A Brief Overview of the American Civil War

This painting portrays Union soldiers waving the American flag, high above the violent battle going on beneath.

The Civil War is the central event in America's historical consciousness. While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865 determined what kind of nation it would be. The war resolved two fundamental questions left unresolved by the revolution: whether the United States was to be a dissolvable confederation of sovereign states or an indivisible nation with a sovereign national government; and whether this nation, born of a declaration that all men were created with an equal right to liberty, would continue to exist as the largest slaveholding country in the world.

Northern victory in the war preserved the United States as one nation and ended the institution of slavery that had divided the country from its beginning. But these achievements came at the cost of 625,000 lives--nearly as many American soldiers as died in all the other wars in which this country has fought combined. The American Civil War was the largest and most destructive conflict in the Western world between the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the onset of World War I in 1914.

Portrait photograph of Abraham Lincoln

The Civil War started because of uncompromising differences between the free and slave states over the power of the national government to prohibit slavery in the territories that had not yet become states. When Abraham Lincoln won election in 1860 as the first Republican president on a platform pledging to keep slavery out of the territories, seven slave states in the deep South seceded and formed a new nation, the Confederate States of America. The incoming Lincoln administration and most of the Northern people refused to recognize the legitimacy of secession. They feared that it would discredit democracy and create a fatal precedent that would eventually fragment the no-longer United States into several small, squabbling countries.

The event that triggered war came at Fort Sumter in Charleston Bay on April 12, 1861. Claiming this United States fort as their own, the Confederate army on that day opened fire on the federal garrison and forced it to lower the American flag in surrender. Lincoln called out the militia to suppress this "insurrection." Four more slave states seceded and joined the Confederacy. By the end of 1861 nearly a million armed men confronted each other along a line stretching 1200 miles from Virginia to Missouri. Several battles had already taken place--near Manassas Junction in Virginia, in the mountains of western Virginia where Union victories paved the way for creation of the new state of West Virginia, at Wilson's Creek in Missouri, at Cape Hatteras in North Carolina, and at Port Royal in South Carolina where the Union navy established a base for a blockade to shut off the Confederacy's access to the outside world.

But the real fighting began in 1862. Huge battles like Shiloh in Tennessee, Gaines' Mill , Second Manassas , and Fredericksburg in Virginia, and Antietam in Maryland foreshadowed even bigger campaigns and battles in subsequent years, from Gettysburg in Pennsylvania to Vicksburg on the Mississippi to Chickamauga and Atlanta in Georgia. By 1864 the original Northern goal of a limited war to restore the Union had given way to a new strategy of "total war" to destroy the Old South and its basic institution of slavery and to give the restored Union a "new birth of freedom," as President Lincoln put it in his address at Gettysburg to dedicate a cemetery for Union soldiers killed in the battle there.

Alexander Gardner's famous photo of Confederate dead before the Dunker Church on the Antietam Battlefield

For three long years, from 1862 to 1865, Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia staved off invasions and attacks by the Union Army of the Potomac commanded by a series of ineffective generals until Ulysses S. Grant came to Virginia from the Western theater to become general in chief of all Union armies in 1864. After bloody battles at places with names like The Wilderness , Spotsylvania , Cold Harbor , and Petersburg , Grant finally brought Lee to bay at Appomattox in April 1865. In the meantime Union armies and river fleets in the theater of war comprising the slave states west of the Appalachian Mountain chain won a long series of victories over Confederate armies commanded by hapless or unlucky Confederate generals. In 1864-1865 General William Tecumseh Sherman led his army deep into the Confederate heartland of Georgia and South Carolina, destroying their economic infrastructure while General George Thomas virtually destroyed the Confederacy's Army of Tennessee at the battle of Nashville . By the spring of 1865 all the principal Confederate armies surrendered, and when Union cavalry captured the fleeing Confederate President Jefferson Davis in Georgia on May 10, 1865, resistance collapsed and the war ended. The long, painful process of rebuilding a united nation free of slavery began.

Learn More:  This Day in the Civil War

short essay on civil war

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American Civil War 101

An Overview of the War Between the States

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short essay on civil war

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Fought from 1861–1865, the American Civil War was the result of decades of sectional tensions between the North and South. Focused on enslavement and states rights, these issues came to a head following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. Over the next several months, 11 southern states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America. During the first two years of the war, Southern troops won numerous victories but saw their fortunes turn after losses at Gettysburg and Vicksburg in 1863. From then on, Northern forces worked to conqueror the South, forcing them to surrender in April 1865.

Civil War: Causes & Secession

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

The roots of the Civil War can be traced to increasing differences between North and South and their growing divergence as the 19th century progressed. Chief among the issues were the expansion of enslavement into the territories, the South's declining political power, states' rights, and the retention of the system of enslavement. Though these issues had existed for decades, they exploded in 1860 following the election of Abraham Lincoln who was against the spread of enslavement. As a result of his election, South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas seceded from the Union.

First Shots: Fort Sumter & First Bull Run

Civil War Photos / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

On April 12, 1861, the war began when Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard opened fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor forcing its surrender. In response to the attack, President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion. While Northern states responded quickly, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas refused, opting to join the Confederacy instead. In July, Union forces commanded by Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell began marching south to take the rebel capital of Richmond. On the 21st, they met a Confederate army near Manassas and were defeated.

The War in East, 1862-1863

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Following the defeat at Bull Run, Maj. Gen. George McClellan was given command of the new Union Army of the Potomac. In early 1862, he shifted south to attack Richmond via the Peninsula. Moving slowly, he was forced to retreat after the Seven Days Battles. This campaign saw the rise of Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee . After beating a Union army at Manassas, Lee began to move north into Maryland. McClellan was sent to intercept and won a victory at Antietam on the 17th. Unhappy with McClellan's slow pursuit of Lee, Lincoln gave command to Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside . In December, Burnside was beaten at Fredericksburg and replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker . The following May, Lee engaged and defeated Hooker at Chancellorsville , Virginia.

The War in the West, 1861-1863

In February 1862, forces under Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant captured Forts Henry and Donelson. Two months later he defeated a Confederate army at Shiloh, Tennessee. On April 29, Union naval forces captured New Orleans . To the east, Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg attempted to invade Kentucky but was repelled at Perryville on October 8. That December he was beaten again at Stones River , Tennessee. Grant now focused his attention on capturing Vicksburg and opening the Mississippi River. After a false start, his troops swept through Mississippi and laid siege to the town on May 18, 1863.

