MCQ of Article Writing | Class 12 | English Core | Writing Section | CBSE |

MCQ of Article Writing, Class 10 English , Class 11 English and Class 12 English , CBSE

Article writing is an indispensable part of a student’s life especially for Class 8 English , Class 9 English ,  Class 10 English , Class 11 English and Class 12 English . Every student has to write articles in his school life someway or the other. Article is written to pass on information to others through magazines or newspapers. It is a long piece of writing which describes event, experience, person, places and someone’s life. It comes in choice with Speech , Debate and Report writing. One must research about the topic before writing an article and should be well-versed in writing for scoring higher in article writing. Keeping the new examination pattern of CBSE, we have created some MCQ so that students can attain good scores in their upcoming exams.

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MCQ of Article Writing

1. What is placed on the top of an article? a) Date b) Heading/Title c) Subscription d) Salutation

Answer : Heading/Title

2. What is placed just below the title of an article? a) Date b) By-Line c) Place of the writer d) Salutation

Answer : By-Line

3. How many paragraphs should be there in an article? a) One b) Two c) Three to Four d) Eight to Ten

Answer : Three to Four

4. Which of the following is not an element of an article? a) Date b) Subscription c) Salutation d) All of these

Answer : All of these

5. What should the first paragraph of an article be all about? a) Conclusion b) Consequences c) Statistics d) Brief introduction of the topic

Answer : Brief introduction of the topic

Ad 199

6. On which parameters is article writing assessed? a) Content b) Expression c) Fluency & Format d) All of these

7. How should an article be ended? a) Thanking the audience b) Greeting the audience c) With a suitable conclusion d) All of these

Answer : With a suitable conclusion

You may also read :  MCQ of Notice Writing , MCQ of Letter to the Editor , MCQ of Classified Advertisement ,  MCQ of Business Letters , MCQ of Speech Writing for better understanding of the writing section.

8. Pick the even one out in context of Article Writing? a) Heading/Title b) Salutation c) Thanking the audience d) Greeting to the audience

Answer : Heading

9. Which of the following can be added to make an article writing interesting ? a) Quotes b) Statistics c) Both a and b d) Neither a nor b

Answer : Both a and b

10. What should be the ratio of active and passive voice while writing an article? a) 30:70 b) 70:30 c) 50:50 d) None of these

Answer : 70:30

11. What is the word limit of an article for class 12? a) 50-100 words b) 100-150 words c) 150-200 words d) 300-500 words

Answer : 150-200 words

12. How should an article be commenced? a) By greeting the audience b) By thanking the audience c) By requesting the audience d) None of these

Answer : None of these

13. Article is a…. a) Short piece of writing b) long piece of writing c) Exaggeration of lies d) All of these

Answer : Long piece of writing

14. Which of the following is correct about the ‘Title’ in article writing? a) It should be long b) It should be short and irrelevant c) It should be eye-catching d) It should be a long-tail keyword

Answer : It should be eye-catching

15. What do pros and cons mean? a) Advantages and disadvantages b) Arguments in favour and arguments against c) Positives and Negatives d) All of these

16. What is fluency in article writing? a) Ability to weave the content together b) Ability to set the content apart c) Ability to find out the pros and cons d) Ability to greet the audience

Answer : Ability to weave together the content

We would love your reading of  Formal Letters , Notice Writing , Formal & Informal Invitation , Classified Advertisement , Debate Writing , Speech Writing , Article Writing , Report Writing , Note Making , Poster Making , Short Story Writing , Leave Application Writing , Descriptive Paragraph Writing for scoring higher in upcoming examination.

17. What are the elements of a marking scheme of article writing? a) Format b) Content c) Expression d) All of these

18. What are the constituents of ‘Format’ in article writing? a) Heading b) Writer’s Name c) Both a and b d) Neither a nor b

19. What are the constituents of ‘Expression’ in article writing? a) Spellings b) Grammatical Accuracy c) Coherence d) All of these

20. What are the elements of ‘Conclusion’ in article writing? a) Suggestions b) Remedial Measures c) Reminders d) All of these

21. ____ states the name of the writer.

a) Heading b) By-Line c) Dateline d) None of these

22. What can an article describe? a) An event b) Experience c) Person’s life d) All of these

23. An article should be written in ________ a) a single paragraph b) clear paragraphs c) informal language d) None of these

Answer : clear paragraphs

24. One should ______ before writing an article a) Exercise b) Research about the topic c) Pray to God d) None of these

Answer : Research about the topic

25. Article writing is meant for _____ a) Small group of readers b) Large group of readers c) Unemployed people d) Only employed people

Answer : Large group of readers

26. What makes an article good a) Accuracy b) Ample research about the topic c) Drafting before being written d) All of these

27. What should one do if one runs out of words while writing an article? a) Repeat the same lines again and again b) Add quotations related to the topic c) Forget the coherence and write anything d) All of these

Answer : Add quotations related to the topic

28. Which of the following adds beauty to an article and makes it high-scoring? a) Legible handwriting b) Scribbling on the page of article c) Illegible handwriting d) Filthy presentation

Answer : Legible handwriting

29. What is coherence in article writing? a) Logical writing b) Orderly writing c) Consistent relation of paragraphs d) All of these

30. Who should be kept in mind while writing a good article? a) Editor of the newspaper b) Owner of the newspaper c) Readers and their mood d) English teacher of the school

Answer : Readers and their mood

31. Answer the following questions based on the article given below.

Addiction of Social Networking Sites

( By : Riya Mishra )

Social networking sites are web-based programs run ___(i)____ where people create their dynamic profiles in order to share what they exactly feel and exchange their views via chats, calls, video conferences etc. Some of the most popularly-known apps are; WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram and Twitter which connect not only billions of people across the world but help them remain updated of their surroundings.

Despite the fact that these sites are boon for human beings, they have their own ___(ii)____ as well. We all know that  ‘ Excess of everything is bad .’ Therefore, excessive use of social networking sites can make us lethargic, unproductive and procrastinators. Sitting for long hours, engaged with such sites, can give a ___(iii)____ rise to the quantum of headaches, backaches and many more diseases. It affects student’s academics adversely for they become prone to using the all day long and can’t resist their temptations of frequently logging in their accounts created on various platforms. Apart from all that, the ___(iv)____ content present on such sites distract students’ attention to a different level resulting in loss of their academics precious time.

Freedom of speech, one of the fundamental rights of us, is often seen being misused at such platforms.  ___(v)____ , without giving second thought, comment or write whatever they feel like to humiliate others. Consequently, a white-collar gentry or renowned celebrities have to undergo a irreparable mental harassment. Independent women  have to face incidents of ___(vi)____ which causes depression and anxiety to them . Above all, the hike in number of suicidal cases has a close association with social networking sites for a long time. Even, youngsters who have hardly stepped out of their homes, can be seen shooting videos before committing suicides. These virtual platforms have created a very ___(vii)____ environment for the teenagers where they are facing bullying, emotional distress and insecurity.

It has also emboldened the cybercrime since we all have updated our profiles on social media. Our personal information is no longer ___(viii)____ on those platform. Even an unknown person can take advantage of this act . 

To conclude that, if we use social networking sites wisely they are really a ___(ix)____ whereas its excessive use can make us scourge and a ___(x)____ plague .

i) a) on internet b) in internet c) through internet d) All of these

Answer : Through internet

ii) a) limitations b) flaws c) shortcomings d) All of these

iii) a) decline b) steep c) low d) None of these

Answer : Steep

iv) a) fruitful b) Obnoxious c) valuable d) invaluable

Answer : Obnoxious

v) a) Local people b) Local politicians c) Netizens d) Local police

Answer : Founder

vi) a) respect b) grateful respect c) body-shaming d) beautiful body

Answer : Body-shaming

vii) a) Peaceful b) Healthy c) Toxic d) None of these

Answer : Toxic

viii) a) open b) public c) protected d) unprotected

Answer : Protected

ix) a) Boon b) Blessing c) Bane d) Both a and b

x) a) short-lived b) lifetime c) never-lasting d) temporary

Answer : Lifetime

Corona Virus Disease (Covid-19) had been a talk of the town, due to its outbreak, throughout the year 2020 when it gripped millions of people and it is still making headlines around the world even in 2021 with its fast-approaching new strain in UK and other parts of the world. From Lockdown to social distancing, it has insisted on the people to change their lifestyle and perspective towards the life altogether.

Covid-19 is caused by a newly discovered corona virus, one of the unknown viruses of Corona Virus family. It has already taken life of more than 2.6 million people and many of us are still circling around this deadly pandemic. As per the history and views of Covid-19 patients, who once had been suffering or are suffering from this virus, it starts with a mild respiratory illness which leads further to fever, cold, congestion in throat and utter weariness of body. People, suffering from this often complain of breathing and fatigue irrespective of any hard or unaccustomed labour. However, it is not mandatory that all and sundry, whomsoever are suffering from this disease, may have these same signs of tiredness and fatigue. Some of them may be asymptomatic and not the carriers of this virus as well.

It usually spreads from person to person through droplets of saliva when an infected person sneezes or coughs without following respiratory etiquettes. So, it becomes essential for one to learn respiratory etiquettes and practice them as much as possible. Besides, touching the things unnecessarily also could be one of the reasons of its outbreak. Therefore, one must take care of all these things in order to protect themselves from this deadly corona virus.

As the saying goes “ Prevention is better than cure ” The best way to protect ourselves from this deadly disease is to be well-informed about the virus and maintain hygienic environment around us. Putting on a mask properly and sanitizing our hands frequently can help us a lot in making a long distance from this disease. Besides, we should avoid visiting crowded places uselessly like malls, theaters, and parks etc. where there is more risk of getting contacted with other people and maintain proper distance of at least 2 meters from the people while talking to them.

