sport can reduce stress essay

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Exercise and stress: Get moving to manage stress

Exercise in almost any form can act as a stress reliever. Being active can boost your feel-good endorphins and distract you from daily worries.

You know that exercise does your body good, but you're too busy and stressed to fit it into your routine. Hold on a second — there's good news when it comes to exercise and stress.

Virtually any form of exercise, from aerobics to yoga, can act as a stress reliever. If you're not an athlete or even if you're out of shape, you can still make a little exercise go a long way toward stress management. Discover the connection between exercise and stress relief — and why exercise should be part of your stress management plan.

Exercise and stress relief

Exercise increases your overall health and your sense of well-being, which puts more pep in your step every day. But exercise also has some direct stress-busting benefits.

• It pumps up your endorphins. Physical activity may help bump up the production of your brain's feel-good neurotransmitters, called endorphins. Although this function is often referred to as a runner's high, any aerobic activity, such as a rousing game of tennis or a nature hike, can contribute to this same feeling.
• It reduces negative effects of stress. Exercise can provide stress relief for your body while imitating effects of stress, such as the flight or fight response, and helping your body and its systems practice working together through those effects. This can also lead to positive effects in your body — including your cardiovascular, digestive and immune systems — by helping protect your body from harmful effects of stress.

It's meditation in motion. After a fast-paced game of racquetball, a long walk or run, or several laps in the pool, you may often find that you've forgotten the day's irritations and concentrated only on your body's movements.

As you begin to regularly shed your daily tensions through movement and physical activity, you may find that this focus on a single task, and the resulting energy and optimism, can help you stay calm, clear and focused in everything you do.

• It improves your mood. Regular exercise can increase self-confidence, improve your mood, help you relax, and lower symptoms of mild depression and anxiety. Exercise can also improve your sleep, which is often disrupted by stress, depression and anxiety. All of these exercise benefits can ease your stress levels and give you a sense of command over your body and your life.

Put exercise and stress relief to work for you

A successful exercise program begins with a few simple steps.

• Consult with your doctor. If you haven't exercised for some time or you have health concerns, you may want to talk to your doctor before starting a new exercise routine.

Walk before you run. Build up your fitness level gradually. Excitement about a new program can lead to overdoing it and possibly even injury.

For most healthy adults, the Department of Health and Human Services recommends getting at least 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity or 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity a week, or a combination of moderate and vigorous activity. Examples of moderate aerobic activity include brisk walking or swimming, and vigorous aerobic activity can include running or biking. Greater amounts of exercise will provide even greater health benefits.

Also, aim to do strength training exercises for all major muscle groups at least two times a week.

Do what you love. Almost any form of exercise or movement can increase your fitness level while decreasing your stress. The most important thing is to pick an activity that you enjoy. Examples include walking, stair climbing, jogging, dancing, bicycling, yoga, tai chi, gardening, weightlifting and swimming.

And remember, you don't need to join a gym to get moving. Take a walk with the dog, try body-weight exercises or do a yoga video at home.

• Pencil it in. In your schedule, you may need to do a morning workout one day and an evening activity the next. But carving out some time to move every day helps you make your exercise program an ongoing priority. Aim to include exercise in your schedule throughout your week.

Stick with it

Starting an exercise program is just the first step. Here are some tips for sticking with a new routine or refreshing a tired workout:

Set SMART goals. Write down SMART goals — specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and time-limited goals.

If your primary goal is to reduce stress in your life, your specific goals might include committing to walking during your lunch hour three times a week. Or try online fitness videos at home. Or, if needed, find a babysitter to watch your children so that you can slip away to attend a cycling class.

• Find a friend. Knowing that someone is waiting for you to show up at the gym or the park can be a powerful incentive. Try making plans to meet friends for walks or workouts. Working out with a friend, co-worker or family member often brings a new level of motivation and commitment to your workouts. And friends can make exercising more fun!
• Change up your routine. If you've always been a competitive runner, take a look at other, less competitive options that may help with stress reduction, such as Pilates or yoga classes. As an added bonus, these kinder, gentler workouts may enhance your running while also decreasing your stress.

Exercise in short bursts. Even brief bouts of physical activity offer benefits. For instance, if you can't fit in one 30-minute walk, try a few 10-minute walks instead. Being active throughout the day can add up to provide health benefits. Take a mid-morning or afternoon break to move and stretch, go for a walk, or do some squats or pushups.

Interval training, which entails brief (60 to 90 seconds) bursts of intense activity at almost full effort, can be a safe, effective and efficient way of gaining many of the benefits of longer duration exercise. What's most important is making regular physical activity part of your lifestyle.

Whatever you do, don't think of exercise as just one more thing on your to-do list. Find an activity you enjoy — whether it's an active tennis match or a meditative meander down to a local park and back — and make it part of your regular routine. Any form of physical activity can help you unwind and become an important part of your approach to easing stress.

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• Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. 2nd ed. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://health.gov/our-work/physical-activity/current-guidelines. Accessed Aug. 10, 2020.
• AskMayoExpert. Physical activity (adult). Mayo Clinic; 2020.
• Working out boosts brain health. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/topics/exercise-stress. Accessed Aug. 10, 2020.
• Seaward BL. Physical exercise: Flushing out the stress hormones. In: Essentials of Managing Stress. 4th ed. Jones & Bartlett Publishers; 2017.
• Bodenheimer T, et al. Goal-setting for behavior change in primary care: An exploration and status report. Patient Education and Counseling. 2009; doi:10.1016/j.pec.2009.06.001.
• Locke E, et al. Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist. 2002; doi:10.1037//0003-066x.57.9.705.
• Olpin M, et al. Healthy lifestyles. In: Stress Management for Life. 4th ed. Cengage Learning; 2016.
• Laskwoski ER (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. Aug. 12, 2020.

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• Let's Move

How sport can have a positive impact on mental and physical health

It’s not always easy to start a workout, but research shows that sport and exercise are beneficial not only for your physical health, but your mental well-being, too. Let us help!

Health experts and Olympic athletes agree: Your mental and physical health benefit when you get active and participate in sport – whatever that means for you.

From daily exercise to choosing a sport to practice or play, the body and mind are worked in new and different ways each time you move your body.

On June 23rd every year we come together to celebrate that, as part of Olympic Day.

For the 2020 edition, we connected with Olympians around the world for Olympic Day 2020 at-home workouts – and a reminder: We’re stronger together, especially when we stay active!

And those are still available online to help inspire you today.

Sport benefits: Both the physical and mental

While the physical benefits are numerous (more on that below), the UK's National Health Service (NHS) report that people who take part in regular physical activity have up to a 30 percent lower risk of depression.

Additionally, exercise can help lower anxiety, reduce the risk of illness and increase energy levels. Want better sleep? Work up a good sweat!

Exercise can help you fall asleep faster and sleep for longer, research says.

It was in June 2020 that the IOC partnered with the World Health Organization and United Nations to promote the #HEALTHYTogether campaign , which highlights the benefits of physical activity in the face of the pandemic.

Over 50 at-home workouts are searchable across Olympics.com for you, each which help further the idea that moving and challenging the body can only prove beneficial for your physical and mental well-being.

The athletes' perspective: 'I used this strength to survive'

“If I had sat doing nothing, I would have gone crazy,” says Syria's Sanda Aldass , who fled the trauma of civil war in her country, leaving behind her husband and infant child.

Instead, she had judo - and has been selected for the IOC Refugee Olympic Team Tokyo 2020 for the Games in 2021.

“Running around and doing some exercises filled up my time and also kept me in good mental health,” Sanda said of the impact of sport on her life during nine months spent in a refugee camp in the Netherlands in 2015.

The same power of sport goes for Iranian taekwondo athlete Ali Noghandoost.

"When I had to leave my family and my home in Iran, the first things I packed in my bag were my belt, my dobok, my shoes and my mitt for taekwondo," Noghandoost said . "I took some documents that said I was a champion in Iran and in a national team, so I could prove I was a fighter and continue to train in any city I went to."

"Taekwondo did not only help me physically; mentally, it stopped me from thinking about giving up and that we wouldn’t make it. I used this strength to survive," he added.

Noghandoost has worked as a coach for refugees in Croatia, where he has tried to pass the power of sport on to the next generation.

"When you’re living in a refugee camp, it’s a really hard situation, but when you play sport, you can release any negative energy and feel free. It’s a space – a paradise – for them to be themselves."

A member of the IOC Refugee Olympic Team Rio 2016, Yiech Pur Biel says that the team provided a message of hope for those watching around the world.

"We were ambassadors for a message of hope, that anything is possible," Biel said . "A good thing had come out of our situations. The world understood. I am called a refugee, but you never know when someone else might become a refugee, through war or persecution. We wanted to show that we responded positively. So that made me very happy. Through sport, we can unite and make the world better."

Sport as a tool for much - including mental health

Sport is a powerful tool no matter from what angle you look at it, including mental health. The Olympic Refugee Foundation (ORF) has recently launched two different programs that are aimed at helping young refugees dream of a brighter future - through sport.

One of those programs, Game Connect, is a three-year initiative that was launched in August 2020 and aims to "improve the mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of young refugees by improving their access to safe sport," as explained on Olympics.com last year.

We are "embarking on a three-year project to improve the psychosocial wellbeing and mental health of young refugees, working together with well-trained community-based coaches to deliver a Sport for Protection program and activities," explained Karen Mukiibi of Youth Sport Uganda, which has partnered with the ORF.