Turning Points: Gettysburg & Vickburg

Kurz & Allison / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 

In June 1863, Lee began to move north towards Pennsylvania with Union troops in pursuit. Following the defeat at Chancellorsville, Lincoln turned to Maj. Gen. George Meade to take over the Army of the Potomac. On July 1, elements of the two armies clashed at Gettysburg , Pennsylvania. After three days of heavy fighting, Lee was defeated and forced to retreat. A day later on July 4, Grant successfully concluded the siege of Vicksburg , opening the Mississippi to shipping and cutting the South in two. Combined these victories were the beginning of the end for the Confederacy.

The War in the West, 1863-1865

Kurz & Allison / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

In summer 1863, Union troops under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans advanced into Georgia and were defeated at Chickamauga . Fleeing north, they were besieged at Chattanooga . Grant was ordered to save the situation and did so winning victories at Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. The following spring Grant departed and gave command to Maj. Gen. William Sherman . Moving south, Sherman took Atlanta and then marched to Savannah . After reaching the sea, he moved north pushing Confederate forces until their commander, Gen. Joseph Johnston surrendered at Durham, North Carolina, on April 18, 1865.

The War in the East, 1863-1865

National Archives and Records Administration / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

In March 1864, Grant was given command of all Union armies and came east to deal with Lee. Grant's campaign began in May, with the armies clashing at the Wilderness . Despite heavy casualties, Grant pressed south, fighting at Spotsylvania C.H. and Cold Harbor . Unable to get through Lee's army to Richmond, Grant attempted to cut the city off by taking Petersburg . Lee arrived first and a siege began. From April 2–3, 1865, Lee was forced to evacuate the city and retreat west, allowing Grant to take Richmond. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House.

Currier & Ives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 

On April 14, five days after Lee's surrender, President Lincoln was assassinated while attending a play at Ford's Theater in Washington. The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, was killed by Union troops on April 26 while fleeing south. Following the war, three amendments were added to the Constitution which ended the system of enslavement (13th), extended legal protection regardless of race (14th), and ended all racial restrictions on voting (15th).

During the war, Union forces suffered approximately 360,000 killed (140,000 in battle) and 282,000 wounded. Confederate armies lost approximately 258,000 killed (94,000 in battle) and an unknown number of wounded. The total killed in the war exceeds the total deaths from all other U.S. wars combined.

Civil War Battles

Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

The battles of the Civil War were fought across the United States from the East Coast to as far west as New Mexico. Beginning in 1861, these battles made a permanent mark upon the landscape and elevated to prominence small towns that had previously been peaceful villages. As a result, names such as Manassas, Sharpsburg, Gettysburg, and Vicksburg became eternally entwined with images of sacrifice, bloodshed, and heroism. It is estimated that over 10,000 battles of various sizes were fought during the Civil War as Union forces marched toward victory. During the Civil War, over 200,000 Americans were killed in battle as each side fought for their chosen cause.

American People and the Civil War

The Civil War was the first conflict that saw the large scale mobilization of the American people. While over 2.2 million served the Union cause, between 1.2 and 1.4 million enlisted in Confederate service. These men were led by officers from a variety of backgrounds ranging from professionally-trained West Pointers to businessmen and political appointees. While many professional officers did leave the U.S. Army to serve the South, the majority remained loyal to the Union. As the war began, the Confederacy benefited from several gifted leaders, while the North endured a string of poor commanders. In time, these men were replaced by skilled men who would lead the Union to victory.

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Short Essay: Civil War

Crafting a short essay on a topic as expansive as the Civil War can be a daunting task. The key to success lies in focusing your argument, conducting thorough research, and presenting your findings in a clear, concise manner. Below is a guide designed to help you write a compelling essay on the Civil War, covering everything from initial research to final proofreading.

Table of Contents

Understanding the Assignment

Before you begin, ensure you understand the requirements of the assignment. What is the prompt asking you to discuss? Is there a specific angle or topic you need to focus on, such as the causes of the Civil War, a particular battle, or the ramifications of the conflict? Clarifying these points will help you stay on topic and avoid unnecessary tangents.

Initial Research and Thesis Development

Start with a broad overview of the Civil War to help you narrow down your focus. Books, academic journals, and reputable online sources can provide a solid foundation of knowledge. As you research, look for a specific aspect of the Civil War that interests you and has sufficient material to explore in a short essay.

From your research, develop a thesis statement that presents your central argument. A strong thesis is specific and debatable, guiding the direction of your essay. For example, if you’re discussing the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might argue that while slavery was the central issue, other political and economic factors also played crucial roles.

Crafting an Outline

An outline is invaluable for organizing your thoughts and ensuring you cover all necessary points. For a 1200-word essay, a simple structure might include:

Mastering the Short Essay: Writing About the Civil War

Crafting a short essay on a topic as expansive as the Civil War can be a daunting task. The key to success lies in focusing your argument, conducting thorough research, and presenting your findings in a clear, concise manner. Below is a guide designed to help you write a compelling 1200-word essay on the Civil War, covering everything from initial research to final proofreading.

  • Hook to engage the reader
  • Background information
  • Thesis statement
  • Paragraph 1: Major cause or event with supporting evidence
  • Paragraph 2: Another cause or event with supporting evidence
  • Paragraph 3: Further analysis or an additional supporting point
  • (Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence and provide analysis, not just description)
  • Restate the thesis in a new way
  • Summarize key points
  • Provide final thoughts or implications of your argument

Writing the Introduction

Begin your essay with a compelling hook, such as a provocative question, a brief anecdote, or a startling statistic related to the Civil War. Provide necessary background information that sets the stage for your thesis, and conclude the introduction with your thesis statement, clearly laying out what your essay will argue.

Developing the Body Paragraphs

Each body paragraph should focus on one main idea that supports your thesis. Start with a topic sentence that clearly states the paragraph’s main point. Follow this with evidence from your research, including quotes, statistics, and historical examples. Be sure to analyze the evidence, explaining how it supports your argument. Transition smoothly between paragraphs to maintain a cohesive narrative.