Our safety lies in our own hands. In case of urgency and emergency, we must contact a specialized doctor and act on his/her advice without being doctors ourselves.

i) What does the phrase ‘Talk of the Town’ mean in the first line? a) A thing being discussed by few persons in the town b) A thing being discussed by many persons in the town c) A thing being discussed by no one in the town d) None of these

Answer : A thing being discussed by many persons in the town

ii) What is pandemic? a) A widespread epidemic b) Panacea c) Vaccine d) None of these

Answer : A widespread epidemic

iii) Find out the synonym of the word ‘Unaccustomed’ from the following? a) Unusual b) Familiar c) Used to  d) None of these

Answer : Unusual

iv) What should one do to stay away from Corona Virus? a) Wash one’s hands frequently b) Put on a mask properly c) Sanitize our hands regularly d) All of these

32. Answer the following questions on the based of the heading (Article) given below.

The number of crime cases has been rising day by day in your locality. Write an article on this issue in about 150 words. Do suggest corrective measure to deal with this problem.

i) Which of the following is the perfect heading/title for this article? a) Steep Downfall in Crime b) Steep Rise in Crime c) Ebbing of Crime d) None of these

Answer : Steep Rise in Crime

ii) Which of the following corrective measure must be added in this article? a) Advise not to people to step out of their homes b) Advise people to bear with the criminals c) Advise people to not to be afraid of such goons and confront them by raising their voice d) None of these

Answer : Advise people to not to be afraid of such goons and confront them by raising their voice

iii) This article should be begun with a) A detailed introduction of the writer b) A brief introduction of the problem c) A subtle introduction of the problem d) None of these

Answer : A brief introduction of the problem

iv) How should this article be concluded? a) By advising people to raise their weapons b) By advising people to support the administration c) Bu advising people not to be scare but brave enough to face this problem d) Both B and C

Answer : Both B and C

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MCQ Questions

Article Writing Class 12 English MCQ Questions

Mcq questions for class 12 english article writing with answers.

Article Writing Class 12 MCQ Questions with Answers

Question 1.

An Article is a ————- piece of writing.

(A) informal and long (B) formal and informational (C) long and winding (D) informational and main Answer: (B) formal and informational

Question 2.

Heading of an Article should be:

(A) catchy and appealing (B) long and descriptive (C) capital and bold (D) detailed and sparkling Answer: (A) catchy and appealing

Byline of an Article contains:

(A) theme of the Article. (B) central idea of the Article, (C) extra piece of information. (D) name of the writer of the article. Answer: (D) name of the writer of the article.

Question 4.

Which of the following is the characteristic of an Article Writing?

(A) passive voice (B) emotive language (C) rhetorical questions (D) All of these Answer: (D) All of these

What should be done to make your Article look synchronised?

(A) Stick to your opinion and go on repeating it. (B) Present strong arguments for your ideas supporting them with evidence or elaboration. (C) Introduce a new point at the beginning of each paragraph to strengthen your ideas. (D) Both (B) and (C) Answer: (D) Both (B) and (C)

Question 6.

Why should the first and last paragraph be in sync with each other?

(A) To confuse the readers. (B) To form connection with the topic before concluding. (C) To make the Article look impressive and leave a lasting impression. (D) They should never be in sync with each other. Answer: (B) To form connection with the topic before concluding.

Question 7.

Concluding paragraph of an Article should never:

(A) be open-ended. (B) have food for thought. (C) give way to planned action. (D) sum of all the stated points Answer: (A) be open-ended.

Extract Based MCQs

Choose the correct option to fill in the blanks:

I. While reading about new places and searching for them online has its merits, the advantages of actually travelling to various destinations far exceed them. Write an article in 120-150 words for the magazine Travel Times, evaluating both these options. You may use the cues given below along with your own ideas. You are Amrit/ Amrita.

  •  Builds confidence
  • Make friends and memories
  • Experience new cultures
  • Expands knowledge

Question 1. ——– Question 2. ——— Travelling is fun. Reading books on exotic places is immersing. Travel allows you to escape from your stressful situation. Question 3. ———– . Seeing other parts of the world and immersing yourself in foreign cultures opens up completely new avenues of discovery. Question 4. ———— , and can open your eyes in ways you never thought possible. When you are out on the road meeting new people and opening up to new experiences, you may find that you are also slowly reinventing yourself. Travel can open up so many doors and provide for so many adventures, both planned and spontaneous. Having said that, travelling as a Question 5. ——- may sometimes take the form of running away from reality. Too much travel may develop a sense of homesickness at some point. Life at home will go on without you and you might miss some important moments you would have yearned to be present at. Travel can also be extremely expensive putting an unnecessary strain on the purse.

Question 1. (A) Online travel has its merits (B) World – Better to Travel or To Read About (C) by – Amrit (D) Travel Times Answer: (B) World – Better to Travel or To Read About

Question 2. (A) Online travel has its merits (B) World – Better to Travel or To Read About (C) by – Amrit (D) Travel Times Answer: (C) by – Amrit

Question 3. (A) Travel is a learning experience (B) Travelling is a learning enrichment’ (C) Travel is a life-time achievement (D) Travelling is a learning expenditure Answer: (A) Travel is a learning experience

Question 4. (A) Travel in itself can be education (B) Travelling in thyself can be educating (C) Travel in itself can be educational (D) Travel in thyself can be edutainment. Answer: (C) Travel in itself can be educational

Question 5. (A) ways of escape (B) means of escapism (C) ways of escapism (D) means of escape Answer: (D) means of escape

II. Rising prices of essential commodities make life difficult for the common man. You are Nalini/ Ranbir. Write an article in 150-200 words describing the causes, possible solutions and how students can help their parents to cope with the problem.

Question 1. ——-

– by Nalini

Prices are ever on the increase. A rise in price, economists say, is a sign of development and prosperity. However, during the last two decades, prices of almost all the essential commodities have been increasing at an alarming rate. These soaring prices have caused great unrest and frustration among the people. The people belonging to the middle class and the salaried people are hard hit. All the more, Question 2. ——– and an open challenge to the government. It has shaken the faith of the people in the government. There is no let-up in the situation. Life has become very hard. Not to speak of rising prices, things of daily use are sometimes not available in the market. Big businessmen hoard things and sell these in black. Adulteration of eatables is a big health hazard. The prices of petrol, cooking gas, kerosene oil, and several other items of daily use are increasing every year. Not only that, the railway fares, air fares, and bus and taxi charges are also increasing regularly. The rich make a display of their wealth while the poor find it difficult to make both their ends meet.

Question 3. —— The indiscriminate rise in prices of essential commodities has left many a people tense and helpless. No one can foresee what is in store for the common people. There are many causes of the unprecedented rise in prices. Inflation, black marketing, hoarding, faulty credit system, overpopulation and improper system of distribution are some of the major causes of hike in prices. The standard of living of the people has improved. People need more things than they needed earlier. The increasing demand leads to hike in prices. Sometimes, natural factors like flood and drought also contribute to rise in prices. Much food is being wasted in the parties and marriages. Production of food is not in proportion with the increase in population. Social evils also tax the common people badly. With the breaking of joint- family system, the cost of living has gone up.

The purchasing power of the rupee is continuously falling. It is now being increasingly felt that large-scale corruption by some political leaders in power and some senior officers in the government is also the cause of constant rise in prices. In the recent past, several scams have come to light that involves big amounts said to have been pocketed by the big-wigs of the country without any shame or remorse. It is, however, feared that influential and rich people have the power to circumvent the legal process in their favour so much, that they go scot free. These huge amounts of black money produce a very bad effect on the economy of the country and this lead to a rise in prices. It is the duty of the government to bring down the prices of the essential commodities. Question 4. —- Black marketers, hoarders and profiteers must be booked. Family Planning programs should be stepped up to check over-population. More fair-price shops should be opened in different localities. There should be an equitable distribution through the fair-price shops. Shopkeepers should be directed to display the stock of essential commodities along with their prices.

Those people who buy things in the black market should be punished. Production of food should be increased. Sincere efforts should be made to stabilize prices of essential commodities. Evils of corruption, bribery, smuggling and illegal gratification deep-rooted in the society must be rooted out. We as students can also help our parents by reducing wastage and minimizing our demands. Let us hope that the government will be able to bring down the soaring prices. What is needed is Question 5. ——-. The government has, in recent past, taken some steps to control the prices to revamp the economy of the country. The government efforts have met a partial success and inflation has been controlled to some extent.

Question 1. (A) Rising Prices: An Ordeal for Common Man (B) High Prices: An Order for Lay Man (C) Essential Commodities (D) Cope with the Problem Answer: (A) Rising Prices: An Ordeal for Common Man

Question 2. (A) the searing prices become a big thread (B) the soaring prices become a big thread (C) the soaring prices have become a big threat (D) the searing prizes have become a big threat Answer: (C) the soaring prices have become a big threat

Question 3. (A) Life has lost its charming for the bread-winner (B) Life has lost its warmth for the average bread-earner (C) Life has lost its warmth for the normal bread-winner (D) Life has lost its charm for the average bread-winner Answer: (D) Life has lost its charm for the average bread-winner

Question 4. (A) Prize line is the lifeline of a nation. (B) Price line is the lifeline of a nation. (C) Prize length is the lifeline of a nation. (D) Price length is the lifeline of a nation. Answer: (B) Price line is the lifeline of a nation.

