then declared war on Germany. Britain, who was allied with France, then declared war on Germany. Italy, who was allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary, did not declare war at this stage.

As a result of all these declarations of war, most of the countries in Europe were soon at war with each other. Alliances were not the only cause of World War I. Another important long-term cause was militarism.

Militarism is a philosophy or system that places great importance on the military and its power. This was a cause of World War I because countries with strong militaries were more likely to go to war.

They believed that having a strong military would make their country look powerful and prevent other countries from attacking them. As a result, countries began stockpiling large numbers of weapons and making their armies as big and strong as possible.

The two nations had a turbulent relationship. This brought the two countries and their alliances one step closer to war. The development of patriotism, as well as conscription, was encouraged by the other larger European nations in order to enhance their military might. (Humanities Alive 4, p 5) This heightened anxiety throughout Europe and prompted individuals to prepare for battle. Nationalism, along with the growth of nationalism, fueled this enthusiasm for amassing army strength.

When Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. This act then triggered a domino effect throughout Europe as various countries began to declare war on one another, leading to the start of World War I.

The long term causes of World War I were:

– militarism

– alliances

– imperialism

– nationalism.

The short term cause was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Militarism is a philosophy or system that places great importance on military power and prepares for war. Alliances are agreements between two or more countries to work together to protect each other. Imperialism is the practice by which a strong nation controls or dominates others. Nationalism is intense pride in and devotion to one’s country.

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