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• Systematic review update
• Open access
• Published: 21 June 2023

The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model

• Narelle Eather   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6320-4540 1 , 2 ,
• Levi Wade   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4007-5336 1 , 3 ,
• Aurélie Pankowiak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0178-513X 4 &
• Rochelle Eime   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8614-2813 4 , 5  

Systematic Reviews volume  12 , Article number:  102 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Sport is a subset of physical activity that can be particularly beneficial for short-and-long-term physical and mental health, and social outcomes in adults. This study presents the results of an updated systematic review of the mental health and social outcomes of community and elite-level sport participation for adults. The findings have informed the development of the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults.

Nine electronic databases were searched, with studies published between 2012 and March 2020 screened for inclusion. Eligible qualitative and quantitative studies reported on the relationship between sport participation and mental health and/or social outcomes in adult populations. Risk of bias (ROB) was determined using the Quality Assessment Tool (quantitative studies) or Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (qualitative studies).

The search strategy located 8528 articles, of which, 29 involving adults 18–84 years were included for analysis. Data was extracted for demographics, methodology, and study outcomes, and results presented according to study design. The evidence indicates that participation in sport (community and elite) is related to better mental health, including improved psychological well-being (for example, higher self-esteem and life satisfaction) and lower psychological ill-being (for example, reduced levels of depression, anxiety, and stress), and improved social outcomes (for example, improved self-control, pro-social behavior, interpersonal communication, and fostering a sense of belonging). Overall, adults participating in team sport had more favorable health outcomes than those participating in individual sport, and those participating in sports more often generally report the greatest benefits; however, some evidence suggests that adults in elite sport may experience higher levels of psychological distress. Low ROB was observed for qualitative studies, but quantitative studies demonstrated inconsistencies in methodological quality.

Conclusions

The findings of this review confirm that participation in sport of any form (team or individual) is beneficial for improving mental health and social outcomes amongst adults. Team sports, however, may provide more potent and additional benefits for mental and social outcomes across adulthood. This review also provides preliminary evidence for the Mental Health through Sport model, though further experimental and longitudinal evidence is needed to establish the mechanisms responsible for sports effect on mental health and moderators of intervention effects. Additional qualitative work is also required to gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The organizational structure of sport and the performance demands characteristic of sport training and competition provide a unique opportunity for participants to engage in health-enhancing physical activity of varied intensity, duration, and mode; and the opportunity to do so with other people as part of a team and/or club. Participation in individual and team sports have shown to be beneficial to physical, social, psychological, and cognitive health outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Often, the social and mental health benefits facilitated through participation in sport exceed those achieved through participation in other leisure-time or recreational activities [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Notably, these benefits are observed across different sports and sub-populations (including youth, adults, older adults, males, and females) [ 11 ]. However, the evidence regarding sports participation at the elite level is limited, with available research indicating that elite athletes may be more susceptible to mental health problems, potentially due to the intense mental and physical demands placed on elite athletes [ 12 ].

Participation in sport varies across the lifespan, with children representing the largest cohort to engage in organized community sport [ 13 ]. Across adolescence and into young adulthood, dropout from organized sport is common, and especially for females [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], and adults are shifting from organized sports towards leisure and fitness activities, where individual activities (including swimming, walking, and cycling) are the most popular [ 13 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Despite the general decline in sport participation with age [ 13 ], the most recent (pre-COVID) global data highlights that a range of organized team sports (such as, basketball, netball volleyball, and tennis) continue to rank highly amongst adult sport participants, with soccer remaining a popular choice across all regions of the world [ 13 ]. It is encouraging many adults continue to participate in sport and physical activities throughout their lives; however, high rates of dropout in youth sport and non-participation amongst adults means that many individuals may be missing the opportunity to reap the potential health benefits associated with participation in sport.

According to the World Health Organization, mental health refers to a state of well-being and effective functioning in which an individual realizes his or her own abilities, is resilient to the stresses of life, and is able to make a positive contribution to his or her community [ 20 ]. Mental health covers three main components, including psychological, emotional and social health [ 21 ]. Further, psychological health has two distinct indicators, psychological well-being (e.g., self-esteem and quality of life) and psychological ill-being (e.g., pre-clinical psychological states such as psychological difficulties and high levels of stress) [ 22 ]. Emotional well-being describes how an individual feels about themselves (including life satisfaction, interest in life, loneliness, and happiness); and social well–being includes an individual’s contribution to, and integration in society [ 23 ].

Mental illnesses are common among adults and incidence rates have remained consistently high over the past 25 years (~ 10% of people affected globally) [ 24 ]. Recent statistics released by the World Health Organization indicate that depression and anxiety are the most common mental disorders, affecting an estimated 264 million people, ranking as one of the main causes of disability worldwide [ 25 , 26 ]. Specific elements of social health, including high levels of isolation and loneliness among adults, are now also considered a serious public health concern due to the strong connections with ill-health [ 27 ]. Participation in sport has shown to positively impact mental and social health status, with a previous systematic review by Eime et al. (2013) indicated that sports participation was associated with lower levels of perceived stress, and improved vitality, social functioning, mental health, and life satisfaction [ 1 ]. Based on their findings, the authors developed a conceptual model (health through sport) depicting the relationship between determinants of adult sports participation and physical, psychological, and social health benefits of participation. In support of Eime’s review findings, Malm and colleagues (2019) recently described how sport aids in preventing or alleviating mental illness, including depressive symptoms and anxiety or stress-related disease [ 7 ]. Andersen (2019) also highlighted that team sports participation is associated with decreased rates of depression and anxiety [ 11 ]. In general, these reviews report stronger effects for sports participation compared to other types of physical activity, and a dose–response relationship between sports participation and mental health outcomes (i.e., higher volume and/or intensity of participation being associated with greater health benefits) when adults participate in sports they enjoy and choose [ 1 , 7 ]. Sport is typically more social than other forms of physical activity, including enhanced social connectedness, social support, peer bonding, and club support, which may provide some explanation as to why sport appears to be especially beneficial to mental and social health [ 28 ].

Thoits (2011) proposed several potential mechanisms through which social relationships and social support improve physical and psychological well-being [ 29 ]; however, these mechanisms have yet to be explored in the context of sports participation at any level in adults. The identification of the mechanisms responsible for such effects may direct future research in this area and help inform future policy and practice in the delivery of sport to enhance mental health and social outcomes amongst adult participants. Therefore, the primary objective of this review was to examine and synthesize all research findings regarding the relationship between sports participation, mental health and social outcomes at the community and elite level in adults. Based on the review findings, the secondary objective was to develop the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model.

This review has been registered in the PROSPERO systematic review database and assigned the identifier: CRD42020185412. The conduct and reporting of this systematic review also follows the Preferred Reporting for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 30 ] (PRISMA flow diagram and PRISMA Checklist available in supplementary files ). This review is an update of a previous review of the same topic [ 31 ], published in 2012.

Identification of studies

Nine electronic databases (CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Informit, Medline, PsychINFO, Psychology and Behavioural Sciences Collection, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched for relevant records published from 2012 to March 10, 2020. The following key terms were developed by all members of the research team (and guided by previous reviews) and entered into these databases by author LW: sport* AND health AND value OR benefit* OR effect* OR outcome* OR impact* AND psych* OR depress* OR stress OR anxiety OR happiness OR mood OR ‘quality of life’ OR ‘social health’ OR ‘social relation*’ OR well* OR ‘social connect*’ OR ‘social functioning’ OR ‘life satisfac*’ OR ‘mental health’ OR social OR sociolog* OR affect* OR enjoy* OR fun. Where possible, Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) were also used.

Criteria for inclusion/exclusion

The titles of studies identified using this method were screened by LW. Abstract and full text of the articles were reviewed independently by LW and NE. To be included in the current review, each study needed to meet each of the following criteria: (1) published in English from 2012 to 2020; (2) full-text available online; (3) original research or report published in a peer-reviewed journal; (4) provides data on the psychological or social effects of participation in sport (with sport defined as a subset of exercise that can be undertaken individually or as a part of a team, where participants adhere to a common set of rules or expectations, and a defined goal exists); (5) the population of interest were adults (18 years and older) and were apparently healthy. All papers retrieved in the initial search were assessed for eligibility by title and abstract. In cases where a study could not be included or excluded via their title and abstract, the full text of the article was reviewed independently by two of the authors.

Data extraction

For the included studies, the following data was extracted independently by LW and checked by NE using a customized Google Docs spreadsheet: author name, year of publication, country, study design, aim, type of sport (e.g., tennis, hockey, team, individual), study conditions/comparisons, sample size, where participants were recruited from, mean age of participants, measure of sports participation, measure of physical activity, psychological and/or social outcome/s, measure of psychological and/or social outcome/s, statistical method of analysis, changes in physical activity or sports participation, and the psychological and/or social results.

Risk of bias (ROB) assessment

A risk of bias was performed by LW and AP independently using the ‘Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies’ OR the ‘Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies’ for the included quantitative studies, and the ‘Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Checklist for the included qualitative studies [ 32 , 33 ]. Any discrepancies in the ROB assessments were discussed between the two reviewers, and a consensus reached.

The search yielded 8528 studies, with a total of 29 studies included in the systematic review (Fig.  1 ). Tables  1 and 2 provide a summary of the included studies. The research included adults from 18 to 84 years old, with most of the evidence coming from studies targeting young adults (18–25 years). Study samples ranged from 14 to 131, 962, with the most reported psychological outcomes being self-rated mental health ( n  = 5) and depression ( n  = 5). Most studies did not investigate or report the link between a particular sport and a specific mental health or social outcome; instead, the authors’ focused on comparing the impact of sport to physical activity, and/or individual sports compared to team sports. The results of this review are summarized in the following section, with findings presented by study design (cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal).