Question 5. (A) the right intention and the force will (B) the right intention and the force will (C) the right intention and the force of will (D) the right intention and the will of force. Answer: (C) the right intention and the force of will

III. Wearing the school uniform gives the students an identity, pride and a feeling of discipline. Write an article in 150-200 words highlighting the importance of wearing a uniform in school. You are Jagan / Jagriti.

Question 1. ——- Question 2. ——-

Wearing a uniform is a badge of pride, creates an identity for a school and is an important part of being a school student. Uniforms show that we are part of the school. Question 3. ———Uniforms give students a sense of belonging to a particular school and create an identity for the school in the community. A school uniform teaches students to dress smartly and take pride in their appearance. Some people believe that a school uniform can improve learning by Question 4. ——- , sharpening focus on schoolwork and making the classroom a more serious environment, allowing students to perform better academically. Most importantly, a uniform means students don’t have to worry about peer pressure when it comes to their clothes. When everyone is dressed the same, worrying about what you look like isn’t so important. There is no competition about being dressed in the latest trend, which would put a great deal of financial pressure on students and parents. It is hard to make fun of what someone is wearing when dressed exactly the same. So, Question 5. ———-.

Question 1. (A) Importance of wearing a Uniform in school (B) Identity, pride and a (C) by Jagriti (D) 25 September, 20XX Answer: (A) Importance of wearing a Uniform in school

Question 2. (A) Importance of wearing a Uniform in school (B) Identity, pride and a feeling of discipline (C) by Jagriti (D) 25 September, 20XX Answer: (C) by Jagriti

Question 3. (A) Wearing it says were all in this together. (B) Wearing it said we’re all together. (C) Wearing it said wer’e all in this. (D) Wearing it says we’re all in this together. Answer: (D) Wearing it says we’re all in this together.

Question 4. (A) increasing distraction (B) reducing distraction (C) enhancing distraction (D) demolishing distraction Answer: (B) reducing distraction

Question 5. (A) Thank you (B) we have to wear our uniform taking pride (C) we should wear our uniform with pride (D) we need to look at our uniform as pride Answer: (C) we should wear our uniform with pride

IV. The word ‘father’ is synonymous with strict discipline etc., but it is not completely true. The father fulfils his responsibilities affectionately for the family. Write an article in 150-200 words on the topic, ‘Role of father in the family.’ You are Dhruv/Deepa.

Role of the father in the family

– by Dhruv

Question 1. ——– that can’t be played by others. This role can have a large impact on the child and it helps shape him/her into the person they become in future. It is not completely true that ‘father’ is Question 2. ———. In fact like mother, he is Question 3. ——- in the development of a child’s emotional well-being. Children look to their father to lay down the rules and enforce them. They also look to their father, to provide them a feeling of security- both physical and emotional. Children want to make their father proud and an involved father promotes inner growth and strength. Question 4. —-it greatly affects a child’s cognitive and social development. It also instils an overall sense of well-being and self-confidence. The father not only fulfils his responsibilities affectionately for the family but also sets the pattern in relationships which will, in turn be Question 5. ——— other people in society. Question 1. (A) Father plays a significant role in his child’s life (B) Father played a sincere role in his childs life (C) Father plays a sincere role in his child’s life (D) Father played a significant role in his child’s life Answer: (A) Father plays a significant role in his child’s life

Question 2. (A) synonym with lenient discipline only (B) synonym to strict discipline only (C) synonymous with strict discipline only (D) synonymous to lenient discipline only Answer: (C) synonymous with strict discipline only

Question 3. (A) a rock (B) a stand (C) a wall (D) a pillar Answer: (D) a pillar

Question 4. (A) Studies shows that when father are affectionate and supportive (B) Studies show that when a father is affectionate and supportive (C) Studies showed that if a father is affectionated and supported (D) Studies show that when a father is affectionately and supportively Answer: (B) Studies show that when a father is affectionate and supportive

Question 5. (A) reflecting to how his children related with (B) reflected to how his children relatively with (C) reflected by how his children relate with (D) reflecting by how his children relatively with Answer: (C) reflected by how his children relate with

V. To have a fair complexion is an obsession in our society. Demand for fair brides in matrimonial columns and sale of fairness creams are evidence enough. Write an article in 120-150 words giving your views on Beautiful mind, better than a fair complexion.’ You are Natwar/Nimmi. Use the following clues: The West, people like to be tanned Fair complexion, only skin deep Beautiful mind Attitude to life Behavior in society etc.

Beautiful mind, better than a fairer complexion

– by Nimmi

The mind and heart do not take Question 1. ——-. There is nothing like the perfect colour. We are the ones who have brought the notion into our minds that having a fairer skin is what everyone needs. Is it the looks that should matter or Question 2. ———? In India, there is a craze for fair complexion people. Everyone wants to have a fair and clear skin. There are products used by the people to make their skin fairer. These products are sold in tons on a daily basis. For once, we should notice that we indirectly give profits to those companies which manufacture such harmful and fake products with the fake promises of lightening our complexion. In the West, the people are crazy about getting tanned skin in summers and they pay to get all this. Then from where did Indians feel the urge to do all this. The dark skin has its own beauty and suits us. We are all Question 3. ———-. We are made that way. What matters is if we are beautiful from the inside. A person might be fair and beautiful from outside but what if he/she is not nice from inside? We need to focus on being good human beings, only that will take us Question 4. ———- in life. Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder, it is created by the observers the way they see us and people generally first see our attitude. Looks are something which will stay only for a short time, but character and inner beauty is something that will be with us till our death. So, that is something we should work on and not on our looks. Our behavior in society is what matters and not whether we dress well for an event. People judge us by our actions and not by what we are from outside Always remember that Question 5. ———-, they do not show what you are from inside. So, it is high time we stop the discrimination of people based on their skin tone. Question 1. (A) the complexion from one’s skin (B) the complexion from one skin (C) the complexion from once skin (D) the complexion from a skin Answer: (A) the complexion from one’s skin

Question 2. (A) should it be the heart to (B) it should be the heart too (C) should it be the heart two (D) should it be the heart too Answer: (D) should it be the heart too

Question 3. (A) exposed to be different (B) suppose to be variety (C) supposed to be different (D) supposedly different Answer: (C) supposed to be different

Question 4. (A) anywhere (B) somewhere (C) nowhere (D) where Answer: (B) somewhere

Question 5. (A) mirrors lay (B) mirrors lied (C) mirrors lieing (D) mirrors lie Answer: (D) mirrors lie

MCQ Questions for Class 12 English with Answers

English Compositions

[Free PDF] Article Writing MCQs | Q&A | CBSE Class 12 [TERM 1]

Recently in a video conference, CBSE has announced that they will be revising the question pattern for almost all subjects in the upcoming examinations. So, my dear students, I think it’s time for you to be comprehensively aware of the regulations by CBSE and get prepared. 

In the video conference, CBSE has declared that from now on 50% of the total questions will be in a multiple-choice based pattern. This regulation applies to all subjects. The board members also conveyed that questions will be framed in such a way that the paper will be more efficient to analyse the students’ overall comprehension skills rather than evaluating their memorization ability. 

The same applies to English Writing too. CBSE has specifically mentioned that questions based on the format of the English writings will no longer be asked. Rather the paper will focus more on evaluating the students’ overall understanding and comprehensive ability on the writing. Based on this regulation released by CBSE, we decided to come up with sessions containing suggestive model MCQs related to different English comprehension writings. We have already come up with sessions on model questions related to Letter Writing MCQs , Classified Advertisement Writing MCQs , as well as Notice Writing MCQs . All those sessions are still available on our website. You can check them out and download those sessions in PDF format for your further help in future Today, I’m going to present to you a comprehensive session on model MCQs related specifically to article writing. Follow the session with the utmost attention and try to understand the question pattern suggested by CBSE and their questioning mentality. 

Feature image of Article Writing MCQs With Answers

Article Writing MCQs With Answers:

  • An article can be a…………

A. Addressal B. Statement writing C. Awareness campaign D. All of the above

2. How should you begin article writing?

A. With statistics B. With Consequences C. With a brief introduction about the topic D. According to the situational demand

3. Select the exact motive on which an article can be written

A. Give advice B. Brief description of a program C. Notifying people D. All of the above

4. What kind of tone should you maintain while writing an article?

A. Formal B. Article should reflect your personal opinion C. Argumentative analysis of the topic D. Call for action

5. When an article needs a heading?

A. Only when the topic demands B. Always C. Doesn’t need a heading D. Only in Newspaper articles

6. Which of the following isn’t relatable to the article writing?

A. Salutation B. Date C. Subscription D. All of the above

7. How do subheadings help an article?

A. Helps to look more organized B. Makes the article easier to read C. Both A and B D. Article doesn’t require subheadings

8. Can you include your own opinion while writing an article on a specific topic?

A. No, authors’ opinions can’t be included B. Yes, but only in the body C. Maybe, but the heading should reflect that D. Yes, but Only in the conclusion

9. Which of the following can not be included in the article writing?

A. Statistics B. Authors’ opinion C. Quotes D. Both A and C E. A, B, and C all can be included

10. What should be the title of the article writing?

A. Eye-catchy B. Explain the topic in a few words C. Should be short and relevant D. All of the above

11. How do statistical facts help an article?

A. Helps the reader in a deeper understanding of the concept B. It’s a kind of call for action for the reader to do some math C. Statistics and analytics help the article to look more organised and comprehensive D. All of the above

12. What does a by-line mean in an article?

A. An extra piece of information B. The name of the writer C. Pointless D. Part of a goal line

13. Suppose you have run out of words while writing an article. What would be the wisest then to do?

A. Include statistics B. Add quotations C. Repeat the primary topic in a different language D. All the above can be included

You are Akash/Ipshita. You are concerned about the increasing use of cell phones by people. Educate the people about the risks such as potential health hazards from the electromagnetic fields emitted by mobile phones, the threat of brain tumours and cancers, fear of accidents while driving, etc. Write an article in 150–200 words expressing your concern.