Writing the Conclusion

Your conclusion should restate your thesis in a new light, considering the evidence and analysis you’ve presented. Summarize the main points of your essay and end with a strong final thought that underscores the significance of your argument. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.

Integrating Sources

When citing sources, follow the required citation style (MLA, APA, Chicago, etc.) and ensure that all quotations and paraphrased material are properly attributed. This not only gives credit to the original authors but also strengthens the credibility of your own work.

Editing and Proofreading

After completing your draft, take a break before revising. Editing is crucial for clarity and conciseness. Check that each sentence and paragraph contributes to your thesis and that your argument flows logically. Look for areas where you can tighten your prose and eliminate redundancy.

Proofreading is the final step. Read your essay carefully for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors. Reading aloud can help you catch mistakes that your eyes might skip when reading silently.

Additional Tips

  • Stay within the word count. It’s easy to become engrossed in the vast history of the Civil War, but discipline is key to maintaining a concise essay.
  • Use primary sources such as speeches, letters, and official documents to provide a firsthand perspective on the Civil War.
  • Understand the limitations of your essay. You cannot cover everything about the Civil War in 1200 words, so focus on a particular aspect or argument.
  • Maintain an objective tone, especially when discussing controversial or sensitive topics. Present evidence fairly and acknowledge counterarguments where appropriate.

Example of a Short Civil War Essay Structure

Introduction (150 words)

  • Hook: Present an intriguing fact about the Civil War’s impact.
  • Background: Briefly outline the period leading up to the war.
  • Thesis: State your argument regarding the primary cause of the Civil War.

Body (900 words)

  • Topic Sentence: Introduce the first cause (e.g., economic differences between theNorth and South).
  • Evidence & Analysis: Provide specific examples and discuss how the economic divide contributed to tensions.
  • Transition: Lead into the next paragraph by hinting at how economic factors intertwined with more direct causes.
  • Topic Sentence: Discuss the role of slavery and its moral implications as a central cause.
  • Evidence & Analysis: Use primary sources and historical evidence to show how slavery fueled sectionalism.
  • Transition: Connect the issue of slavery to the wider political frictions it exacerbated.
  • Topic Sentence: Address political factors, such as the power struggle between state and federal governments.
  • Evidence & Analysis: Draw from political speeches and legislative acts to demonstrate the growing divide.
  • Transition: Conclude with how these factors combined to make conflict inevitable.

Conclusion (150 words)

  • Restate Thesis: Summarize your argument, now substantiated with evidence.
  • Recap Main Points: Briefly review the causes discussed and their interconnections.
  • Final Thought: Offer insight into the Civil War’s legacy and its relevance to contemporary issues or historical understanding.

By adhering to this structure and focusing on clear, analytical prose, your essay will not only fulfill the assignment’s requirements but also provide a meaningful contribution to the understanding of the Civil War’s complex causes and legacy.

Civil War Short Essay Example #1

The American Civil War remains one of the most transformative periods in United States history, a conflict that pitted brother against brother and nearly tore the nation asunder. While the moral battle over slavery is often cited as the primary cause of the war, an exploration of the period reveals a complex web of political and economic factors that were equally instrumental in leading to the secession of the Southern states and the subsequent conflict. This essay will argue that, in addition to the obvious moral divide over slavery, the Civil War was rooted in profound economic differences and political disputes that shaped the trajectory of the nation.

Economic Divergence Between North and South

The antebellum period in the United States was marked by a growing economic chasm between the industrializing North and the agrarian South. The North’s economy was rapidly diversifying and industrializing, leading to the development of a modern capitalist economy that required free labor and the protection of patents and innovations. In stark contrast, the Southern economy was heavily reliant on agriculture, particularly the cultivation of cotton, which required a large, cheap labor force — a need met by the institution of slavery.

The economic policies that benefited the North, such as tariffs on imported goods, were often detrimental to the South, which relied on free trade to export its agricultural products. The Tariff of 1828, known in the South as the “Tariff of Abominations,” exemplified such contentious economic policies, as it placed heavy duties on imported goods, disadvantaging Southern planters. The resulting economic strain contributed significantly to the growing sentiment of Southern nationalism and the belief that the federal government was favoring Northern interests at the expense of the Southern way of life.

Political Strife and the Struggle for Power

Politically, the United States was in turmoil as the debate over the expansion of slavery into new territories and states intensified. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 attempted to regulate the spread of slavery but ultimately only postponed the inevitable conflict. The Dred Scott decision of 1857, which ruled that African Americans could not be citizens and that Congress had no authority to prohibit slavery in the territories, inflamed tensions further, signaling to the anti-slavery North that there was no legal method to prevent the spread of the institution.

The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, on a platform that opposed the extension of slavery, was the final straw for many in the South. Lincoln’s victory was seen not only as a direct threat to the institution of slavery but also as evidence that the South no longer had a voice in the national government. Secession followed, as Southern states sought to protect their economic interests and maintain their political power by forming a separate nation in which their values and economic system could persist unchallenged.

While the moral conflict over the institution of slavery was undeniably a driving force behind the American Civil War, the struggle was also deeply rooted in fundamental economic and political disparities between the North and South. The industrial versus agricultural economies, the imposition of tariffs, the political power struggles, and the contentious legislation over the spread of slavery all combined to create an atmosphere ripe for conflict. The Civil War was, therefore, not solely a battle over the morality of slavery but also a clash over different visions of economic development and political power. Understanding these contributing factors is crucial to grasping the complexity of the Civil War and the lasting impact it had on the United States, shaping the nation’s economic and political landscape for generations to come.

Civil War Short Essay Example #2

The Civil War, a pivotal event in American history, was a complex conflict with roots extending deep into the nation’s past. Central to this conflict was the institution of slavery, which had not only moral and humanitarian implications but also profound socio-economic and political consequences. This essay contends that slavery was not just a side issue but the core factor that led to the secession of the Southern states and ultimately the Civil War, as it was inextricably linked to the identity, economy, and political power of the South.

Slavery: The Cornerstone of Southern Society

In the antebellum South, slavery was more than a labor system; it was the foundation upon which the social order and economic prosperity of the Southern states were built. The “peculiar institution” enabled the South to become a powerhouse of agricultural production, particularly in the cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and sugar. This agrarian economy was so reliant on slave labor that by the mid-19th century, nearly four million African Americans lived in bondage, representing a significant portion of the South’s population and economic might.