Flow of studies through the review process

Effects of sports participation on psychological well-being, ill-being, and social outcomes

Cross-sectional evidence.

This review included 14 studies reporting on the cross-sectional relationship between sports participation and psychological and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 414 to n  = 131,962 with a total of n  = 239,394 adults included across the cross-sectional studies.

The cross-sectional evidence generally supports that participation in sport, and especially team sports, is associated with greater mental health and psychological wellbeing in adults compared to non-participants [ 36 , 59 ]; and that higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, are also linked to lower levels of mental distress in adults . This was not the case for one specific study involving ice hockey players aged 35 and over, with Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) reporting no relationship between participation in ice hockey and either mental health, or perceived life stress [ 54 ]. There is also some evidence to support that previous participation in sports (e.g., during childhood or young adulthood) is linked to better mental health outcomes later in life, including improved mental well-being and lower mental distress [ 59 ], even after controlling for age and current physical activity.

Compared to published community data for adults, elite or high-performance adult athletes demonstrated higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction [ 39 ]; and reported reduced tendency to respond to distress with anger and depression. However, rates of psychological distress were higher in the elite sport cohort (compared to community norms), with nearly 1 in 5 athletes reporting ‘high to very high’ distress, and 1 in 3 reporting poor mental health symptoms at a level warranting treatment by a health professional in one study ( n  = 749) [ 39 ].

Four studies focused on the associations between physical activity and sports participation and mental health outcomes in older adults. Physical activity was associated with greater quality of life [ 56 ], with the relationship strongest for those participating in sport in middle age, and for those who cycled in later life (> 65) [ 56 ]. Group physical activities (e.g., walking groups) and sports (e.g., golf) were also significantly related to excellent self-rated health, low depressive symptoms, high health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and a high frequency of laughter in males and females [ 60 , 61 ]. No participation or irregular participation in sport was associated with symptoms of mild to severe depression in older adults [ 62 ].

Several cross-sectional studies examined whether the effects of physical activity varied by type (e.g., total physical activity vs. sports participation). In an analysis of 1446 young adults (mean age = 18), total physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and team sport were independently associated with mental health [ 46 ]. Relative to individual physical activity, after adjusting for covariates and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), only team sport was significantly associated with improved mental health. Similarly, in a cross-sectional analysis of Australian women, Eime, Harvey, Payne (2014) reported that women who engaged in club and team-based sports (tennis or netball) reported better mental health and life satisfaction than those who engaged in individual types of physical activity [ 47 ]. Interestingly, there was no relationship between the amount of physical activity and either of these outcomes, suggesting that other qualities of sports participation contribute to its relationship to mental health and life satisfaction. There was also some evidence to support a relationship between exercise type (ball sports, aerobic activity, weightlifting, and dancing), and mental health amongst young adults (mean age 22 years) [ 48 ], with ball sports and dancing related to fewer symptoms of depression in students with high stress; and weightlifting related to fewer depressive symptoms in weightlifters exhibiting low stress.

Longitudinal evidence

Eight studies examined the longitudinal relationship between sports participation and either mental health and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 113 to n  = 1679 with a total of n  = 7022 adults included across the longitudinal studies.

Five of the included longitudinal studies focused on the relationship between sports participation in childhood or adolescence and mental health in young adulthood. There is evidence that participation in sport in high-school is protective of future symptoms of anxiety (including panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, social phobia, and agoraphobia) [ 42 ]. Specifically, after controlling for covariates (including current physical activity), the number of years of sports participation in high school was shown to be protective of symptoms of panic and agoraphobia in young adulthood, but not protective of symptoms of social phobia or generalized anxiety disorder [ 42 ]. A comparison of individual or team sports participation also revealed that participation in either context was protective of panic disorder symptoms, while only team sport was protective of agoraphobia symptoms, and only individual sport was protective of social phobia symptoms. Furthermore, current and past sports team participation was shown to negatively relate to adult depressive symptoms [ 43 ]; drop out of sport was linked to higher depressive symptoms in adulthood compared to those with maintained participation [ 9 , 22 , 63 ]; and consistent participation in team sports (but not individual sport) in adolescence was linked to higher self-rated mental health, lower perceived stress and depressive symptoms, and lower depression scores in early adulthood [ 53 , 58 ].

Two longitudinal studies [ 35 , 55 ], also investigated the association between team and individual playing context and mental health. Dore and colleagues [ 35 ] reported that compared to individual activities, being active in informal groups (e.g., yoga, running groups) or team sports was associated with better mental health, fewer depressive symptoms and higher social connectedness – and that involvement in team sports was related to better mental health regardless of physical activity volume. Kim and James [ 55 ] discovered that sports participation led to both short and long-term improvements in positive affect and life satisfaction.

A study on social outcomes related to mixed martial-arts (MMA) and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) showed that both sports improved practitioners’ self-control and pro-social behavior, with greater improvements seen in the BJJ group [ 62 ]. Notably, while BJJ reduced participants’ reported aggression, there was a slight increase in MMA practitioners, though it is worth mentioning that individuals who sought out MMA had higher levels of baseline aggression.

Experimental evidence

Six of the included studies were experimental or quasi-experimental. Sample sizes ranged from n  = 28 to n  = 55 with a total of n  = 239 adults included across six longitudinal studies. Three studies involved a form of martial arts (such as judo and karate) [ 45 , 51 , 52 ], one involved a variety of team sports (such as netball, soccer, and cricket) [ 34 ], and the remaining two focused on badminton [ 57 ] and handball [ 49 ].

Brinkley and colleagues [ 34 ] reported significant effects on interpersonal communication (but not vitality, social cohesion, quality of life, stress, or interpersonal relationships) for participants ( n  = 40) engaging in a 12-week workplace team sports intervention. Also using a 12-week intervention, Hornstrup et al. [ 49 ] reported a significant improvement in mental energy (but not well-being or anxiety) in young women (mean age = 24; n  = 28) playing in a handball program. Patterns et al. [ 57 ] showed that in comparison to no exercise, participation in an 8-week badminton or running program had no significant improvement on self-esteem, despite improvements in perceived and actual fitness levels.

Three studies examined the effect of martial arts on the mental health of older adults (mean ages 79 [ 52 ], 64 [ 51 ], and 70 [ 45 ] years). Participation in Karate-Do had positive effects on overall mental health, emotional wellbeing, depression and anxiety when compared to other activities (physical, cognitive, mindfulness) and a control group [ 51 , 52 ]. Ciaccioni et al. [ 45 ] found that a Judo program did not affect either the participants’ mental health or their body satisfaction, citing a small sample size, and the limited length of the intervention as possible contributors to the findings.

Qualitative evidence

Three studies interviewed current or former sports players regarding their experiences with sport. Chinkov and Holt [ 41 ] reported that jiu-jitsu practitioners (mean age 35 years) were more self-confident in their lives outside of the gym, including improved self-confidence in their interactions with others because of their training. McGraw and colleagues [ 37 ] interviewed former and current National Football League (NFL) players and their families about its impact on the emotional and mental health of the players. Most of the players reported that their NFL career provided them with social and emotional benefits, as well as improvements to their self-esteem even after retiring. Though, despite these benefits, almost all the players experienced at least one mental health challenge during their career, including depression, anxiety, or difficulty controlling their temper. Some of the players and their families reported that they felt socially isolated from people outside of the national football league.

Through a series of semi-structured interviews and focus groups, Thorpe, Anders [ 40 ] investigated the impact of an Aboriginal male community sporting team on the health of its players. The players reported they felt a sense of belonging when playing in the team, further noting that the social and community aspects were as important as the physical health benefits. Participating in the club strengthened the cultural identity of the players, enhancing their well-being. The players further noted that participation provided them with enjoyment, stress relief, a sense of purpose, peer support, and improved self-esteem. Though they also noted challenges, including the presence of racism, community conflict, and peer-pressure.

Quality of studies

Full details of our risk of bias (ROB) results are provided in Supplementary Material A . Of the three qualitative studies assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP), all three were deemed to have utilised and reported appropriate methodological standards on at least 8 of the 10 criteria. Twenty studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, with all studies clearly reporting the research question/s or objective/s and study population. However, only four studies provided a justification for sample size, and less than half of the studies met quality criteria for items 6, 7, 9, or 10 (and items 12 and 13 were largely not applicable). Of concern, only four of the observational or cohort studies were deemed to have used clearly defined, valid, and reliable exposure measures (independent variables) and implemented them consistently across all study participants. Six studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies, with three studies described as a randomized trial (but none of the three reported a suitable method of randomization, concealment of treatment allocation, or blinding to treatment group assignment). Three studies showed evidence that study groups were similar at baseline for important characteristics and an overall drop-out rate from the study < 20%. Four studies reported high adherence to intervention protocols (with two not reporting) and five demonstrated that.study outcomes were assessed using valid and reliable measures and implemented consistently across all study participants. Importantly, researchers did not report or have access to validated instruments for assessing sport participation or physical activity amongst adults, though most studies provided psychometrics for their mental health outcome measure/s. Only one study reported that the sample size was sufficiently powered to detect a difference in the main outcome between groups (with ≥ 80% power) and that all participants were included in the analysis of results (intention-to-treat analysis). In general, the methodological quality of the six randomised studies was deemed low.

Initially, our discussion will focus on the review findings regarding sports participation and well-being, ill-being, and psychological health. However, the heterogeneity and methodological quality of the included research (especially controlled trials) should be considered during the interpretation of our results. Considering our findings, the Mental Health through Sport conceptual model for adults will then be presented and discussed and study limitations outlined.