14. Select the appropriate title for this article

A. Increasing usage of cell phones can cause potential hazards to public life B. Danger from Cell Phones C. Cell Phones and Potential Health Crisis D. Cellphones and Potential Health Crisis: A game of electromagnetism

15. Suppose, one of your family members has been affected by the overuse of cell phones. Can you mention that in this article?

A. Yes, should be mentioned B. No, Shouldn’t be mentioned C. Mention doesn’t matter D. Yes, but should be mentioned indirectly

16. Suppose you’re an expert on the ill effects of a cell phone. How should you include a few line jargon in the article?

A. No need for technical jargon B. Should be included in an easy to read manner C. Facts should be included as is D. Should be presented with relevant statistics

17. Whom should you address while writing this article?

A. Specifically the young generation B. The parents C. The government and the MNCs D. No need for specific addressal Answer: D

18. What kind of statistics should you refer to in this article?

A. Data of increasing cell phone usage in the last 10 years. B. Data of the increasing rate of cancer since the last decade. C. Data of the Increasing rate of accidents since the last decade. D. All the above E. Only B and C

  • Below is an article written based on the question mentioned previously. Answer the following questions based on this article.
The invention of mobile phones is one of the major advancements in human history. They have impacted the way people communicate with each other. They have created an easier platform for the spread of information from one person to another despite distances. The advantages of mobile phones are many. However, the mobile also has its disadvantages. Adolescents and teenagers are usually in a distracted state because of mobile phones. They are seen talking and texting at all places even while on the road while driving and even during classes. This can be detrimental as it may cause accidents and also prevent them from reaching their potential in academics. Anti-social elements are known to use mobiles for nefarious activities and terrorist acts. Research has also shown that overuse of mobile phones may cause harm to our bodies. Certain self-control measures over the use of mobiles will help us use them for our benefit and reduce their harmful effects.

19. What is primarily wrong with this article mentioned above?

A. The author’s name is missing B. The title is missing C. The article is written in long complex-sentences D. Both A and B E. A, B, and C

20. Select the appropriate title for this article

A. Increasing usage of cellphones can cause potential hazards to public life B. Danger from Cell Phones C. Cellphones and Potential Health Crisis D. Cellphones and Potential Health Crisis: A game of electromagnetism Answer: C

21. What kinds of value addition does this article lack?

A. Statistics B. Quotes C. Pattern of harmful effects caused by cellphones D. All the above E. Both A and B Answer: E

22. How could you better conclude this article?

A. By adding a few statistics B. By using a quote C. Mentioning a personal experience D. Expressing your concern and suggesting some alternatives

23. In which position in the article should you mention the statistical data?

A. You should start with statistics B. Should be mentioned in the body C. Include this in the introduction D. Wherever it seems relevant

Answer: Try to answer this question in the comment section below. And to know the right answer please join our telegram channel .

That’s it. I hope through this comprehensive session on MCQs related to article writing you have understood the question pattern suggested by CBSE and also understood how the questions will be formed. So from now, please try to focus on learning the topic rather than memorising the format.

You can store this entire session by downloading it in PDF format . Still, if you face any doubts or have any specific questions regarding this session, please let us know in the comment section below. I will try to attend to your query as soon as possible. We have also covered sessions based on MCQs related to other topics of English comprehension. Don’t forget to check them out on our website. And to get the latest update about our upcoming sessions important for your exams, please join our telegram channel.

Thank you for being with us, have a great exam ahead. 

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  • How to write effective headings

How to Write and Format Headings in Academic Writing

Published on March 15, 2019 by Shane Bryson . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The goal of using headings in a document is not only to divide information, but also to allow easy navigation of the document. In academic writing , headings help readers find the specific information they want while retaining a sense of how that information fits with everything else in the document.

To test for overall heading clarity, ask yourself the following: from reading your headings in sequence, would an informed reader understand…

  • The content of the document as a whole?
  • The specific content of each section?
  • How each section fits with the others?

If not, your headings aren’t effective , and may need some improvement.

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Table of contents

Headings vs. titles, how long should headings be, using descriptive headings, technical terms in headings, capitalization, formatting and sequencing, other interesting articles.

Although heading and titles are similar, they are distinct: A title leads the entire document and captures its content in one or two phrases; a heading leads only a chapter or section and captures only the content of that chapter or section. Read more in our article on writing good titles in academic writing .

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Headings should be as long as it takes to clearly communicate the content of the sections they head. However, each heading should be as concise as possible – a good rule of thumb is to limit the heading length to one line.

Higher-level vs. lower-level headings

Higher-level headings often make do with a single word (e.g. “ Introduction ” or “ Methods ”), while lower-level headings are often longer. This is because higher-level headings cover more general content and provide an overview. One word is clear enough because everyone already knows what happens in an introduction chapter – nothing more needs to be said.

Lower-level headings should use more specific terminology to help clarify the content of the section. These headings help readers find the exact information they’re looking for.

The main goal of a heading is to inform the reader of what content they can find in that section, so make your headings as descriptive as possible. The examples below show one non-descriptive heading and three descriptive headings that provide the reader with much more information.

  • Profile of GPS technology
  • Function of GPS in aviation
  • GPS before 1999

Avoiding repetitive headings

No two sections should focus on the exact same content, so no two headings should be identical. Instead of closing a chapter with “Summary,” for example, try making the heading little more descriptive: “Summary of X .”

Documents in fields that rely heavily on jargon and technical language will contain headings that might not be clear to every reader. That’s fine as long as you keep your reader’s knowledge level in mind. However, if you don’t need the jargon to give a specific idea of your content, then avoid it.

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heading of an article should be mcq

At the outset, make a plan for how you will deal with matters of  capitalization , formatting and sequencing of headings. Headings at the same level should be formatted the same. For instance, “Section 2.2” should get the same treatment as “Section 4.1”. They should also have parallel structure .

Often, your style guide or university will offer specific directions on how to approach the capitalization, formatting, and sequencing of headings, so it’s wise to check before you start writing them. For example,  APA headings and MLA headings  require specific formatting.

Using automatic heading styles in Word

To avoid having to format each heading separately, it’s smart to use the heading styles feature offered by Microsoft Word, Google Docs and many other word-processing softwares.

An extra benefit of using these heading styles is that you can automatically generate and update a table of contents. This will save you a lot of time later on. Read more about this in our article on creating a  table of contents .

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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Bryson, S. (2023, July 23). How to Write and Format Headings in Academic Writing. Scribbr. Retrieved February 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/effective-headings/

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Shane finished his master's degree in English literature in 2013 and has been working as a writing tutor and editor since 2009. He began proofreading and editing essays with Scribbr in early summer, 2014.

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Connie Malamed

10 Rules For Writing Multiple Choice Questions

by Connie Malamed

10 Rules for Writing Multiple Choice Questions

The rules covered here make tests more accurate. This guidance helps ensure the questions are interpreted as intended and the answer options are clear and without hints. Just in case you’re not familiar with multiple choice terminology, it’s explained in the visual below.

heading of an article should be mcq

Here is my best advice for how to write good multiple choice questions. I also interviewed a professor who specializes in writing tests (known as a psychometrician).

Rule #1: Test comprehension and critical thinking, not just recall

Multiple choice questions are criticized for testing the superficial recall of knowledge. You can go beyond this by asking learners to interpret facts, evaluate situations, explain cause and effect, make inferences, and predict results.

Rule #2: Use simple sentence structure and precise wording

Write test questions in a simple structure that is easy to understand. And try to be as accurate as possible in your word choices. Words can have many meanings depending on colloquial usage and context.

Rule #3: Place most of the words in the question stem

If you’re using a question stem, rather than an entire question, ensure that most of the words are in the stem. This way, the answer options can be short, making them less confusing and more legible.

Rule #4: Make all distractors plausible

All of the wrong answer choices should be completely reasonable. This can be very hard to accomplish, but avoid throwing in those give-away distractors as it detracts from the test’s validity. If you’re really stuck, get help from your friendly SME. ( BTW, this word can also be spelled as “distracter.” )

Rule #5: Keep all answer choices the same length

This can be difficult to achieve, but expert test-takers can use answer length as a hint to the correct answer. Often the longest answer is the correct one. When I can’t get all four answers to the same length, I use two short and two long.

Rule #6: Avoid double negatives

No big news here, right? Don’t use combinations of these words in the same question: not, no, nor, the -un prefix, etc. For example, this type of question could confuse test-takers: ‘Which of the following comments would NOT be unwelcome in a work situation?’ Flip it around and write it in the positive form: ‘Which of the following comments are acceptable in a work situation?’

Rule #7: Mix up the order of the correct answers

Make sure that most of your correct answers aren’t in the “b” and “c” positions, which can often happen. Keep correct answers in random positions and don’t let them fall into a pattern that can be detected. When your test is written, go through and reorder where the correct answers are placed, if necessary.

Rule #8: Keep the number of options consistent

Did you ever have to convince a SME that he or she can’t have answer choices that go to ‘h’ in one question and ‘c’ in the next? It’s something of a user interface issue. Making the number of options consistent from question to question helps learners know what to expect. Research doesn’t seem to agree on whether 3 or 4 or 5 options is best. Personally, I like to use 4 options. It feels fair.

Rule #9: Avoid tricking test-takers

As faulty as they are, tests exist to measure knowledge. Never use questions or answer options that could trick a learner. If a question or its options can be interpreted in two ways or if the difference between options is too subtle, then find a way to rewrite it.