The wealth generated by slave labor created a stark division in society, with a small elite of plantation owners exerting considerable influence over Southern politics. This elite worked tirelessly to protect and expand slavery as essential to their economic interests and way of life, leading to a rigid defense of the institution and a growing sense of Southern distinctiveness.

The Moral and Political Battle Lines

The moral crusade against slavery had been growing for decades, with abolitionists in the North and elsewhere condemning the practice as an abhorrent violation of human rights. The publication of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” and the violent resistance to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, among other events, heightened Northern opposition to slavery and sowed seeds of sectional discord.

The political arena became a battleground over the issue of slavery, with the formation of the Republican Party in the 1850s, which held the containment of slavery as one of its central tenets. The Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act sought to address the extension of slavery in new territories but ultimately underscored the inability of legislative measures to resolve the deep-seated conflict.

The violent confrontations in “Bleeding Kansas,” the Dred Scott decision, and John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry were symptomatic of the tensions that had escalated to a level where political compromise seemed unachievable. The election of Abraham Lincoln, who was perceived as an enemy of the Southern way of life, acted as the catalyst that transformed the dispute over slavery from a political struggle into an armed conflict.

Secession and the Onset of War

The secession of the Southern states was a direct response to the threat they perceived to the institution of slavery. The Confederate States of America was founded on the principle of preserving and maintaining the institution of slavery, which its leaders deemed essential for their economic survival and societal structure. The firing on Fort Sumter in April 1861 was not just an act of rebellion; it was a defense of the socio-economic order of the South against what was seen as Northern aggression.

The American Civil War was fundamentally a conflict over slavery and its place in the United States. The institution was so deeply embedded in the Southern economy, society, and identity that any threat to its existence was met with the utmost resistance. While there were certainly other factors at play, including states’ rights and economic disagreements, these issues cannot be disentangled from the overarching presence of slavery. The battle over whether the United States would be a land of freedom or bondage shaped the political discourse of the era and ignited a war whose reverberations are still felt today. By acknowledging the centrality of slavery in the Civil War, we gain a clearer understanding of the profound sacrifices made in the pursuit of liberty and equality, and the ongoing struggle to realize these ideals for all Americans.

Final Thoughts

Writing a short essay on the Civil War demands focus, discipline, and attention to detail. By carefully selecting a topic, crafting a clear thesis, and supporting your argument with well-researched evidence, you can create a powerful and concise piece of writing. Remember to revise and proofread thoroughly to ensure that your essay is free of errors and that your argument shines through. With these strategies in mind, you are well-equipped to tackle a short essay on the Civil War or any other historical topic with confidence and skill.

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Mr. Greg is an English teacher from Edinburgh, Scotland, currently based in Hong Kong. He has over 5 years teaching experience and recently completed his PGCE at the University of Essex Online. In 2013, he graduated from Edinburgh Napier University with a BEng(Hons) in Computing, with a focus on social media.

Mr. Greg’s English Cloud was created in 2020 during the pandemic, aiming to provide students and parents with resources to help facilitate their learning at home.

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short essay on civil war

short essay on civil war

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 20, 2023 | Original: October 15, 2009

SpotsylvaniaMay 1864: The battle of Spotsylvania, Virginia. (Photo by MPI/Getty Images)

The Civil War in the United States began in 1861, after decades of simmering tensions between northern and southern states over slavery, states’ rights and westward expansion. The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 caused seven southern states to secede and form the Confederate States of America; four more states soon joined them. The War Between the States, as the Civil War was also known, ended in Confederate surrender in 1865. The conflict was the costliest and deadliest war ever fought on American soil, with some 620,000 of 2.4 million soldiers killed, millions more injured and much of the South left in ruin.

Causes of the Civil War

In the mid-19th century, while the United States was experiencing an era of tremendous growth, a fundamental economic difference existed between the country’s northern and southern regions.

In the North, manufacturing and industry was well established, and agriculture was mostly limited to small-scale farms, while the South’s economy was based on a system of large-scale farming that depended on the labor of Black enslaved people to grow certain crops, especially cotton and tobacco.

Growing abolitionist sentiment in the North after the 1830s and northern opposition to slavery’s extension into the new western territories led many southerners to fear that the existence of slavery in America —and thus the backbone of their economy—was in danger.

Did you know? Confederate General Thomas Jonathan Jackson earned his famous nickname, "Stonewall," from his steadfast defensive efforts in the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas). At Chancellorsville, Jackson was shot by one of his own men, who mistook him for Union cavalry. His arm was amputated, and he died from pneumonia eight days later.

In 1854, the U.S. Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act , which essentially opened all new territories to slavery by asserting the rule of popular sovereignty over congressional edict. Pro- and anti-slavery forces struggled violently in “ Bleeding Kansas ,” while opposition to the act in the North led to the formation of the Republican Party , a new political entity based on the principle of opposing slavery’s extension into the western territories. After the Supreme Court’s ruling in the Dred Scott case (1857) confirmed the legality of slavery in the territories, the abolitionist John Brown’s raid at Harper’s Ferry in 1859 convinced more and more southerners that their northern neighbors were bent on the destruction of the “peculiar institution” that sustained them. Abraham Lincoln ’s election in November 1860 was the final straw, and within three months seven southern states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas—had seceded from the United States.

Outbreak of the Civil War (1861)

Even as Lincoln took office in March 1861, Confederate forces threatened the federal-held Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. On April 12, after Lincoln ordered a fleet to resupply Sumter, Confederate artillery fired the first shots of the Civil War. Sumter’s commander, Major Robert Anderson, surrendered after less than two days of bombardment, leaving the fort in the hands of Confederate forces under Pierre G.T. Beauregard. Four more southern states—Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee—joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter. Border slave states like Missouri, Kentucky and Maryland did not secede, but there was much Confederate sympathy among their citizens.

Though on the surface the Civil War may have seemed a lopsided conflict, with the 23 states of the Union enjoying an enormous advantage in population, manufacturing (including arms production) and railroad construction, the Confederates had a strong military tradition, along with some of the best soldiers and commanders in the nation. They also had a cause they believed in: preserving their long-held traditions and institutions, chief among these being slavery.