Sports participation and psychological well-being

In summary, the evidence presented here indicates that for adults, sports participation is associated with better overall mental health [ 36 , 46 , 47 , 59 ], mood [ 56 ], higher life satisfaction [ 39 , 47 ], self-esteem [ 39 ], body satisfaction [ 39 ], HRQoL [ 60 ], self-rated health [ 61 ], and frequency of laughter [ 61 ]. Sports participation has also shown to be predictive of better psychological wellbeing over time [ 35 , 53 ], higher positive affect [ 55 ], and greater life satisfaction [ 55 ]. Furthermore, higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, have been linked to lower levels of mental distress, higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction in adults [ 39 ].

Despite considerable heterogeneity of sports type, cross-sectional and experimental research indicate that team-based sports participation, compared to individual sports and informal group physical activity, has a more positive effect on mental energy [ 49 ], physical self-perception [ 57 ], and overall psychological health and well-being in adults, regardless of physical activity volume [ 35 , 46 , 47 ]. And, karate-do benefits the subjective well-being of elderly practitioners [ 51 , 52 ]. Qualitative research in this area has queried participants’ experiences of jiu-jitsu, Australian football, and former and current American footballers. Participants in these sports reported that their participation was beneficial for psychological well-being [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], improved self-esteem [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], and enjoyment [ 37 ].

Sports participation and psychological ill-being

Of the included studies, n  = 19 examined the relationship between participating in sport and psychological ill-being. In summary, there is consistent evidence that sports participation is related to lower depression scores [ 43 , 48 , 61 , 62 ]. There were mixed findings regarding psychological stress, where participation in childhood (retrospectively assessed) was related to lower stress in young adulthood [ 41 ], but no relationship was identified between recreational hockey in adulthood and stress [ 54 ]. Concerning the potential impact of competing at an elite level, there is evidence of higher stress in elite athletes compared to community norms [ 39 ]. Further, there is qualitative evidence that many current or former national football league players experienced at least one mental health challenge, including depression, anxiety, difficulty controlling their temper, during their career [ 37 ].

Evidence from longitudinal research provided consistent evidence that participating in sport in adolescence is protective of symptoms of depression in young adulthood [ 43 , 53 , 58 , 63 ], and further evidence that participating in young adulthood is related to lower depressive symptoms over time (6 months) [ 35 ]. Participation in adolescence was also protective of manifestations of anxiety (panic disorder and agoraphobia) and stress in young adulthood [ 42 ], though participation in young adulthood was not related to a more general measure of anxiety [ 35 ] nor to changes in negative affect [ 55 ]). The findings from experimental research were mixed. Two studies examined the effect of karate-do on markers of psychological ill-being, demonstrating its capacity to reduce anxiety [ 52 ], with some evidence of its effectiveness on depression [ 51 ]. The other studies examined small-sided team-based games but showed no effect on stress or anxiety [ 34 , 49 ]. Most studies did not differentiate between team and individual sports, though one study found that adolescents who participated in team sports (not individual sports) in secondary school has lower depression scores in young adulthood [ 58 ].

Sports participation and social outcomes

Seven of the included studies examined the relationship between sports participation and social outcomes. However, very few studies examined social outcomes or tested a social outcome as a potential mediator of the relationship between sport and mental health. It should also be noted that this body of evidence comes from a wide range of sport types, including martial arts, professional football, and workplace team-sport, as well as different methodologies. Taken as a whole, the evidence shows that participating in sport is beneficial for several social outcomes, including self-control [ 50 ], pro-social behavior [ 50 ], interpersonal communication [ 34 ], and fostering a sense of belonging [ 40 ]. Further, there is evidence that group activity, for example team sport or informal group activity, is related to higher social connectedness over time, though analyses showed that social connectedness was not a mediator for mental health [ 35 ].

There were conflicting findings regarding social effects at the elite level, with current and former NFL players reporting that they felt socially isolated during their career [ 37 ], whilst another study reported no relationship between participation at the elite level and social dysfunction [ 39 ]. Conversely, interviews with a group of indigenous men revealed that they felt as though participating in an all-indigenous Australian football team provided them with a sense of purpose, and they felt as though the social aspect of the game was as important as the physical benefits it provides [ 40 ].

Mental health through sport conceptual model for adults

The ‘Health through Sport’ model provides a depiction of the determinants and benefits of sports participation [ 31 ]. The model recognises that the physical, mental, and social benefits of sports participation vary by the context of sport (e.g., individual vs. team, organized vs. informal). To identify the elements of sport which contribute to its effect on mental health outcomes, we describe the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ model (Fig.  2 ). The model proposes that the social and physical elements of sport each provide independent, and likely synergistic contributions to its overall influence on mental health.

The Mental Health through Sport conceptual model

The model describes two key pathways through which sport may influence mental health: physical activity, and social relationships and support. Several likely moderators of this effect are also provided, including sport type, intensity, frequency, context (team vs. individual), environment (e.g., indoor vs. outdoor), as well as the level of competition (e.g., elite vs. amateur).

The means by which the physical activity component of sport may influence mental health stems from the work of Lubans et al., who propose three key groups of mechanisms: neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral [ 64 ]. Processes whereby physical activity may enhance psychological outcomes via changes in the structural and functional composition of the brain are referred to as neurobiological mechanisms [ 65 , 66 ]. Processes whereby physical activity provides opportunities for the development of self-efficacy, opportunity for mastery, changes in self-perceptions, the development of independence, and for interaction with the environment are considered psychosocial mechanisms. Lastly, processes by which physical activity may influence behaviors which ultimately affect psychological health, including changes in sleep duration, self-regulation, and coping skills, are described as behavioral mechanisms.

Playing sport offers the opportunity to form relationships and to develop a social support network, both of which are likely to influence mental health. Thoits [ 29 ] describes 7 key mechanisms by which social relationships and support may influence mental health: social influence/social comparison; social control; role-based purpose and meaning (mattering); self-esteem; sense of control; belonging and companionship; and perceived support availability [ 29 ]. These mechanisms and their presence within a sporting context are elaborated below.

Subjective to the attitudes and behaviors of individuals in a group, social influence and comparison may facilitate protective or harmful effects on mental health. Participants in individual or team sport will be influenced and perhaps steered by the behaviors, expectations, and norms of other players and teams. When individual’s compare their capabilities, attitudes, and values to those of other participants, their own behaviors and subsequent health outcomes may be affected. When others attempt to encourage or discourage an individual to adopt or reject certain health practices, social control is displayed [ 29 ]. This may evolve as strategies between players (or between players and coach) are discussion and implemented. Likewise, teammates may try to motivate each another during a match to work harder, or to engage in specific events or routines off-field (fitness programs, after game celebrations, attending club events) which may impact current and future physical and mental health.

Sport may also provide behavioral guidance, purpose, and meaning to its participants. Role identities (positions within a social structure that come with reciprocal obligations), often formed as a consequence of social ties formed through sport. Particularly in team sports, participants come to understand they form an integral part of the larger whole, and consequently, they hold certain responsibility in ensuring the team’s success. They have a commitment to the team to, train and play, communicate with the team and a potential responsibility to maintain a high level of health, perform to their capacity, and support other players. As a source of behavioral guidance and of purpose and meaning in life, these identities are likely to influence mental health outcomes amongst sport participants.

An individual’s level of self-esteem may be affected by the social relationships and social support provided through sport; with improved perceptions of capability (or value within a team) in the sporting domain likely to have positive impact on global self-esteem and sense of worth [ 64 ]. The unique opportunities provided through participation in sport, also allow individuals to develop new skills, overcome challenges, and develop their sense of self-control or mastery . Working towards and finding creative solutions to challenges in sport facilitates a sense of mastery in participants. This sense of mastery may translate to other areas of life, with individual’s developing the confidence to cope with varied life challenges. For example, developing a sense of mastery regarding capacity to formulate new / creative solutions when taking on an opponent in sport may result in greater confidence to be creative at work. Social relationships and social support provided through sport may also provide participants with a source of belonging and companionship. The development of connections (on and off the field) to others who share common interests, can build a sense of belonging that may mediate improvements in mental health outcomes. Social support is often provided emotionally during expressions of trust and care; instrumentally via tangible assistance; through information such as advice and suggestions; or as appraisal such feedback. All forms of social support provided on and off the field contribute to a more generalised sense of perceived support that may mediate the effect of social interaction on mental health outcomes.

Participation in sport may influence mental health via some combination of the social mechanisms identified by Thoits, and the neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral mechanisms stemming from physical activity identified by Lubans [ 29 , 64 ]. The exact mechanisms through which sport may confer psychological benefit is likely to vary between sports, as each sport varies in its physical and social requirements. One must also consider the social effects of sports participation both on and off the field. For instance, membership of a sporting team and/or club may provide a sense of identity and belonging—an effect that persists beyond the immediacy of playing the sport and may have a persistent effect on their psychological health. Furthermore, the potential for team-based activity to provide additional benefit to psychological outcomes may not just be attributable to the differences in social interactions, there are also physiological differences in the requirements for sport both within (team vs. team) and between (team vs. individual) categories that may elicit additional improvements in psychological outcomes. For example, evidence supports that exercise intensity moderates the relationship between physical activity and several psychological outcomes—supporting that sports performed at higher intensity will be more beneficial for psychological health.