Rule #10: Use ‘All of the Above’ and ‘None of the Above’ with caution

I hate this rule because when you run out of distracters, All of the Above and None of the Above can come in handy. But they may not promote good instruction. Here’s why. All of the Above can be an obvious give-away answer when it’s not used consistently. Also, the All of the Above option can encourage guessing if the learner thinks one or two answers are correct. In addition, the downside to None of the Above is that you can’t tell if the learner really knew the correct answer.

  • Writing Multiple Choice Questions for Higher Order Thinking
  • Are Your Online Tests Reliable?
  • Are Your Online Tests Valid?
  • Tips for Writing Matching Format Test Items
  • Write Better Multiple-Choice Questions to Assess Learning  by Patti Shank
  • Do’s and Dont’s for Writing Multiple Choice Questions

heading of an article should be mcq

July 26, 2022 at 1:44 pm

Lots of good points. Thank you!!

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July 22, 2022 at 10:53 am

Just a point on terminology: A psychometrician is not necessarily an expert on writing good test questions. Psychometricians specialize in measurement and statistics on how test-takers have responded to test questions, but their training in the writing of good questions might have been no more detailed than seeing a list like yours. What you really want is to communicate with a professional test developer or even a professional item writer.

As a professional test editor, I can tell you that the question of whether to end each option with a period/full stop is more to do with the established style of the test developer. The project I work on ends all options with a period, whether they are complete sentences or not. The purpose of this is merely the assumption that, for a test-taker, the more details that can be consistent, the less cognitive load is needed to respond to the content.

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May 6, 2020 at 5:37 am

Thank you for sharing such a great information with us

June 29, 2019 at 5:55 pm

This is a great question and it’s good that you are aware of the nuances here. I have a book recommendation, which I haven’t read yet, but suspect this will answer your questions. “ Practice and Feedback for Deeper Learning by Patti Shank.” Best, Connie

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June 14, 2019 at 1:21 pm

What tips do you have for writing test item feedback? We are struggling to find a balance between very specific or very general feedback.

On one hand, we don’t want learners to use the feedback to cheat, but it would help them remember which questions they missed and why. However, if they failed and take a different form of the test, they may not be able to transfer that knowledge well. The general feedback might provide a nice study guide of sorts, but could be too broad to be useful.

April 20, 2019 at 7:29 am

Hi Santosh, I get what you are looking for but I don’t know of a product like that. There could be one or it could be something like a survey tool. I wonder if Survey Monkey has that capability. You might be able to accomplish this with some light programming in one of Google’s free tools. Try asking in one of the eLearning Development groups on LinkedIn. Let us know what you find! Connie

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April 17, 2019 at 8:32 am

Hello Mam, I am making a empathy and communication skill questionnaire for my organisation. A question for example is as under: Answer each statement honestly, thinking about your likely behaviour. There are no wrong or right answers. Q1. I try to have the last word on a subject. (a) Always or Nearly Always (b) Often (c) Sometimes (d) Never or Hardly ever Now can you suggest me a quiz maker app which can assign marks for each choice. Here (a) would have 0 points and (d) will have the highest scoring that is 3 points. So on that scale (b) will have 1 point, and (c) will have 2 points. Do you know any app /software that has the feature of assigning marks to individual choices. I know of some that assigns points scored only to one choice, that is the correct one. Regards

May 1, 2018 at 9:31 am

Julie – I answered this a few days ago but I guess it didn’t save. It would be interesting to ask these questions to a professional editor. I keep things consistent in punctuation and within the options for each test, course, organization. Like you, I place a period at the end of sentences. I also place a period at the end of the answer options for options that are intended to complete a sentence. As to your #2, I typically use lower case for the answer choices. I see that in SAT sample questions, they also use lower case. But I work for many different clients and if their standard is upper case, I do that. I hope this helps. Good question!

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April 26, 2018 at 10:14 pm

1. Do you put a “full stop” at the end of each option? I have been putting one at the end of options which are complete sentences, but not when they are single words/phrases. Is that correct?

2. Do you use upper or lower case used for single word/phrase options, e.g. a. Seventy b. Seventy-five etc or

a. seventy b. seventy-five

March 18, 2018 at 9:41 pm

That sounds awesome. I can see why students would like that. Since our goal is to help learners gain mastery and competence, I don’t see why this wouldn’t be a good strategy. Best, Connie

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March 18, 2018 at 1:58 pm

I am looking at a “quiz qualifier” for some multiple choice tests where students can explain a few of the answers they selected. This way, I can better assess their knowledge. Any input on that? I have tried on a few quizzes and the students really appreciate the opportunity.

September 3, 2017 at 10:29 pm

Hi Karen, In the real world, it does seem that a multiple choice question for “creating” is a bad fit so I do not think the assignment is particularly meaningful. That said, the best I can suggest is to simulate creation via a multiple choice question. For example, if the LO is to create an innovative title for an article, you could say, “You must create a title for an online magazine article. Select the title that stands out as one that will grab attention.” Or if the LO is to create a design with effective use of white space, you could show three designs, each with a rationale for why it is effective. Then the learner must select one.

Also, see if this article about writing multiple choice questions for higher order thinking gives you any ideas. Good luck! Connie

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September 3, 2017 at 11:17 am

May I ask you a question? We have this task to create question under creating level of the revised Bloom’s taxonomy. Now my question is, is it possible to create a multiple choice questions in creating level? I’m really having a hard time trying to look for any sample multiple choice questions under creating level.

June 1, 2017 at 7:24 pm

You’re right, Mohammad. I’m starting to write an eBook on this topic that will have lots of examples. Thanks for your input. Connie

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May 22, 2017 at 7:33 am

Connie, your article is good, but could be great if you would provide at least one couple of examples for each rule. One poor and one better examples. Think about it.

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January 2, 2017 at 12:49 am

No offence meant. My only opinion was that this article needs to be validated. Wishing you a good day and a happy new year.

December 31, 2016 at 9:16 am

Hi Ranjini, Yes, there are many other guidelines too. These were, in my estimation, the top ten. And they were researched 🙂 Best, Connie

December 27, 2016 at 5:24 am

good article, but mam lot of another guide lines related to multiple choice questions. i prepared a document about it. pls research your document.

November 2, 2016 at 6:37 pm

Of course, Jeremy. Thanks for asking and good luck on your project! It sounds very important. Will send as an email too. Connie

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November 2, 2016 at 12:23 pm

Good afternoon! We are seeking your permission to include your 10 Rules For Writing Multiple Choice Questions in a project we are undertaking. The project is to develop and support implementation of a new qualification for the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology in Kosovo. The qualification is Level 5 Certificate for Teaching Assistants for Special Needs Children. We would acknowledge the resource materials, with web references for further detail and information. It would be really helpful to have your e-mail confirmation that we can use and reference materials from your website if that is acceptable to you. We look forward to hearing from you!

March 20, 2016 at 8:50 am

Thanks for sharing this information, Sarah. Best, Connie

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March 19, 2016 at 4:43 pm

Kahoot or socrative are good for creating multiple choice. I’m not keen on them as a learning tool but AQA use multiple choice in A level business and economics papers. So tend to use to prepare learners.

March 5, 2015 at 9:06 pm

Good points, Bryan.

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March 5, 2015 at 3:28 pm

Both reliability and validity are put into question if you don’t have the same amount of options/distractors for each one. More distractors make it more difficult, fewer make it easier. There can be no argument about that-there must be consistency, otherwise what is the point of testing?

October 23, 2012 at 7:58 am

Hi Alice, Thanks, for reiterating an important point! Please come back and continue to add to the conversation.

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October 23, 2012 at 7:39 am

Great pointers! Here’s my favorite. When considering which questions will be on the test, refer back to your class objectives. If they were written according to Bloom’s Taxonomy, then precise wording, appropriate skill level, and critical thinking will be that much easier to build into your questions.

October 17, 2012 at 2:14 pm

In my opinion, tt does seem that if you use All of the above, you’d need to use it pretty often. Otherwise, it’s obviously the correct answer in many cases. Better to use a multiple selection multiple choice question, if your audience can handle that type of interaction.

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October 17, 2012 at 1:49 pm

Agree with #10. Lack of credible distractors leads you to AOTA. I feel you need some questions with AOTA as a distractor. But one study showed that actually caused more correct answers!

June 21, 2012 at 10:29 pm

Hi Ann, Great advice! It’s readers like you that add so much to this site. Thanks. Best, Connie

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June 21, 2012 at 7:06 pm

An additional rule: Ensure that your question is at the correct level of difficulty. A SME should be able to answer it with ease; naive learners should not be able to guess it consistently. (I am currently reviewing an e-learning module done by a reputable company and have been horrified at the exercise questions. Some are so obtuse no SME could produce the answer, while others are at a level my nine-year-old could figure out!)

January 18, 2012 at 7:26 am

Hi Sue, Of course you can use the list. It’s there to help people. I hope your class goes well! Connie

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January 16, 2012 at 8:39 am

Hi Connie, I love your 10 rules! I will shortly be teaching colleagues enrolled on our staff development course how to improve their question writing skills. I wonder if you would mind if I use your ideas as a resource (with reference to you, of course) as a basis for discussion in one of my face to face sessions? This would involve printing off copies to use as a paper and pen exercise. Colleagues will then use the rules to help them design their own computer based quizzes. Many thanks for a great resource.