In the First Battle of Bull Run (known in the South as First Manassas) on July 21, 1861, 35,000 Confederate soldiers under the command of Thomas Jonathan “Stonewall” Jackson forced a greater number of Union forces (or Federals) to retreat towards Washington, D.C., dashing any hopes of a quick Union victory and leading Lincoln to call for 500,000 more recruits. In fact, both sides’ initial call for troops had to be widened after it became clear that the war would not be a limited or short conflict.

The Civil War in Virginia (1862)

George B. McClellan —who replaced the aging General Winfield Scott as supreme commander of the Union Army after the first months of the war—was beloved by his troops, but his reluctance to advance frustrated Lincoln. In the spring of 1862, McClellan finally led his Army of the Potomac up the peninsula between the York and James Rivers, capturing Yorktown on May 4. The combined forces of Robert E. Lee and Jackson successfully drove back McClellan’s army in the Seven Days’ Battles (June 25-July 1), and a cautious McClellan called for yet more reinforcements in order to move against Richmond. Lincoln refused, and instead withdrew the Army of the Potomac to Washington. By mid-1862, McClellan had been replaced as Union general-in-chief by Henry W. Halleck, though he remained in command of the Army of the Potomac.

Lee then moved his troops northwards and split his men, sending Jackson to meet Pope’s forces near Manassas, while Lee himself moved separately with the second half of the army. On August 29, Union troops led by John Pope struck Jackson’s forces in the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas). The next day, Lee hit the Federal left flank with a massive assault, driving Pope’s men back towards Washington. On the heels of his victory at Manassas, Lee began the first Confederate invasion of the North. Despite contradictory orders from Lincoln and Halleck, McClellan was able to reorganize his army and strike at Lee on September 14 in Maryland, driving the Confederates back to a defensive position along Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg.

On September 17, the Army of the Potomac hit Lee’s forces (reinforced by Jackson’s) in what became the war’s bloodiest single day of fighting. Total casualties at the Battle of Antietam (also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg) numbered 12,410 of some 69,000 troops on the Union side, and 13,724 of around 52,000 for the Confederates. The Union victory at Antietam would prove decisive, as it halted the Confederate advance in Maryland and forced Lee to retreat into Virginia. Still, McClellan’s failure to pursue his advantage earned him the scorn of Lincoln and Halleck, who removed him from command in favor of Ambrose E. Burnside . Burnside’s assault on Lee’s troops near Fredericksburg on December 13 ended in heavy Union casualties and a Confederate victory; he was promptly replaced by Joseph “Fighting Joe” Hooker , and both armies settled into winter quarters across the Rappahannock River from each other.

After the Emancipation Proclamation (1863-4)

Lincoln had used the occasion of the Union victory at Antietam to issue a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation , which freed all enslaved people in the rebellious states after January 1, 1863. He justified his decision as a wartime measure, and did not go so far as to free the enslaved people in the border states loyal to the Union. Still, the Emancipation Proclamation deprived the Confederacy of the bulk of its labor forces and put international public opinion strongly on the Union side. Some 186,000 Black Civil War soldiers would join the Union Army by the time the war ended in 1865, and 38,000 lost their lives.

In the spring of 1863, Hooker’s plans for a Union offensive were thwarted by a surprise attack by the bulk of Lee’s forces on May 1, whereupon Hooker pulled his men back to Chancellorsville. The Confederates gained a costly victory in the Battle of Chancellorsville , suffering 13,000 casualties (around 22 percent of their troops); the Union lost 17,000 men (15 percent). Lee launched another invasion of the North in June, attacking Union forces commanded by General George Meade on July 1 near Gettysburg, in southern Pennsylvania. Over three days of fierce fighting, the Confederates were unable to push through the Union center, and suffered casualties of close to 60 percent.

Meade failed to counterattack, however, and Lee’s remaining forces were able to escape into Virginia, ending the last Confederate invasion of the North. Also in July 1863, Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant took Vicksburg (Mississippi) in the Siege of Vicksburg , a victory that would prove to be the turning point of the war in the western theater. After a Confederate victory at Chickamauga Creek, Georgia, just south of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in September, Lincoln expanded Grant’s command, and he led a reinforced Federal army (including two corps from the Army of the Potomac) to victory in the Battle of Chattanooga in late November.

Toward a Union Victory (1864-65)

In March 1864, Lincoln put Grant in supreme command of the Union armies, replacing Halleck. Leaving William Tecumseh Sherman in control in the West, Grant headed to Washington, where he led the Army of the Potomac towards Lee’s troops in northern Virginia. Despite heavy Union casualties in the Battle of the Wilderness and at Spotsylvania (both May 1864), at Cold Harbor (early June) and the key rail center of Petersburg (June), Grant pursued a strategy of attrition, putting Petersburg under siege for the next nine months.

Sherman outmaneuvered Confederate forces to take Atlanta by September, after which he and some 60,000 Union troops began the famous “March to the Sea,” devastating Georgia on the way to capturing Savannah on December 21. Columbia and Charleston, South Carolina, fell to Sherman’s men by mid-February, and Jefferson Davis belatedly handed over the supreme command to Lee, with the Confederate war effort on its last legs. Sherman pressed on through North Carolina, capturing Fayetteville, Bentonville, Goldsboro and Raleigh by mid-April.

Meanwhile, exhausted by the Union siege of Petersburg and Richmond, Lee’s forces made a last attempt at resistance, attacking and captured the Federal-controlled Fort Stedman on March 25. An immediate counterattack reversed the victory, however, and on the night of April 2-3 Lee’s forces evacuated Richmond. For most of the next week, Grant and Meade pursued the Confederates along the Appomattox River, finally exhausting their possibilities for escape. Grant accepted Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9. On the eve of victory, the Union lost its great leader: The actor and Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre in Washington on April 14. Sherman received Johnston’s surrender at Durham Station, North Carolina on April 26, effectively ending the Civil War.

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The chief causes of the Civil War in the United States were slavery and the economic instability of that time. The war was between the North (the Union) and the South (the Confederacy), where more than 13% of African Americans were enslaved. Abraham Lincoln was elected president due to his anti-slavery expansion rhetoric. The time is considered a period of nation formation.