Limitations and recommendations

There are several limitations of this review worthy of consideration. Firstly, amongst the included studies there was considerable heterogeneity in study outcomes and study methodology, and self-selection bias (especially in non-experimental studies) is likely to influence study findings and reduce the likelihood that study participants and results are representative of the overall population. Secondly, the predominately observational evidence included in this and Eime’s prior review enabled us to identify the positive relationship between sports participation and social and psychological health (and examine directionality)—but more experimental and longitudinal research is required to determine causality and explore potential mechanisms responsible for the effect of sports participation on participant outcomes. Additional qualitative work would also help researchers gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants. Thirdly, there were no studies identified in the literature where sports participation involved animals (such as equestrian sports) or guns (such as shooting sports). Such studies may present novel and important variables in the assessment of mental health benefits for participants when compared to non-participants or participants in sports not involving animals/guns—further research is needed in this area. Our proposed conceptual model also identifies several pathways through which sport may lead to improvements in mental health—but excludes some potentially negative influences (such as poor coaching behaviors and injury). And our model is not designed to capture all possible mechanisms, creating the likelihood that other mechanisms exist but are not included in this review. Additionally, an interrelationship exits between physical activity, mental health, and social relationships, whereby changes in one area may facilitate changes in the other/s; but for the purpose of this study, we have focused on how the physical and social elements of sport may mediate improvements in psychological outcomes. Consequently, our conceptual model is not all-encompassing, but designed to inform and guide future research investigating the impact of sport participation on mental health.

The findings of this review endorse that participation in sport is beneficial for psychological well-being, indicators of psychological ill-being, and social outcomes in adults. Furthermore, participation in team sports is associated with better psychological and social outcomes compared to individual sports or other physical activities. Our findings support and add to previous review findings [ 1 ]; and have informed the development of our ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults which presents the potential mechanisms by which participation in sport may affect mental health.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the work of the original systematic review conducted by Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., and Payne, W. R. (2013).

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All authors contributed to the conducting of this study and reporting the findings. The titles of studies identified were screened by LW, and abstracts and full text articles reviewed independently by LW and NE. For the included studies, data was extracted independently by LW and checked by NE, and the risk of bias assessment was performed by LW and AP independently. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.

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Eather, N., Wade, L., Pankowiak, A. et al. The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model. Syst Rev 12 , 102 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02264-8

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Relaxation in Sport

Relaxation  has  been  defined  as  a  psychological strategy used by sports performers to help manage or reduce stress-related emotions (e.g., anxiety and anger) and physical symptoms (e.g., physical tension  and  increased  heart  rate  [HR])  during  high pressurized  situations.  Several  different  types  of physical  and  mental  relaxation  strategies  will  be discussed in this entry, all of which can be used to relax  the  performer  and,  potentially,  benefit  athletic performance.

Types of Relaxation Strategies

Different  types  of  relaxation  strategies  have  been advocated within the sport psychology (SP) literature and have been categorized as physical relaxation  strategies  or  mental  relaxation  strategies. The rationale for using either type of strategy often has  been  dependent  on  the  symptoms  described by the athlete. Specifically, researchers have advocated matching the treatment (i.e., relaxation type) to  the  dominant  set  symptoms  experienced  by the  athlete.  Ian  Maynard  and  colleagues  termed this treatment approach the matching hypothesis, whereby  symptoms  of  somatic  anxiety  are  primarily treated with a form of physical relaxation and symptoms of cognitive anxiety with a form of mental  relaxation.  The  notion  also  can  be  applicable  to  the  experience  and  implications  of  other emotions such as anger and excitement.

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Physical  relaxation  strategies  can  be  employed  to reduce muscular tension and improve coordination during  performance.  Examples  of  such  strategies taught  by  sport  psychologists  include  breathing exercises, progressive muscular relaxation (PMR), and biofeedback (BFB) .

Breathing Exercises

Breathing  correctly  is  a  simple  form  of  relaxation and has the benefits of increasing oxygen in the  blood,  improving  mood,  and  reducing  muscular  tension.  The  process  of  breathing  properly involves  diaphragmatic  breathing,  where  the  performer  is  directed  to  breathe  into  the  abdomen and  then  the  chest.  Specifically,  when  breathing in  deeply,  the  performer  should  concentrate  on filling  the  lungs  by  first  pushing  the  diaphragm down and the abdomen outward then by expanding the chest and raising the chest and shoulders. To promote this breathing in a controlled manner, so  that  it  is  of  benefit  during  competitive  performances,  athletes  can  be  encouraged  to  be  rhythmic  in  their  breathing  by  inhaling,  holding,  and exhaling  to  a  count  of  a  predetermined  number. In  addition,  making  the  exhalation  audible  (e.g., with a “hheerr” sound) could be of benefit to performance  by  helping  to  reduce  muscular  tension during  key  movements,  such  as  releasing  the  javelin or striking a tennis ball. Some support for the benefits of breathing exercises have been provided by Adam Nicholls and associates in SP research.

Progressive Muscular Relaxation

Derived from the work of Edmund Jacobson in the  1930s,  PMR  strategies  require  an  individual to  focus  on  progressively  tensing  and  then  relaxing specific muscle groups, one at a time. Through this  progressive  technique,  Jacobson’s  premise was that the individual would learn the difference between  tension  and  less  tension.  Consequently, the individual would become aware when tension occurred and begin reducing it by relaxing the relevant  muscles.  Jacobson  also  proposed  that  this form  of  physical  relaxation  would  also  decrease mental tension. Critically, Jacobson’s program was quite long and, consequently, inappropriate for the regular athlete. To overcome this issue, many sport psychologists  such  as  Graham  Jones  have  advocated a variant of Jacobson’s approach, where the objective  is  to  teach  a  performer  to  relax  within 20 to 30 seconds. To achieve this, a performer will undergo  several  relaxation  training  phases,  typically over a period of 10 to 12 weeks, that progress toward much quicker relaxation. The first training phase  involves  twice  daily  15-minute  relaxation sessions where the muscle groups are progressively tensed  (for  5  to  7  seconds)  and  relaxed.  During this phase, it is commonplace for the athlete to be provided  with  an  audio  track  that  helps  systematically work them through a full muscular tension or relaxation program. Once practiced, so that the performer is proficient in using this technique, a 5to 7-minute release only training phase is instigated. Here, the performer is guided (by an audio track or by the sport psychologist) only to relax (release) any  tension  in  the  muscles.  The  next  progression is  a  2 to  3-minute  cue-controlled  phase  where the focus is still on release only, but the release is instigated by the performer through words such as relax. Sometimes rather than associate the relaxed state with a cue word, sport psychologists link the relaxed state to a natural “trigger” cue within the athlete’s environment (e.g., gripping the racquet in tennis, holding a basketball prior to a free throw). This  phase  is,  therefore,  only  a  few  seconds  long and involves the performer recognizing tension in specific  muscles  and  focusing  solely  on  reducing that tension. Preliminary research by Ian Maynard and  colleagues  has  shown  that  PMR  can  help  to reduce the intensity of reported bodily symptoms associated  with  the  experience  of  anxiety  (e.g., muscular tension).

Biofeedback

Similar to PMR, in which performers are taught to  become  more  aware  of  muscular  tension,  BFB is  a  method  that  helps  performers  become  familiar  with  such  autonomic  nervous  system  (ANS) responses  as  muscular  activity,  HR,  and  respiration  (R)  rate.  By  becoming  more  aware  of  these and  other  physiological  responses,  performers can  then  attempt  to  control  them  for  the  benefit of sporting performance. Biofeedback training (BFBT)  involves  the  use  of  electronic  instruments to  provide  visual  or  auditory  feedback  about selected  physiological  responses  and  the  requirement of the performer to then use such strategies as relaxation to reduce the level of these responses. For example, if using an electromyograph to measure  the  electrical  activity  of  the  muscles,  a  high amount of electrical activity may mean muscle tension. Consequently, visual feedback showing high levels could help the performer become aware that muscular  relaxation  is  needed  when  experiencing sensations  associated  with  that  level  of  activity. This method does require some training in relaxation  techniques  such  as  PMR.  Limited  research has  been  conducted  on  the  combination  of  BFB and  relaxation,  but  some  evidence  has  been  provided by Tammy Evetovich and her associates that suggests BFB and relaxation can help reduce muscular tension.

Mental Relaxation Strategies

The  mental  relaxation  strategies  that  have  been promoted  within  the  SP  literature  have  been focused primarily on reducing anxiety, which is a negative emotion caused by situational appraisals of threat or harm. Nevertheless, they also can be used  to  reduce  the  intensity  of  other  emotions experienced such as anger or excitement, as these and other emotions can be distracting if too high in  intensity.  Examples  of  mental  relaxation  techniques  include  transcendental  meditation,  mindfulness meditation, and autogenic training.

Transcendental Meditation

Meditation  generally  involves  the  individual’s focusing  attention  on  a  single  thought,  sound (often  called  mantra ),  or  object.  Transcendental meditation is an approach in which the individual repeats  a  mantra,  which  is  a  sound  (e.g.,  the  syllable  om )  or  a  key  word  or  phrase  that  has  personal  meaning—such  as  “relax.”  This  technique has been suggested to reduce the focus on negative thoughts and also lower HR, blood pressure (BP), and  R,  all  cognitive  and  physiological  changes that  could  be  beneficial  in  fine-motor-skilled  performances such as rifle shooting, archery, or golf. When  practicing  transcendental  meditation,  the performer is required to sit in a quiet environment, adopt a comfortable position, and repeat the mantra  aloud.  As  with  PMR,  the  challenge  here  for a sport psychologist working with a performer is to  progress  from  prolonged  training  sessions  in quiet  environments  to  sessions  that  help  the  performer mentally relax within seconds in competitive environments. At present, few studies in the SP literature  have  documented  a  successful  transfer of  meditation  from  peaceful  surroundings  to  the pressurized sporting arena.