April 2, 2010 at 6:56 am

Hi Joe, I do agree, it would be better to have an inconsistent number of distractors rather than an implausible one. You know how rules are … Thanks for sharing your insight! Connie

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April 1, 2010 at 11:39 pm

This is a helpful list, thanks. Many educators disagree with rule #8 though. Rule #4 takes precedence: sometimes it’s best to throw in a question with two or three distractors rather than come up with implausible distractors in the name of consistency.

I haven’t seen anyone split the difference here, but I will be bold enough to come up with my own rule: Don’t have any questions with EXTRA distractors, but an occasional question with FEWER distractors is better than forcing implausible distractors into a question for the sake of uniformity. Studies show that having fewer distractors does not, oddly enough, improve performance based on chance. You can create excellent questions with two distractors.

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March 25, 2010 at 6:14 am

Excellent list, thanks for sharing this with us.

Regards, David.

March 23, 2010 at 7:47 pm

Thanks for the link Michael. I like your article. Connie

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March 23, 2010 at 5:23 pm

I’ve written some additional tips for ordering distrators and the key that do not contribute unnecessarily to the wrong things.

Check out http://www.viral-notebook.com/wordpress/2009/05/06/increasing-cognitive-load-part-2/

[…] 10 Rules for Writing Multiple-Choice Questions Writing Multiple Choice Questions Writing Multiple-Choice Questions Good tips from Vanderbilt University […]

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Writing good multiple choice test questions, constructing an effective stem, constructing effective alternatives.

  • Additional Guidelines for Multiple Choice Questions

Considerations for Writing Multiple Choice Items that Test Higher-order Thinking

Additional resources.

Multiple choice test questions, also known as items, can be an effective and efficient way to assess learning outcomes. Multiple choice test items have several potential advantages:

heading of an article should be mcq

Reliability: Reliability is defined as the degree to which a test consistently measures a learning outcome. Multiple choice test items are less susceptible to guessing than true/false questions, making them a more reliable means of assessment. The reliability is enhanced when the number of MC items focused on a single learning objective is increased. In addition, the objective scoring associated with multiple choice test items frees them from problems with scorer inconsistency that can plague scoring of essay questions.

Validity: Validity is the degree to which a test measures the learning outcomes it purports to measure. Because students can typically answer a multiple choice item much more quickly than an essay question, tests based on multiple choice items can typically focus on a relatively broad representation of course material, thus increasing the validity of the assessment.

The key to taking advantage of these strengths, however, is construction of good multiple choice items.

A multiple choice item consists of a problem, known as the stem, and a list of suggested solutions, known as alternatives. The alternatives consist of one correct or best alternative, which is the answer, and incorrect or inferior alternatives, known as distractors.

heading of an article should be mcq

1. The stem should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem. A stem that presents a definite problem allows a focus on the learning outcome. A stem that does not present a clear problem, however, may test students’ ability to draw inferences from vague descriptions rather serving as a more direct test of students’ achievement of the learning outcome.

heading of an article should be mcq

2. The stem should not contain irrelevant material , which can decrease the reliability and the validity of the test scores (Haldyna and Downing 1989).

irr-material

3. The stem should be negatively stated only when significant learning outcomes require it. Students often have difficulty understanding items with negative phrasing (Rodriguez 1997). If a significant learning outcome requires negative phrasing, such as identification of dangerous laboratory or clinical practices, the negative element should be emphasized with italics or capitalization.

heading of an article should be mcq

4. The stem should be a question or a partial sentence. A question stem is preferable because it allows the student to focus on answering the question rather than holding the partial sentence in working memory and sequentially completing it with each alternative (Statman 1988). The cognitive load is increased when the stem is constructed with an initial or interior blank, so this construction should be avoided.

heading of an article should be mcq

1. All alternatives should be plausible. The function of the incorrect alternatives is to serve as distractors,which should be selected by students who did not achieve the learning outcome but ignored by students who did achieve the learning outcome. Alternatives that are implausible don’t serve as functional distractors and thus should not be used. Common student errors provide the best source of distractors.

heading of an article should be mcq

2. Alternatives should be stated clearly and concisely. Items that are excessively wordy assess students’ reading ability rather than their attainment of the learning objective

heading of an article should be mcq

3. Alternatives should be mutually exclusive. Alternatives with overlapping content may be considered “trick” items by test-takers, excessive use of which can erode trust and respect for the testing process.

heading of an article should be mcq

4. Alternatives should be homogenous in content. Alternatives that are heterogeneous in content can provide cues to student about the correct answer.

heading of an article should be mcq

5. Alternatives should be free from clues about which response is correct. Sophisticated test-takers are alert to inadvertent clues to the correct answer, such differences in grammar, length, formatting, and language choice in the alternatives. It’s therefore important that alternatives

  • have grammar consistent with the stem.
  • are parallel in form.
  • are similar in length.
  • use similar language (e.g., all unlike textbook language or all like textbook language).

6. The alternatives “all of the above” and “none of the above” should not be used. When “all of the above” is used as an answer, test-takers who can identify more than one alternative as correct can select the correct answer even if unsure about other alternative(s). When “none of the above” is used as an alternative, test-takers who can eliminate a single option can thereby eliminate a second option. In either case, students can use partial knowledge to arrive at a correct answer.

7. The alternatives should be presented in a logical order (e.g., alphabetical or numerical) to avoid a bias toward certain positions.

heading of an article should be mcq

8. The number of alternatives can vary among items as long as all alternatives are plausible. Plausible alternatives serve as functional distractors, which are those chosen by students that have not achieved the objective but ignored by students that have achieved the objective. There is little difference in difficulty, discrimination, and test score reliability among items containing two, three, and four distractors.

Additional Guidelines

1. Avoid complex multiple choice items , in which some or all of the alternatives consist of different combinations of options. As with “all of the above” answers, a sophisticated test-taker can use partial knowledge to achieve a correct answer.

heading of an article should be mcq

2. Keep the specific content of items independent of one another. Savvy test-takers can use information in one question to answer another question, reducing the validity of the test.

When writing multiple choice items to test higher-order thinking, design questions that focus on higher levels of cognition as defined by Bloom’s taxonomy . A stem that presents a problem that requires application of course principles, analysis of a problem, or evaluation of alternatives is focused on higher-order thinking and thus tests students’ ability to do such thinking. In constructing multiple choice items to test higher order thinking, it can also be helpful to design problems that require multilogical thinking, where multilogical thinking is defined as “thinking that requires knowledge of more than one fact to logically and systematically apply concepts to a …problem” (Morrison and Free, 2001, page 20). Finally, designing alternatives that require a high level of discrimination can also contribute to multiple choice items that test higher-order thinking.

heading of an article should be mcq

  • Burton, Steven J., Sudweeks, Richard R., Merrill, Paul F., and Wood, Bud. How to Prepare Better Multiple Choice Test Items: Guidelines for University Faculty, 1991.
  • Cheung, Derek and Bucat, Robert. How can we construct good multiple-choice items? Presented at the Science and Technology Education Conference, Hong Kong, June 20-21, 2002.
  • Haladyna, Thomas M. Developing and validating multiple-choice test items, 2 nd edition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999.
  • Haladyna, Thomas M. and Downing, S. M.. Validity of a taxonomy of multiple-choice item-writing rules. Applied Measurement in Education , 2(1), 51-78, 1989.
  • Morrison, Susan and Free, Kathleen. Writing multiple-choice test items that promote and measure critical thinking. Journal of Nursing Education 40: 17-24, 2001.

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How to write a heading – get to know the rules

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Headings help bring out an outline of the content immediately after it. They appear at the top of a paragraph, chapter, or page to brief what the succeeding content is about. Read on to find out how to write a heading, how long headings should be, the difference between a heading and a title, and what descriptive headings are. If you know how to write a heading, you get the reader’s attention which gives them the urge to read on and on.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

  • 1 How to write a heading - FAQ
  • 2 How to write a heading: Definition
  • 3 Headings vs. titles
  • 4 How long should headings be?
  • 5 Descriptive headings
  • 6 Repetitive headings – a no-go
  • 7 Technical terms in headings
  • 8 In a Nutshell

How to write a heading - FAQ

How do you write a proper heading.

A heading should be brief but must also bring out the information it’s intended to. It should be related to the content it stands for to ease the reader’s experience. Make sure it’s brief and straight to the point.

Tip: If you are done with your academic work, we can help you with thesis printing !

What is the format of heading?

There are 3 levels of heading formats. The first level should be centered, bold, and anywhere near font size 14. The second level should be aligned on the left, bold font, and about font size 12. The last format level is the third, whereby the font is left-aligned, bold and italics, and has a font size of about 12. You should know how to write a heading with these three formats.

What is the difference between heading and title?

There’s little difference in how to write a heading and a title. Titles and headings are pretty comparable but have their differences. A title stands for the whole reading and incorporates its content in a phrase or two. At the same time, a heading only crowns and captures the content of a section or chapter.

Why are headings important in writing?

How to write a heading is the first step. Headings convey an overview of what the whole writing is about. The reader is supposed to find out what the entire document is about by going through the headings assigned. It’s essential to know how to write a heading because it helps you organise your thoughts and understand what content to write and where.

How long should headings be?

Do you want to know how to write a heading? Not too long or short? However long it gets, make sure you have a suitable heading. Don’t go past one line because it’ll be too long. A good understandable heading for your sections or paragraphs should intrigue the reader to read more and not be too long to bore them.

How to write a heading: Definition

A heading can be a word, phrase, or sentence at the top of a paragraph, section, or chapter describing what it’s about. There’s no big deal on how to write a heading as its similar to a caption or a title. You have to know how to write a heading for your essays or research project to maintain a logical flow of ideas as the lecturer reads on.