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The Civil War in The USA

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The U.S. Civil War: A Very Short Introduction

The U.S. Civil War: A Very Short Introduction

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The US Civil War: A Very Short Introduction covers a period in American history characterized by decades of intensifying conflict over slavery and government authority, culminating in Abraham Lincoln’s election and eleven states seceding from the Union. The Civil War began as a limited conflict with the aim of restoring the Union. It became a diffuse, violent war that lasted four years, claimed hundreds of thousands of lives, and ultimately led to the abolition of slavery and a vigorous debate over the terms by which the seceded states would be restored to the nation. This VSI ends with a chapter on the aftermath of the war and the remaking of America.

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The Conclusion of The Civil War Research Paper

The conclusion of the U.S. Civil War in 1865 provided three major outcomes. The Union was again one, slavery was abolished and the Southern states were physically, economically, and morally devastated. The abolishment of slavery was a good result for the nation. The humanitarian element alone was reason enough to celebrate the demise of this brutal institution. In addition, the contributions of freed slaves and their ancestors to the building of the nation following their emancipation are well-documented and vast. Of course, the after-effects of the war for the South could not in any way be considered a positive result. Their money was no good and their homes, buildings, and infrastructure were demolished. It is estimated that one in four males of military age in the South either died or suffered crippling injuring during the war (“The Civil War”, n.d.). There is no credible argument regarding these two outcomes as to whether they were good or bad for the nation. Though rejoining the country is still today a celebrated event in U.S. history, it ultimately caused a negative outcome. The main reason that the Confederacy succeeded from the Union was the issue of States’ rights which are guaranteed by the Constitution but were almost completely lost following the Civil War.

In most instances, individual states have the primary legal authority to nullify any actions taken by the federal government as described in the U.S. Constitution. This includes many legal rights up to and including the right to succeed. The Founding Fathers drafted this concept into the Constitution. They knew all too well that a decentralized federal government is less likely to become tyrannical because the people are better able to hold it accountable. The Founders’ intent was not necessary to give the states additional powers but to limit the authority of the federal government and to alleviate the fear that it would exercise powers it was not given. This concept was understood by the Founders, the Confederacy, and many of both conservative and liberal ideologies since the earliest beginnings of the nation (Epstein, 2003).

Within Article I, Section Eight of the Constitution is a purposely restricted set of responsibilities allocated to the federal government. It prints the money, regulates commerce, and provides for the common defense, in other words, funds the military. The 1819 U.S. Supreme Court decided that the federal government also possessed certain ‘implied powers’ in the McCulloch v. Maryland case. These are powers that are not mentioned specifically by the Constitution but are essential to operate the government effectively. For example, it is implied that the government can establish a bank because of its responsibility to regulate commerce, collect taxes, and print money. It is also implied that states cannot assemble an army or print currency while some powers such as collecting taxes are shared by both entities (“Federalism”, n.d.). These implied powers of the federal government have been stretched ever further since the Civil War era.

The dilution of the Constitution and the loss of states’ rights was one of the unhappy consequences of the Civil War. If the states had retained their rights, businesses would be encouraged to locate in states that provided more economic freedoms than others thereby creating competition which would constantly act to stimulate the economy. Given this scenario, “State politicians (could) easily be held accountable for results that fail to measure up to other states” (Epstein, 2003). People would have the flexibility to move to a state that more closely reflects their ideals of society and culture. The freedoms envisioned by the Founding Fathers regarding states’ rights have been whittled away starting with the Civil War and have snowballed since, especially within the past six years.

Works Cited

“(The) Civil War and Emancipation: 1861-1865.” Africans in America Resource Bank. (n.d.). PBS Online. Web.

Epstein, Marcus. “Libertarians and States’ Rights.” (2003). Lew Rockwell. Web.

“Federalism.” Educational Outreach. (n.d.). U.S. Courts. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2023, October 31). The Conclusion of The Civil War. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-conclusion-of-the-civil-war/

"The Conclusion of The Civil War." IvyPanda , 31 Oct. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/the-conclusion-of-the-civil-war/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'The Conclusion of The Civil War'. 31 October.

IvyPanda . 2023. "The Conclusion of The Civil War." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-conclusion-of-the-civil-war/.

1. IvyPanda . "The Conclusion of The Civil War." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-conclusion-of-the-civil-war/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Conclusion of The Civil War." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-conclusion-of-the-civil-war/.

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ESSAY –End of Civil War

In 2015, Matthew Pinsker wrote a short essay for the Smithsonian / Zocalo Public Square series, “What It Means To Be American,” on the subject of the debates about civil rights that erupted among abolitionists at the end of the Civil War.  The piece begins with a description of a little known episode that marked the end of the conflict: the Union flag-raising ceremony at Fort Sumter on April 14, 1865, attended by leading abolitionists, including Henry Ward Beecher and William Lloyd Garrison.  The House Divided Project has digitized and reexamined photos from that ceremony and offers new insights about Garrison’s presence at Sumter.  Combining the essay with the photo post offers a powerful gateway into the study of Reconstruction and the enduring challenges of race and equality in American history.

  • Did the End of the Civil War Mean the End of Slavery?
  • Where was William Lloyd Garrison?

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The Battle of Chickamauga

Civil War Stories

A collection of poems, short stories, letters, books, and speeches about the American Civil War (1861-1865). Short Stories , Poems , Books , and Speeches & Documents . You may also enjoy our collection of Civil War Songs

Short Stories

An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge by Ambrose Bierce Ambrose's most famous Civil War story about an ardent Confederate supporter, Peyton Farquhar, who is hanged at Owl Creek Bridge after being caught by a Union spy who planted the idea for his betrayal. We offer a useful Study Guide

The Veteran by Stephen Crane Stephen Crane takes up the question of courage again, this time in a short story that is the "unknown sequel" to The Red Badge of Courage . The author re-introduces Henry Fleming later in life, adds some more depth to the character, and makes a final commentary on the question of courage.

Letter to Sarah Ballou

A Horseman in the Sky by Ambrose Bierce In this Civil War story, Carter Druse, a young soldier from a wealthy Virginia family elects to fight for the Union. We find him posted on sentry duty, guarding the valley where five regiments of Union soldiers are hunkered down and hiding. Carter's orders are to prevent a rebel scout from discovering their whereabouts. How far would you go to fulfill your mission? Check our Study Guide

Letter to Sarah Ballou by Sullivan Ballou A lawyer and politician turned Civil War soldier, Major Sullivan Ballou was torn between love for his wife and family and his feelings of devotion and duty to his country. He penned his now famous letter on July 14, 1861. He was mortally wounded a week later at the First Battle of Bull Run (or First Manassas as the Confederates called it). He passed away on July 29th, just fifteen days after authoring the letter.