Mindfulness Meditation

The  practice  of  mindfulness,  which  originated within  the  Buddhist  tradition,  can  be  loosely defined  as  a  state  of  awareness  achieved  through purposely  and  nonjudgmentally  paying  attention to the present and ongoing experiences of yourself and others—that is, attempting to put aside judgments  of  current  situations,  thoughts,  or  feelings as “good” or “bad.” Mindfulness meditation is an approach  that  helps  develop  this  nonjudgmental awareness  and  that  promotes  calm  and  focus  in potentially stressful situations. Other documented benefits of mindfulness meditation include reduced reporting of depression, anxiety, and chronic pain. Different forms of mindfulness training exist, but the  general  principle  is  to  guide  the  individual  to develop  concentration  by  focusing  their  attention to the sensation of breathing. Then, when thoughts, emotions,  or  body  sensations  distract  the  focus from the breathing task, the individual is directed to  nonjudgmentally  acknowledge  the  distraction and  return  to  the  breathing  exercise.  A  progression is to then focus on body sensations during the breathing task. If such labels as “good” or “bad” are  used  to  describe  sensations,  the  individual  is guided to again nonjudgmentally acknowledge the label and return to focusing on the body sensations while breathing. Such approaches help individuals to become more aware of the stressors in the present  situation  (e.g.,  work  demands,  family  issues, coach  expectations)  in  a  nonjudgmental  way  by reducing  the  common  appraisals  that  something experienced  is  good  or  bad.  This  nonjudgmental approach  then  influences  more  constructive  solutions  to  problems,  as  they  are  approached  in  a more  impartial  manner.  Although  the  benefits  of mindfulness are well documented in other areas of psychology, they have only recently been explored within  sport  and  exercise  psychology.  Early  findings   from   Rachel   Thompson   and   colleagues support the positive cognitive (appraisal) and performance outcomes of mindfulness training.

Autogenic Training

Autogenic  training  involves  a  series  of  exercises  designed  to  produce  warmth  and  heaviness sensations—feelings  that  are  typically  associated with relaxation. Within this form of self-hypnosis, attention is focused upon the sensations the individual  is  attempting  to  produce.  Developed  by Johan  Schultz  in  the  1930s,  autogenic  training has been associated with reduced anxiety, fatigue, HR, and an increased sense of control, and better focus and sleep. The process involves six sequential  training  stages  where  verbal  self-statements are  used  to  direct  the  focus  to  specific  bodily sensations. In Stage 1, the individual is guided to focus on achieving heaviness in the arms and legs, starting with the dominant arm or leg. Here, self statements  such  as  “My  right  arm  is  heavy”  are used  repeatedly  to  achieve  heaviness,  before  the sensation  is  “cancelled  out”  by  the  individual— often through bending the arm, breathing deeply, and/or  by  opening  their  eyes.  Once  trained,  the next  stage  is  to  achieve  warmth  in  the  arms  and legs.  Similarly,  the  self-statement  “my  right  arm is  warm”  may  be  used  repeatedly  during  training sessions to help facilitate warmth in the right arm  and  then  other  extremities.  The  third  stage involves  HR  regulation,  with  the  self-statement of  “my  heartbeat  is  slow,  relaxed,  and  calm.” Stage 4 focuses on regulating breathing rate (e.g., breathing  is  slow,  relaxed,  and  calm);  in  Stage  5, the sport psychologist aims to promote sensations of abdominal warmth (i.e., with hand on abdominal  area,  the  self-statement  is  “my  abdomen  is warm”), and stage six the cooling sensation of the forehead (i.e., the self-statement is “my forehead is cool”).  Once  the  individual  is  competent  enough to control the sensations of heaviness and warmth of  their  extremities,  their  sensations  of  heart  and breathing  rates,  and  the  perceived  temperature of  their  abdominal  area  and  forehead,  then  the potential to achieve a relaxed state increases.

Crossover Benefits of Relaxation

Even  though  the  relaxation  approaches  identified here  have  been  categorized  as  either  physical  or mental in nature, it is documented within the SP literature that a physical relaxation strategy focused on reducing muscular tension also may have mental effects, such as reducing the incidence of negative  thoughts.  Similar  crossover  effects  have  also been reported for mental relaxation strategies primarily focused on reducing negative thoughts and emotions; these strategies also have been found to reduce  the  incidence  of  negative  physical  symptoms associated with anxiety.

Relaxation Used With Other Psychological Strategies

Alongside  the  physical  and  mental  benefits  of relaxation,  a  further  benefit  is  that  the  reduced incidents  of  negative  thoughts  associated  with relaxation allows for other psychological strategies such as self-talk and visualization to be used. For example, consider a situation in which a sport psychologist attempts to guide a performer to use self talk, to talk to himself or herself more effectively to  help  change  negative  thoughts  experienced.  If the negative thoughts were causing extremely high levels of anxiety, then the thought changing exercise would prove fruitless. Consequently, the sport psychologist  could  first  reduce  the  experience  of anxiety  by  helping  the  performer  to  learn  to  use mental  relaxation  strategies.  Then,  with  the  performer able to achieve a more even-tempered state through the use of these strategies, the commitment to, and understanding of, appropriate self-talk can be  improved.  A  similar  example  can  be  provided when developing a performer’s ability to visualize himself or herself performing a certain skill effectively.  If  the  performer  is  not  sufficiently  relaxed, the  ability  to  image  effectively  may  be  compromised by experiences of intense negative thoughts, emotions, and images.

Centering  is  a  strategy  in  which  the  performer directs their thoughts toward adjusting their body weight so that the weight feels like it is about their center  of  mass.  This  allows  the  performer  to  feel in  control  and  comfortable  so  that  he  or  she  can consciously  modify  such  physiological  symptoms as HR and R, along with their focus of attention. Indeed,  focusing  internally  (in  this  case  focusing on  adjusting  their  body  weight)  helps  the  performer to ignore unwanted negative thoughts and then  focus  on  performance  relevant  information. Within  this  approach,  performers  are  guided  on becoming aware of their center of mass, so to promote  recall  of  where  their  center  of  mass  should be during stressful situations. This awareness gives the performer a point of focus to switch attention to.  Then,  the  performer  is  guided  to  concentrate on breathing appropriately to reduce arousal and tension,  which  helps  the  performer  focus  on  the task  at  hand.  This  three-step  approach  of  centering, breathing, and task focus is trained and then encouraged  just  before  the  performance  action is  to  occur;  this  way,  attention  is  directed  to  the appropriate information at the right time in competition (e.g., the behaviors needed to complete a free throw in basketball).

Autogenic Training and Imagery

The  use  of  autogenic  training  followed  by imagery (when trained to visualize effectively too) has numerous benefits. First, when the performer reaches  the  calm  state  at  the  end  of  autogenic relaxation, he or she can imagine relaxing scenes, colors, or thoughts that help translate the physical relaxation  reached  through  autogenic  relaxation into the mind. Second, the relaxed state promoted by  autogenic  training  will  allow  the  performer to  imagine  proficient  execution  of  performance related  skills  that  can  be  used  to  increase  confidence and performance, as no unwanted thoughts or  images  would  be  present  during  such  relaxed states  to  disrupt  such  constructive  imaging.  The benefit   of   combining   autogenic   training   and imagery  training  for  sporting  performance  has been documented by SP researchers such as Alain Groslambert and colleagues.

Given the proposed benefits of physical and mental relaxation strategies to sport performers, sport psychologists  will  continue  to  train  performers in  the  use  of  these  strategies  to  help  performers reduce  or  control  their  cognitive  and/or  physical state. However, as with any strategy, the effectiveness of the use of the strategy during competition depends on the extent to which the strategies have been practiced. Once learned, these strategies can be  used  by  performers  to  function  better  within competition and everyday life, and to allow other strategies to be learnt more effectively.

References:

• Cullen, M. (2011). Mindfulness-based interventions: An emerging phenomenon. Mindfulness, 2, 186–193.
• Evetovich, T. K., Conley, D. S., Todd, J. B., Rogers, D. C., & Stone, T. L. (2007). Effect of mechanomyography as a biofeedback method to enhance muscle relaxation and performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21, 96–99.
• Groslambert, A., Candau, R., Grappe, F., Dugué, B., & Rouillon, J. D. (2003). Effects of autogenic and imagery training on the shooting performance in biathlon. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74, 337–341.
• Haddad, K., & Tremayne, P. (2009). The effects of centering on the free-throw shooting performance of young athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 23, 118–136.
• Jones, G. (1993). The role of performance profiling in cognitive behavioural interventions in sport. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 160–172.
• Langer, E. J., & Moldoveanu, M. (2000). The construct of mindfulness. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 1–9.
• Maynard, I. W., Hemmings, B., & Warwick-Evans, L. (1995). The effects of somatic intervention strategy on competition state anxiety and performance in semiprofessional soccer players. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 51–64.
• Maynard, I. W., Smith, M. J., & Warwick-Evans, L. (1995). The effects of a cognitive intervention strategy on competitive state anxiety and performance in semiprofessional soccer players. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 428–446.
• Nicholls, A. R., Holt, N. L., & Polman, R. C. J. (2005). A phenomenological analysis of coping effectiveness in golf. The Sport Psychologist, 19, 111–130.
• Solberg, E. E., Berglund, K.-A., Engen, Ø., Ekeberg, Ø., & Loeb, M. (1996). The effect of meditation on shooting performance. British Journal of Sport Medicine, 30, 342–346.
• Vealey, R. S. (2007). Mental skills training in sport. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 287–309). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• Williams, J. M. (2010). Relaxation and energizing techniques for regulation of arousal. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (5th ed., pp. 247–266). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
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• Teen Sports and Mental Health: 10 Mental Benefits of Sports

• Mental Health

Teen sports can have a significant positive impact on teen well-being. Not only do sports reduce stress, they also give teens ways to bond and practice collaboration, while reaping the physical and mental health benefits of exercising.