Headings vs. titles

A heading should be brief and explain the exact information the writer wants to convene in the section or chapter below. Having a heading one line or just three words long is appropriate, as long as it is precise and straight to the point. These are primary skills to knowing how to write a heading.

How-to-write-a-heading-Descriptive-headings-90x90

Descriptive headings

There’s nothing complicated on how to write a heading of this type as it focuses on giving the reader more information for easy understanding. More details of the primary subject are provided in the heading. These headings are suitable for emails, academic reports, or even on online platforms.

An example is, say, you are crafting an essay of The American Revolution. If you give a heading like “Causes,” it will not be as clear as “Causes of The American Revolution.” The latter is a descriptive heading. Another example is, maybe you have a report to submit on corn growing in the USA. A heading like “Corn farms” will not be as suitable as the descriptive heading, “Corn Farms in the USA.”

For your academic reports or essays, you can incorporate some descriptive headings to give clear information. If you know how to write a heading of this type, the lecturer or reader will peruse your document and know what it’s about by just reading the headings. You can use some descriptive subheadings too for a much more detailed report or essay.

How-to-write-a-heading-Repetitive-headings

Repetitive headings – a no-go

There’s no way two sections can have the same title. This will dilute the whole document. If you know how to write a heading, you should know that all headings in a document must be unique. Descriptive headings will help avoid repetitive headings because you explain what the section is about on the heading itself. Chapters cannot have the same content; therefore, the headings can’t be the same too. Knowing how to write a heading that is as descriptive as possible will help arrange your ideas and give the reader an easy time.

Essential tips on how to write a heading without repetition are; varying the lengths of your headings, using different transition words, and using the thesaurus to get synonyms to terms. Knowing how to write a heading will help you know how to craft different headings for different paragraphs.

Technical terms in headings

Technical and jargon terms used on headings of documents may not be understandable to every reader except those familiar with the languages. An example is betting site languages. If you don’t get the terms used in betting, you may not understand anything on the betting site.

For academic documents intended to be read by professionals, such as instructors, you can use jargon if it is allowed. If there’s no need to use the terminology, avoid it at any cost. If you are familiar with how to write a heading, you should know how to craft one for general readers.

In a Nutshell

  • Headings should have a length of one to five words and not exceeding a whole line, as said above. A unique tip on how to write a heading is that it looks more like a title than a subheading.
  • Not all paragraphs need a heading. If you know how to write a heading, use headings for two or more ideas, and do not overdo them.
  • Headings should boost the outline of your main topic, paragraph to another and not overshadow it. Knowing how to write a heading forms the basis of a quality document.
  • Try using descriptive headings and subheadings often to have a quality outlook of your work.
  • Do not repeat a heading at any cost, mainly if you know how to write a heading for your academic work. Use informative or descriptive headings for a logical and easy-to-understand document.

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How to Write Headings for an Article

Last Updated: May 28, 2020 References

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been viewed 64,067 times.

Headings are important, as they help organize the contents of an article, and they allow a reader to skim the article to single out important or relevant sections of the article. [1] X Research source Headings must be relevant and concise. How you format a given heading will vary considerably, depending on the style you use to write your article. Common formatting styles for articles include Modern Language Association (MLA) style, American Psychological Association (APA) style, Associated Press (AP) style, and American Sociological Association (ASA) style. Knowing how to write useful headings in your chosen formatting style can help you write a better, more organized article.

Writing MLA Style Headings

Step 1 Create a section heading.

  • MLA style essays with multiple sections should have numbered headings. Use an arabic number and period, then a space, followed by the section title. Capitalize the first letter of important words and use lowercase for the rest. [3] X Research source

Step 2 Write a level one heading.

  • Level one headings are written in boldface font, flush left with the margin. [4] X Research source

Step 3 Compose a level two heading.

  • Level two headings are written in italics, without any bold font. The text should be flush left with the margin. [5] X Research source

Step 4 Write a level three heading.

  • Level three headings are written in bold, without italics. The text should be centered within the body of the paper. [6] X Research source

Step 5 Create a level four heading.

  • Level four headings are written in italics, without any bold font. The text should be centered within the body of the paper. [7] X Research source

Step 6 Write a level five heading.

  • Level five headings are written with underlined text, and without any bold or italicized font. The text should be flush left with the margin. [8] X Research source

Writing Headings for APA Articles

Step 1 Include a running head/page header.

  • The running head/page header should be an abbreviated version of your title. It should not be longer than 50 characters, including spaces and punctuation. [11] X Research source
  • The running head/page header should be typed in all capital letters. [12] X Research source

Step 2 Compose a level one heading.

  • Level one headings should be centered in the middle of the page and typed in boldface font. The heading should use a mix of uppercase and lowercase letters, as appropriate. [14] X Research source
  • Generally, only major words are capitalized in APA format. In cases of a hyphenated compound word, only the first word is capitalized. [15] X Research source
  • Level one headings do not use any end punctuation, and should be followed by a line break. [16] X Research source

Step 3 Create a level two heading.

  • Level two headings should be left-aligned (flush with the left margin), typed in boldface font. [18] X Research source
  • Level two headings should use a mix of uppercase and lowercase letters, as appropriate. This follows the same general rule as a level one heading. [19] X Research source
  • Level two headings do not use any end punctuation, and should be followed by a line break. [20] X Research source

Step 4 Write a level three heading.

  • Level three headings should be indented from the left margin, typed in boldface font. [22] X Research source
  • Level three headings should be written in sentence case, where only the first letter of the heading is capitalized and the rest of the text is in lower case. The heading should end with a period and a space, and be followed immediately by the text of that subsection. [23] X Research source

Step 5 Create a level four heading.

  • Level four headings should be indented from the left margin, typed in boldface, italicized font with sentence case lettering. End a level four heading with a period, and begin the text immediately after the space that follows that period. [25] X Research source

Step 6 Write a level five heading.

  • Level five headings should be indented from the left margin, typed in italicized font without any boldface. Use sentence case lettering, end the heading with a period, and begin the text immediately after the space that follows that period. [27] X Research source

Composing AP Style Headings

Step 1 Write a headline.

  • AP style headlines use sentence case lettering, where only the first word is capitalized and the rest is in lowercase lettering. Proper names are also capitalized. [29] X Research source
  • In headlines involving a hyphenated compound word, only the first word is capitalized. [30] X Research source

Step 2 Write headings and subheads.

  • Use sentence case lettering, capitalizing only the first word and any proper names.

Step 3 Use a consistent font.

  • URLs and email addresses may be written in a different font or in boldface font to differentiate website periods from sentence-ending periods.

Creating Headings for ASA Articles

Step 1 Write a first-level head.

  • First-level heads are written left-justified (flush with the left margin) in all capital letters. There is no bold font used in ASA headings. [32] X Research source
  • ASA style dictates that articles should not begin with a heading - in other words, do not begin the paper with an "introduction" heading. [33] X Research source

Step 2 Create a second-level head.

  • Second-level heads should be left-justified with italicized font. Use title case lettering, where major words are capitalized. [35] X Research source

Step 3 Compose a third-level head.

  • Third-level heads should be left-justified and italicized. Use sentence case lettering, where only the first word of the heading is capitalized and the rest is in lowercase lettering. [37] X Research source

Expert Q&A

  • For Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) articles, the CMS advises writers to come up with their own system of headings and subheadings, and to be consistent in using that system. [38] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
  • If you're uncertain about the specific formatting of a given style, consult with a writing tutor or search online for your chosen style's formatting guidelines. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
  • Write section and subsection headings that give readers a concise, condensed summary of the information in the ensuing text. For example, in a section that discusses the estimated environmental impact of a dam project, you might title that section "Projected Environmental Effects of the Dam". Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

heading of an article should be mcq

  • Don't attempt to write your title/heading without writing your article. This will be exceedingly difficult, as the heading(s) should serve as a guide to the information in that section. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0

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Write in Third Person

  • ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/documentation/docapa/docapaheadings/
  • ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/
  • ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/05/
  • ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
  • ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/16/
  • ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/735/02/
  • ↑ https://www.apstylebook.com/?do=ask_editor&pg=faq
  • ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/583/01/
  • ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/717/02/

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Article Structure and Headings (Editorial Guide)

Use short headings and meaningful paragraphs to structure the article for easy scanning.

Break up long paragraphs. If there is not a natural break, work with the authors to create them.

Use headings to identify sections of the articles and help readers skim through the content. Headings also support accessibility by providing an easy way to navigate through the article with a screen reader.

  • No more than two levels of headings, using H2 and H3 (H1 is reserved for the article title)
  • There must be text after each heading. Do not have an H2 followed by an H3 with no text in between.
  • Headings Are Formatted in Title Case

The  UX Magazine article template  (Word file) is formatted with sample headings

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Ready to put your grammar skills to the test? Dive into our article quiz, featuring multiple-choice questions and answers designed to assess your understanding of English articles. Articles are those little words that add precision to nouns, indicating their grammatical certainty. In this quiz, you'll encounter ten English sentences, each with a missing article. Your mission? Select the correct article and complete the sentences accurately. It's a fun and educational way to sharpen your grasp of articles in English grammar. Whether you're a grammar enthusiast or simply aiming to refine your language skills, this quiz offers an opportunity Read more to showcase your expertise. After all, mastering articles is a key aspect of effective communication. So, are you ready to take on the challenge? Begin the quiz and see how adept you are at filling in the right articles to complete these sentences. Don't forget to share this quiz with others and challenge them to test their grammar skills too!

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Exercise 6: Writing an article (Ultimate Guide)

Exercise 6 of the Reading and Writing paper of the IGCSE English as a Second Language (ESL) exam (0510/0511/0991/0993) is always a formal or semi-formal writing. It can be an article, a report, or a review.