A Man With Two Lives

The Story of a Year by Henry James A young Henry James, who was conscripted to fight but was excused due to a back injury, was empathetic to the plight of those who were drafted into the bloody Civil War. He was sympathetic to their many hardships, including ones of the heart. In this story, a young soldier, John Ford, urges his fiance to form other relationships while he heads off to War.

A Man With Two Lives by Ambrose Bierce Did David Duck come make it back alive or not?

The Locket by Kate Chopin When the locket she fastened around her fiancee's neck came back from the front with a priest's letter, Octavie assumed a blessed resignation in her loss, but there's more to the story.

The Affair at Coulter's Notch by Ambrose Bierce This is a story that is rife with deeper symbolism as a white officer and his men, working their artillery, are transformed into 'black' men by their work. But do not focus on the literary techniques to distraction or you will miss the real art of the story, which first emerges with a soldier's hesitation.

The Man Without a Country by Edward Everett Hale After an outburst at a trial, Union Army Lieutenant Philip Nolan is sentenced to a life of exile; to live out his days as a passenger on U.S. Navy warships where he is to learn no news of his country and others are forbidden to mention the "United States." This pro-Union story was an effective morale booster for the Union cause.

The Brothers

The Battle of Lookout Mountain by William Dean Howells Fought on November 24, 1864, this battle was important because it pushed the Confederate flank, giving the Union forces a gateway to the deep South.

The Brothers by Louisa May Alcott Louisa May Alcott of Little Women fame served as a nurse during the War. In this short story she takes up questions of dignity, honor and loyalty and also sheds light on women's participation in the war.

The Story of a Conscience by Ambrose Bierce In this Civil War story a confederate spy, Dramer Brune, is captured behind enemy lines with a forged pass. Anyone abusing the privilege of the pass is to be "summarily shot." But there's a twist that tweaks the captor's conscience when he realizes that the spy before him had saved his own life years earlier. Will the favor be returned?

The Coup de Grace by Ambrose Bierce Yep, Bierce again. This time, a trio of characters are involved; the Halcrow brothers and Captain Madwell. Yep, "madwell," it seems like a loaded name to me too. In reply to an insult from one of the Halcrow brothers, Madwell replies, "Sir, I invite you to accompany the movement. A mounted officer would be a conspicuous mark, and I have long held the opinion that it would be better if you were dead."

Christmas Eve in War Times by Edward Payson Roe The story of Union Private Anson Marlow at the beginning of a battle as he lay dying. "He was conscious of little beyond a dull wonder."

The Burial of the Guns

Chickamauga by Ambrose Bierce " [The boy] had slept through it all, grasping his little wooden sword with perhaps a tighter clutch in unconscious sympathy with his martial environment, but as heedless of the grandeur of the struggle as the dead who had died to make the glory."

The Namesake by Willa Cather Discovery of a family history: "This comrade, running beside my uncle, saw the colors waver and sink as if falling, and looked to see that the boy's hand and forearm had been torn away by the exploding shrapnel. The boy did not realize the extent of his injury, for he laughed, shouted something which his comrade did not catch, caught the flag in his left hand, and ran on up the hill."

The Burial of the Guns by Thomas Nelson Page Page's landmark story deals with the emotional reactions of the Confederate soldiers upon hearing the news of Lee's surrender at the Appomattox Court House.

The Battle Hymn of the Republic music

O Captain! My Captain! by Walt Whitman Walt Whitman's plaintive poem lamenting the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln.

The Battle Hymn of the Republic by Julia Ward Howe What became the most popular song for the Union during the Civil War, Howe wrote the acclaimed lyrics, "Mine eyes have seen the glory" after an inspiring visit with President Lincoln in 1862. We offer Johnny Cash's rendition of this moving song.

I Wish I Was in Dixie by Daniel Decatur Emmett What became the Confederate's anthem: "Oh, I wish I was in the land of cotton, old times there are not forgotten. Look away, look away, look away Dixie Land!" See our Civil War Songs

To Louisa May Alcott. By Her Father. written for Louisa May Alcott "In youthful eagerness thou didst depart, at peril of they safety, peace, and life, to nurse the wounded soldier, swathe the dead,-- how pierced soon by fever's poisoned dart, and brought unconscious home, with wildered head."

The Soldier's Dream of Home Currier & Ives print

Bless God, he went as soldiers by Emily Dickinson Though her work was most intense and prolific during the Civil War, she rarely wrote explicitly about it. There's no ambiguity in this poem's references.

War Is Kind by Stephen Crane "Do not weep, maiden, for war is kind. Because your lover threw wild hands toward the sky and the affrighted steed ran on alone, do not weep. War is kind."

The Soldier's Dream of Home This Currier & Ives patriotic Civil War print was issued between 1861-65, depicting a Union soldier dreaming of being reunited with his family after reading a letter from home.

Rebel Color-Bearers at Shiloh

Rebel Color-Bearers at Shiloh by Herman Melville A poetic plea against the vindictive cry raised by civilians shortly after the surrender at Appomattox, April 9, 1865.

On the Slain At Chickamauga by Herman Melville "The will, that never can relent-- the aim, survivor of the bafflement, make this memorial due."

The Minstrel Boy by Thomas Moore "But his harp belongs to the brave and free, and shall never sound in slavery!" This popular Irish folk song written after the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was revived during the American Civil War with a new third verse.

The Sleeping Sentinel by Francis De Haes Janvier Commemorating William Scott, Union private from the 3rd Vermont Infantry, whose crime brought him before the firing squad, where his sentence and pardon by Lincoln were read together. He returned to battle, later killed at Lee's Mills.

The Sleeping Sentinel: William Scott

A Nameless Grave by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow "A soldier of the Union mustered out," is the inscription on an unknown grave in Newport News, Virginia.

Hush'd Be the Camps To-day by Walt Whitman Printed on mourning ribbons for Lincoln: "Sing-- as they close the doors of earth upon him-- one verse, for the heavy hearts of soldiers."