Elite athletes often tell personal stories of how high-level competition led to eating disorders or other mental health conditions. However, for high school student athletes and for college athletes, teen sports can boost self-esteem, build teamwork skills, and help teens and young adults build a close community of peers and supportive adults.

10 Scientifically Validated Mental Benefits of Sports

Scientists have been exploring the link between exercise and mood for more than 100 years. As a result, they have produced a large body of research on physical activity and mental health, including the link between sports and mental health. Both biological and psychological factors come into play.

Here are 10 mental benefits of sports validated by research:

• Exercise positively impacts levels of serotonin, a chemical that helps regulate mental health, and stimulates the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, which improves mood.
• Physical activity releases endorphins, the body’s natural “happy chemicals,” and reduces levels of the stress hormone cortisol.
• Sports are associated with lower rates of stress, anxiety, depression , and suicidal behavior.
• Participation in team sports reduces the risk of teen substance abuse and other reckless behaviors.
• Team sports enhance resilience, empathy, confidence and empowerment.
• They have also been shown to increase executive functioning, creativity, cognitive development, and self-regulation.
• Improved teamwork and social responsibility are additional benefits of team sports for mental health.
• The more time spent being physically active, the less time a teen spends on social media, which is proven to lower adolescent well-being .
• Teen sports, as well as other outdoor activities, get teens outside so they can experience the benefits of time in nature .
• Sleep improves when teens are physically active—which is important because sleep is essential for maintaining mental health.

In fact, research shows that sports and other types of physical activity can be equally as effective as medication in improving teen mental health and happiness levels—while boosting physical health.

Teen Depression and Physical Activity

Let’s take a closer look at the research on teen sports and mental health in the area of teen depression. Most recently, a 2021 study involving data from 70,000 high school students found a direct link between sport and mental health. Moreover, research shows that team sports may be more supportive for athletes’ mental health than individual sports: One study found that young athletes in individual sports were almost twice as likely to report symptoms of depression (13 percent vs. 7 percent).

Another study showed that physical activity can be as effective as antidepressants. Researchers divided participants with depression into three groups. One group took part in an exercise program, one group took an antidepressant, and third group exercised and also took medication. After 16 weeks, depression had eased in all three groups. However, a follow-up study, done six months later, found that the effects of exercise actually lasted longer than those of antidepressants.

To Ward Off Anxiety, Get Moving

In addition to protecting teens from depression, physical exercise such as team sports has been shown to decrease symptoms of anxiety . In a study of college students, those who were physically active reported higher levels of excitement and enthusiasm as compared to those who were less active. In another study, researchers found that people who got regular vigorous exercise were 25 percent less likely to develop an anxiety disorder over the next five years.

“Single sessions of activity reduce anxiety, improve mood, and raise feelings of energy that last for several hours. Long-term participation can significantly improve conditions such as clinical anxiety and depression to a degree that rivals medication, both in adults and adolescents.” —Jack Raglin, PhD, Department of Kinesiology at Indiana University-Bloomington

How Exercise Supports Recovery from Substance Use Disorder

Not only do sports reduce stress and keep anxiety and depression at bay, research shows that regular exercise can help people recover from substance abuse and stay in recovery long term. Scientists are still looking closely at the neurobiological underpinnings of this discovery. Moreover, they are examining its ramifications for treatment. Essentially, physical activity, such as teen athletics, provides a healthy reward for the brain.

Specifically, addictive drugs stimulate the brain’s reward system. They do this by catalyzing a powerful surge of the pleasure hormone dopamine. Finding healthy ways to increase dopamine is key to successful recovery. This is especially true in the early days of recovery, when withdrawal cravings can be intense.

Evidence shows that exercise can be used as an alternative reward for the body and brain. As a result, staying sober is easier. Teen sports can pave the way.

The Long-Term Mental Benefits of Sports

In addition to the immediate mental benefits of sports, playing team sports in high school appears to predict better mental health later in life. A 2019 study tested this theory on close to 10,000 participants, about half of whom experienced childhood trauma. They found that individuals with a history of trauma had a significantly lower chance of being diagnosed with depression or anxiety if they had participated in team sports as adolescents.

Another study , published in the  Journal of Adolescent Health , found that students who play team sports in grades 8 through 12 have less stress and better mental health as young adults. In the study, 850 students from 10 Canadian schools were surveyed about their participation in school sports, such as basketball, soccer, track and field, wrestling, and gymnastics .

Three years after graduation, researchers followed up with the participants. They found that youth who were involved in school sports had lower depression symptoms, lower perceived stress, and better self-rated mental health than those who did not play sports at all. The study authors concluded that playing high school sports protected young people from poor mental health four years later.

According to study co-author Catherine Sabiston, PhD, of the University of Toronto, “Team sports offer a heightened emphasis on group goals, social support, and sense of connection that provide more opportunity for learning adaptive coping strategies that can be essential for long-term mental health.”

When Teen Treatment Is Needed

Teen sports offer multiple benefits for mental health. Ultimately, supporting teens to play sports will give them a strong foundation for physical and mental well-being.

However, the mental benefits of sports may not be enough support for every adolescent. If physical activity and other lifestyle changes aren’t helping with symptoms of depression, anxiety, or other mental health issues, it’s essential to seek treatment before the problem escalates.

At Newport Academy, our specialized care for adolescents includes evidence-based experiential modalities that incorporate the mental benefits of sports—such as Adventure Therapy , Mixed Martial Arts, and physical fitness activities. In addition, individual and family therapy sessions support teens to heal the trauma and attachment wounds that catalyze depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and other co-occurring disorders.

Contact us today to learn more about how we guide teens and families to sustainable healing.

Key Takeaways

• Studies show that exercise can be as effective as medication in improving teen mental health and happiness levels.
• Physical activity raises the level of natural chemicals in the brain that affect emotional regulation and mood.
• Team sports improve interpersonal resources such as empathy, confidence, and responsibility.
• Indirect benefits of physical activity can include time spent outdoors in nature and better sleep, which both protect against developing mental health illness.
• Exercise helps a teen avoid or recover from substance use disorder because it stimulates similar parts of the brain’s reward system.

Frequently Asked Questions About Sports and Teen Mental Health

Sports improve mental health by affecting levels of naturally occurring brain chemicals that regulate mood and emotions. Physical activity also reduces the effects of stress and promotes sleep, both known factors in maintaining good mental health. Moreover, participation in team sports develops personal qualities and social skills that support a young person’s sense of well-being.

Studies show that teens who participate in team sports are less likely to experience mental health challenges later in life than those who participate in individual sports. However, any form of activity is better for mental health than no activity.

Physical exercise increases blood flow to the brain, stimulating the growth of new neurons and flushing away brain chemicals associated with stress. Moreover, it prompts the body to release chemicals associated with feeling good.

J Clinical Sports Psychol. 2021: 15(3): 268–287. J Sports Science Med. 2019 Aug 1;18(3):490–496. JAMA Pediatr. 2019; 173(7): 681–688.  Adolesc Health. 2014 Nov; 55(5): 640–4.

Learn how treatment reduced teen suicide risk by 75%. Get the study .

Physical Activity Is Good for the Mind and the Body

Health and Well-Being Matter is the monthly blog of the Director of the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

Everyone has their own way to “recharge” their sense of well-being — something that makes them feel good physically, emotionally, and spiritually even if they aren’t consciously aware of it. Personally, I know that few things can improve my day as quickly as a walk around the block or even just getting up from my desk and doing some push-ups. A hike through the woods is ideal when I can make it happen. But that’s me. It’s not simply that I enjoy these activities but also that they literally make me feel better and clear my mind.

Mental health and physical health are closely connected. No kidding — what’s good for the body is often good for the mind. Knowing what you can do physically that has this effect for you will change your day and your life.

Physical activity has many well-established mental health benefits. These are published in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans and include improved brain health and cognitive function (the ability to think, if you will), a reduced risk of anxiety and depression, and improved sleep and overall quality of life. Although not a cure-all, increasing physical activity directly contributes to improved mental health and better overall health and well-being.

Learning how to routinely manage stress and getting screened for depression are simply good prevention practices. Awareness is especially critical at this time of year when disruptions to healthy habits and choices can be more likely and more jarring. Shorter days and colder temperatures have a way of interrupting routines — as do the holidays, with both their joys and their stresses. When the plentiful sunshine and clear skies of temperate months give way to unpredictable weather, less daylight, and festive gatherings, it may happen unconsciously or seem natural to be distracted from being as physically active. However, that tendency is precisely why it’s so important that we are ever more mindful of our physical and emotional health — and how we can maintain both — during this time of year.

Roughly half of all people in the United States will be diagnosed with a mental health disorder at some point in their lifetime, with anxiety and anxiety disorders being the most common. Major depression, another of the most common mental health disorders, is also a leading cause of disability for middle-aged adults. Compounding all of this, mental health disorders like depression and anxiety can affect people’s ability to take part in health-promoting behaviors, including physical activity. In addition, physical health problems can contribute to mental health problems and make it harder for people to get treatment for mental health disorders.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought the need to take care of our physical and emotional health to light even more so these past 2 years. Recently, the U.S. Surgeon General highlighted how the pandemic has exacerbated the mental health crisis in youth .

The good news is that even small amounts of physical activity can immediately reduce symptoms of anxiety in adults and older adults. Depression has also shown to be responsive to physical activity. Research suggests that increased physical activity, of any kind, can improve depression symptoms experienced by people across the lifespan. Engaging in regular physical activity has also been shown to reduce the risk of developing depression in children and adults.

Though the seasons and our life circumstances may change, our basic needs do not. Just as we shift from shorts to coats or fresh summer fruits and vegetables to heartier fall food choices, so too must we shift our seasonal approach to how we stay physically active. Some of that is simply adapting to conditions: bundling up for a walk, wearing the appropriate shoes, or playing in the snow with the kids instead of playing soccer in the grass.

Sometimes there’s a bit more creativity involved. Often this means finding ways to simplify activity or make it more accessible. For example, it may not be possible to get to the gym or even take a walk due to weather or any number of reasons. In those instances, other options include adding new types of movement — such as impromptu dance parties at home — or doing a few household chores (yes, it all counts as physical activity).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, I built a makeshift gym in my garage as an alternative to driving back and forth to the gym several miles from home. That has not only saved me time and money but also afforded me the opportunity to get 15 to 45 minutes of muscle-strengthening physical activity in at odd times of the day.

For more ideas on how to get active — on any day — or for help finding the motivation to get started, check out this Move Your Way® video .

The point to remember is that no matter the approach, the Physical Activity Guidelines recommend that adults get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity (anything that gets your heart beating faster) each week and at least 2 days per week of muscle-strengthening activity (anything that makes your muscles work harder than usual). Youth need 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Preschool-aged children ages 3 to 5 years need to be active throughout the day — with adult caregivers encouraging active play — to enhance growth and development. Striving toward these goals and then continuing to get physical activity, in some shape or form, contributes to better health outcomes both immediately and over the long term.

For youth, sports offer additional avenues to more physical activity and improved mental health. Youth who participate in sports may enjoy psychosocial health benefits beyond the benefits they gain from other forms of leisure-time physical activity. Psychological health benefits include higher levels of perceived competence, confidence, and self-esteem — not to mention the benefits of team building, leadership, and resilience, which are important skills to apply on the field and throughout life. Research has also shown that youth sports participants have a reduced risk of suicide and suicidal thoughts and tendencies. Additionally, team sports participation during adolescence may lead to better mental health outcomes in adulthood (e.g., less anxiety and depression) for people exposed to adverse childhood experiences. In addition to the physical and mental health benefits, sports can be just plain fun.

Physical activity’s implications for significant positive effects on mental health and social well-being are enormous, impacting every facet of life. In fact, because of this national imperative, the presidential executive order that re-established the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition explicitly seeks to “expand national awareness of the importance of mental health as it pertains to physical fitness and nutrition.” While physical activity is not a substitute for mental health treatment when needed and it’s not the answer to certain mental health challenges, it does play a significant role in our emotional and cognitive well-being.

No matter how we choose to be active during the holiday season — or any season — every effort to move counts toward achieving recommended physical activity goals and will have positive impacts on both the mind and the body. Along with preventing diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and the additional risks associated with these comorbidities, physical activity’s positive effect on mental health is yet another important reason to be active and Move Your Way .

As for me… I think it’s time for a walk. Happy and healthy holidays, everyone!

Yours in health, Paul

Paul Reed, MD Rear Admiral, U.S. Public Health Service Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health Director, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion

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Why Playing Sports Is a Great Way to Relieve Stress

Teenagers have a lot on their plates day in and day out. Between classes, homework, chores, and other extracurricular activities, many teens may think that adding another activity to what they may feel like is already a heavy load, may be stressful.

However, what many of them may not realize is that participating in sports can be an incredible way of reducing stress. Here’s how:

Sports Stimulate the Body’s Production of Endorphins

Physical activities such as sports stimulate the body’s production of chemicals that are responsible for the positive changes in an individual’s mood. These neurotransmitters are called endorphins, and at heightened levels, they cause a “feel-good” response. In fact, this rush is referred to as “runner’s high.” This feeling helps to release tension.

Sports Engagement Increases Self-Esteem

Improved self-esteem can dramatically reduce your overall levels of stress. Being a part of a team is an amazing way to build one’s self-esteem; when you are more confident in your own abilities you feel better about yourself.

Sports can improve your confidence when meeting goals that you have set for yourself. Sports promote individuals to feel positive about themselves. Through competition, they discover their own potential to do better and to hold themselves to a higher standard.

People who are active in sports generally have healthier bodies. For teens who are not happy with their self-image, having a body that is fit is great for self-confidence.

Sports Can Relieve Mental Stress by Promoting Better Sleep

Studies have shown that sports and exercise can decrease mild symptoms of depression and even improve the quality of sleep.

The quality of your sleep has been linked to your sense of well-being. The more sleep you get, the better you feel. Lack of sleep can be frustrating and lead to anxiety. The physical activity that is received from playing sports can help increase sleep duration.

Sports Participation Promotes Socialization

A great way of managing stress is through socializing. Socialization helps relieve stress by promoting the hormone oxytocin which promotes relaxation, thus reducing anxiety.

Playing a sport, mainly a team sport, gives you the opportunity to make new friends who share a common interest. Being around others who share a mutual goal motivates you. This motivation can significantly relieve anxiety and steer you away from depression.

Involvement in team sports has been associated with social acceptance which can be further nurtured through positive coaching and support from team members.

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Depression: can sports and exercise help.

Last Update: June 18, 2020 ; Next update: 2023.

Sports and exercise can probably help to somewhat reduce the symptoms of depression . It's not clear whether particular forms of exercise are more suitable than others.

Depression can have any of a number of symptoms. The most common signs include feeling down for a long time, listlessness, not enjoying things, and generally not being interested in anything – even in hobbies and activities you used to enjoy. Various treatment options and support services are available for people who have depression . Psychotherapy and medication (antidepressants) form the foundation of the treatment of depression.

People who have depression often don't feel like doing anything, and end up not getting much physical exercise. Exercise and sports – like Nordic walking, jogging, cycling, swimming or hiking – are commonly recommended to relieve or prevent depression. Many people who manage to do sports in addition to having other treatments – despite having depression – say that it feels good to be able to do something to fight their depression themselves. Sports give them the opportunity to be active and to meet other people. It is also thought that doing sports has a positive effect on the brain’s metabolism, and therefore on the depression itself too.

• Research on sports and exercise for depression

Many studies have looked into the benefits of sports and exercise in depression . They compared the effectiveness of sports and exercise programs with that of other approaches to the treatment of depression. Many of these studies looked at the effects of jogging and Nordic walking, while others tested cycling, doing exercises and strength training. Most of these sports programs ran for 1 to 16 weeks.

• Symptoms improved somewhat

The researchers mainly wanted to find out whether participating in sports and exercise programs can relieve the symptoms of depression . Their results showed that sports and exercise have an effect, even though it tends to be small. In other words: People who participated in exercise programs had, on average, somewhat fewer symptoms than people who didn't participate and who also didn't receive any other form of treatment. So the programs didn’t provide major relief from the symptoms. What’s more, many participants dropped out of the programs early. This could be seen as a sign that the type of suggested exercise – usually jogging or Nordic walking – may not have been right for everyone.

There were hardly any studies comparing the different exercise programs with one another. For this reason it isn’t possible to say whether the type, intensity, or frequency of physical exercise make a difference.

Sports and exercise typically can't replace psychotherapy or antidepressants for the treatment of moderate to severe depression , but they can be a useful addition. In mild depression, they are a good alternative for people who don't want to start a treatment right away.

• Some questions remain unanswered

The review of these studies leaves many questions unanswered: Is the influence of sports and exercise the same in mild, moderate and severe depression – or are there differences? Are sports and exercise more effective when done in groups or individually? How long does the effect last? Might it also sometimes be a bad idea to encourage someone to get more exercise? After all, people with severe depression find it almost impossible to be physically active. This is easier for someone who has mild depression.

• Cooney GM, Dwan K, Greig CA, Lawlor DA, Rimer J, Waugh FR et al. Exercise for depression . Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; (9): CD004366. [ PMC free article : PMC9721454 ] [ PubMed : 24026850 ]
• Kvam S, Kleppe CL, Nordhus IH, Hovland A. Exercise as a treatment for depression: A meta-analysis . J Affect Disord 2016; 202: 67-86. [ PubMed : 27253219 ]
• Morres ID, Hatzigeorgiadis A, Stathi A, Comoutos N, Arpin-Cribbie C, Krommidas C et al. Aerobic exercise for adult patients with major depressive disorder in mental health services: A systematic review and meta-analysis . Depress Anxiety 2019; 36(1): 39-53. [ PubMed : 30334597 ]
• Schuch FB, Vancampfort D, Rosenbaum S, Richards J, Ward PB, Stubbs B. Exercise improves physical and psychological quality of life in people with depression: A meta-analysis including the evaluation of control group response . Psychiatry Res 2016; 241: 47-54. [ PubMed : 27155287 ]

IQWiG health information is written with the aim of helping people understand the advantages and disadvantages of the main treatment options and health care services.

Because IQWiG is a German institute, some of the information provided here is specific to the German health care system. The suitability of any of the described options in an individual case can be determined by talking to a doctor. We do not offer individual consultations.

Our information is based on the results of good-quality studies. It is written by a team of health care professionals, scientists and editors, and reviewed by external experts. You can find a detailed description of how our health information is produced and updated in our methods.

• Cite this Page InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. Depression: Can sports and exercise help? [Updated 2020 Jun 18].
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• Learn more: Types of depression
• Learn more: What is burnout?
• Learn more: Depression in children and teenagers
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• Learn more: How effective are antidepressants?
• Learn more: How effective is psychological treatment?
• Learn more: Experiences with antidepressants
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• Research summaries: Can St. John’s wort products help?
• Research summaries: Effective treatments for depression and coronary artery disease

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