When Lilacs Last in the Door-yard Bloom'd by Walt Whitman Walt Whitman wrote this poem in 1865, juxtaposing Lincoln's death with spring's bursting forth of life and renewal.

Uncle Tom's Cabin

Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly by Harriet Beecher Stowe An anti-slavery novel published in 1852, Uncle Tom's Cabin had a profound impact on the American landscape and is widely credited with fueling the abolitionist movement, and contributing materially to the the tensions leading up to the American Civil War.

The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane Published in 1895, a full thirty years after the American Civil War had ended, The Red Badge of Courage follows the trials and tribulations of Henry Fleming, a recruit in the American Civil War struggling with ideas of bravery and courage. Although Stephen Crane was born after the war and never participated in battle himself, he produced one of the most influential war novels of all time and veterans praised his ability to capture the true nature of the battles he described.

Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant by Ulysses S. Grant Published in 1885, Grant's insightful autobiography focuses on his military career during the Mexican-American War and the U.S. Civil War.

A Narrative on the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave by Frederick Douglass Considered one of the most important and influential writings of the Abolitionist Movement, detailing events of Douglass' life and the immorality of slavery itself.

Cooking by Troops, in Camp and Hospital

Little Women by Louisa May Alcott The coming-of-age story of the March sisters Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy as they grow up during the Civil War.

Thirty Years a Slave: From Bondage to Freedom by Louis Hughes Considered one of the best examples of what's termed 'the slave narrative,' Hughes' book provided details that corroborated the mounting arguments against slavery.

Cooking by Troops, for Camp and Hospital by Florence Nightingale The founder of modern nursing famous for treating combat soldiers in Europe, was commissioned by the Virginia Army to write directions how to feed hundreds of soldiers in camps and care for the sick in hospitals during the American Civil War.

The Gettysburg Address

Speeches & Documents

The Gettysburg Address by Abraham Lincoln It was on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863 that American President Abraham Lincoln took the stage and delivered one of the most famous speeches in American History, The Gettysburg Address. In a speech lasting just over two minutes, President Lincoln gave a stirring address that covered the founding principals of the country, acknowledged the great sacrifice of life, and then importantly, cast the conflict into a moral dimension that redefined the struggle as a battle to bring equality to all the country's citizens.

Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln by Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln gave his Second Inaugural on March 4th, 1865. The end of the war was approaching, but the president did not strike a triumphal tone, choosing instead to question why Providence had visited the terrible war on the American people and using biblical allusion to ponder some of the painful and troubling questions the war had wrought. The Second Inaugural is a masterpiece of solemn oratory. "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right . . ." Lincoln was assassinated within weeks of this speech; and the country mourned -- "O Captain! My Captain!"

Our Banner In the Sky

Sojourner Truth, The Libyan Sybil by Harriet Beecher Stowe Stowe describes her legendary encounter with the African-American activist, published in 1864.

Emancipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln Issued on September 22, 1862, this document declared that all persons held as slaves within any State will be forever free as of January 1, 1863.

Reconstruction Amendments to the U.S. Constitution by U.S. Congress, Senate, and State Legislatures A summary of Amendments XIII - XV, passed between 1865 - 1870, referred to as the "Reconstruction Amendments."

Visit American History , World War I Literature , and African American Library for other important American authors and figures. Are you a teacher? Visit Teacher Resources . Are you a student? Check out Stories for High School and Poetry for Students

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Cincinnati Enquirer

Diminishing the complexities of Civil War history dumbs down our citizenry | Opinion

R epublican presidential candidate Nikki Haley was asked at a recent campaign event in New Hampshire about what caused the Civil War. Haley replied that the cause "was basically how government was going to run, the freedoms, and what people could and couldn't do." The former South Carolina governor received condemnation from the mainstream media and President Joe Biden, who provided his own response to the question on his social media X account, declaring, "It was about slavery." But this rudimentary answer on the cause of the Civil War by Biden isn't worthy of a high mark either. 

After the Civil War began, Abraham Lincoln wrote in a letter, "My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery." Further, in his 18th century essay, "No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority," abolitionist Lysander Spooner remarked, "The pretense that the abolition of slavery was either a motive or justification for the war, is a fraud..."

These quotes from two monumental figures in the Civil War era prove that the Civil War was waged because the Southern states tried to separate from the Union. In fact, by the time the Emancipation Proclamation was issued, freeing some of the slaves, the Civil War had already been going on for over 650 days. 

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In the 1860s, slavery existed almost all over the world, including in Africa and the Arab provinces of the Middle East. And though classified as "free states," some Northern states had "Black Laws" on the books at the time of the Civil War. For example, according to the Illinois Secretary of State website, "in 1848, Illinois voters approved a new state Constitution that required the state legislature to prohibit African-Americans from moving to Illinois."

Leading up to the Civil War, one of the South's main grievances against the federal government concerned its economic and tax policies. In a talk given at the Mises Institute, historian Murray Rothbard quoted John C. Calhoun, who stated, "the North has adopted a system of revenue and disbursements, in which an undue proportion of the burden of taxation has been imposed on the South, and an undue proportion appropriated to the North, and for the monopolization of Northern industry." Similarly, when separating from The Kingdom of Great Britain, the Founding Fathers, in the Declaration of Independence, listed the British government's economic and tax policies as part of their grievances.

The Civil War was waged less than a century after America seceded from Britain, so at that time, the right to self-determination − the moral principle that people have the right to form their own government − was still deeply entrenched in American culture. 

In the U.S., most of the Southern population did not actually own slaves, with slave ownership mainly being concentrated among the affluent planter class. While condensing history into easy-to-grasp narratives is politically convenient for Biden and his mainstream media cohorts, erasing significant complexities from history dumbs down our citizenry, undermining informed public discourse, and is not the display of deep intellectualism expected of a U.S. president or of historically accurate reporting expected of the news media. 

Clarence B. Leatherbury of Salem, Indiana is an attorney in Indiana and Kentucky.

This article originally appeared on Cincinnati Enquirer: Diminishing the complexities of Civil War history dumbs down our citizenry | Opinion

Nikki Haley speaks to a crowd Saturday, Dec. 30, 2023 at the Iowa Athletic Club in Iowa City, Iowa.

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