In this article, you will discover how to write an almost perfect article that impresses the examiner and gets you the highest band.

So, what is an article?

An article is a piece of writing written for a large audience, e.g., a magazine or newspaper, on a particular topic, which is meant to be of interest to the reader. It will express a certain viewpoint or perspective — this can be positive or negative depending on the topic.

The purpose of an article is often to inform and persuade the reader. Articles give information about a certain topic and can either persuade the reader that a certain viewpoint is correct (one-sided article; also called opinion article) or provide a balanced argument that lets the reader make up their own mind about the topic (two-sided article). You have the option to choose between writing a one-sided article or a two-sided article.

The Tone and Register of an Article

In the exam, the article is often for your school magazine or your teacher and rarely for the local newspaper.

If it’s for your school magazine, then the audience of the article is the students at your school and possibly the teachers or parents. The tone and register required, therefore, is rather semi-formal .

If, on the other hand, the article is for your teacher or the local newspaper, then the tone and register required is formal.

So, generally, the tone and register of the article should be more formal than exercise 5 but should be engaging.

Now, let’s discover the ideal format for both types of articles.

The format of a one-sided article

Paragraph 1: Introduction (including your opinion)

Paragraph 2: First point supporting your opinion with an explanation

Paragraph 3: Second point supporting your opinion with an explanation

Paragraph 4: State a counterargument (an idea from the opposing viewpoint) and counter the counterargument (i.e., explain why this counterargument is invalid). In other words, state a point made by people who have a different opinion from yours and explain why they are wrong.

Paragraph 5: Conclusion (including your opinion again but in different words)

The format of a two-sided article

Paragraph 1: Introduction (without your opinion)

Paragraph 2: One side of the issue either in favour or against

Paragraph 3: The other side of the issue either in favour or against

Paragraph 4: Conclusion (including your opinion)

Introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to inform the reader about the main point (topic) of the article and engage the reader to make them interested in the topic and read the rest of your article.

The main components of an effective introduction are:

  • Topic sentence

Start your article with a topic sentence that introduces the topic to the reader and explains its importance in today’s world. Give forceful statements rather than “I think that”, “maybe” or “perhaps”. For example: “Nowadays, music plays an indispensable role in our lives.”

To write an effective topic sentence, you might use adverbial time phrases and generalizations . Here are some examples of each.

Adverbial time phrases

  • Nowadays/these days/currently
  • Every day/week/year
  • Recently/for many years/decades
  • In the past
  • 10 years ago
  • In the last (few/five) (days/weeks/months/years/decades)

Generalization

  • A large number of / The vast majority (of)
  • Several/some
  • Not many/hardly any/ few
  • In almost all cases
  • In the majority of cases
  • In a large number of cases
  • In most cases
  • In some cases
  • On the whole/ Overall
  • Rhetorical question(s)

Use rhetorical questions (questions that don’t require an answer but make your reader think) to get the reader interested in the topic and encourage them to read on. For example:

  • How would you feel if you had two hours of homework every night?
  • How much longer do animals have to suffer?
  • Could you live with yourself if you missed out on this opportunity?
  • How could we possibly stand the …?
  • What would happen if …?
  • Could your conscience cope with …?
  • Is it really worth …?
  • Do you want to be part of …?
  • Have you ever thought about the positive impact you could have on the world by becoming vegetarian?
  • Your opinion (if it is a one-sided article)

If you are writing a two-sided article, DO NOT give your opinion in the introduction.

If you are writing a one-sided article, give your opinion (whether you support or oppose the viewpoint expressed in the statement).

Here are some opinion phrases to help you express your opinion.

  • In my opinion
  • I concur/agree
  • I believe that
  • It seems to me that
  • I am in favour of
  • I am against the idea of
  • I am strongly opposed to
  • I disagree / I cannot accept

You may also kill two birds with one stone and begin your article with a rhetorical question that introduces the topic to the reader, thus acting as a topic sentence. Here is an example.

“Have you ever thought how school life would be if the school day started later? In my perspective, this will have countless benefits.”

The structure if you are writing a one-sided article:

Body paragraph 1: First idea supporting your opinion with an explanation

Body paragraph 2: Second idea supporting your opinion with an explanation ( should be different from the first idea )

Body paragraph 3: State a counterargument (an idea from the opposing viewpoint) AND counter the counterargument (i.e., explain why this counterargument is invalid). In other words, state a point made by people who have a different opinion from yours and explain why they are wrong.

When introducing the opposing argument in the 3 rd body paragraph, use any of the following phrases.

  • Opponents of this idea claim/assert/argue that …
  • Those who disagree/are against these ideas may say/insist that …
  • Some people allege/argue that …
  • Some people may suggest/point out that …
  • A common counterargument is that …
  • It can be argued that …

When countering the opposing argument in the 3 rd body paragraph, use any of the following phrases depending on the context.

  • While this may be true to some extent, …
  • While it is true that …, it is important to consider…
  • While some may believe that … recent studies have shown that …
  • What this invalid argument misses is …
  • What these people fail to notice/take note of is …
  • The evidence, however, disproves this argument because …
  • However, upon closer examination, it becomes clear that …
  • However, a closer analysis reveals that …
  • However, this flawed argument overlooks the fact that …

The structure if you are writing a two-sided article:

Body paragraph 1: One side of the issue either in favour or against (mention 2 different ideas )

Body paragraph 2: The other side of the issue either in favour or against (mention 2 different ideas )

General guidelines for both kinds of articles:

  • Read the question carefully and draft a plan for your article in the blank space below the question using a pencil. Here are some steps to follow.
  • Separate the blank space into two parts, one for and one against.
  • Jot down any points that come to your mind in the correct part, along with any interesting vocabulary or expressions suitable for the task. Remember to write briefly and in bullet points.
  • Decide whether you will write a one-sided article or a two-sided article. Weigh up the two sides and see which one has stronger and more convincing arguments. If one side clearly has stronger and more convincing points, write a one-sided article. If you see that both arguments are equally strong or that no side has more compelling arguments, then write a two-sided article and choose four statements (2 for and 2 against). It’s also worth noting that while a two-sided article is easier to write, a one-sided article is the preferred option as it’s more persuasive.
  • Consider how you will begin your article and how you will engage the reader at the start. For example, write some variations of the topic sentence and rhetorical questions that you could use.
  • Choose the most effective ones and begin writing. Remember to spend no more than 5 minutes on the plan.
  • You can use the few prompts given in the question, but it is better to use your own ideas if you want to get higher marks. If, however, you are out of ideas, use the ideas in the question and make sure to paraphrase them (write them in different words) and develop them well.
  • Support your ideas with reasons, evidence, or examples , and use persuasive language features . Remember that you should not just describe the problem but should be convincing in getting the audience to choose a side. Also, the examiner knows that the evidence or examples will be made up and doesn’t expect these to be correct.
  • Keep to the topic (don’t wander away from the main subject of the article). Remind yourself constantly by looking again at the question.
  • Use a variety of linking words and cohesive devices (mainly formal) to create a smooth and logical flow in your writing. Here are some examples.

When presenting the first point (used in the 1 st body paragraph of both one-sided articles and two-sided articles)

  • The main argument in favour of/against is
  • The main point/reason is
  • The most important point/reason
  • The first point/reason
  • First of all
  • First and foremost
  • In the first place
  • On the one hand (used only when writing a two-sided article)

When adding more points (used in the 2 nd body paragraph of a one-sided article and both body paragraphs of a two-sided article)

  • In addition,
  • Furthermore,
  • Additionally,
  • Not only … but also…
  • As well as.
  • Another noteworthy point is …
  • Apart from that
  • What is more

When contrasting ideas (used in the 2 nd body paragraph of a two-sided article)

  • Nevertheless
  • Even though
  • In spite of
  • On the other hand
  • On the contrary
  • By contrast
  • In comparison
  • Alternatively
  • Another option could be

When giving examples

  • For example
  • For instance
  • One clear example is
  • To illustrate
  • In other words

When reasoning:

  • Results and consequences: as a result, consequently, therefore, thus, hence, for this reason, as a result (of), which means that, etc.
  • Reasons and causes: owing to, because (of), on account of, due to, since, as, etc.   

When highlighting and stressing

  • Particularly
  • In particular
  • Specifically

The purpose of the conclusion is to sum up what you have said and express (or re-express) your opinion.

In the conclusion:

  • Sum up your main points concisely using concluding phrases. Here are some examples.
  • In conclusion
  • To conclude
  • To reiterate
  • On the whole
  • All things considered
  • After weighing the benefits and drawbacks
  • It can be concluded that …
  • I believe that …
  • Thus, I am of the opinion that …
  • Given these points

Remember to use different words from those used to express the points in the body.

  • Give your final opinion (regardless of whether it’s a one-sided or a two-sided article) and any solution or suggestion if applicable.

The solution or suggestion might be part of your opinion if you’re writing a two-sided article and want to take a balanced view on the issue rather than siding with one side. For example, “In conclusion, it is evident that fast food is a double-edged sword; thus, I strongly believe we should strike a balance between eating fast food and incorporating other healthier options in our diet to mitigate its negative effects.”

Use the opinion phrases stated earlier in the Introduction section to express your opinion, and if it’s a one-sided article, make sure to use different words from those used in the introduction.

  • Include your audience by any of the following ways:
  • Using pronouns like we, us, and you (this is the easiest). Notice how this was used in the previously mentioned conclusion example (bold and underlined)
  • Using rhetorical question(s). For example, “To conclude, I wholeheartedly believe that everyone should pursue higher education. Why not embrace this invaluable opportunity to fast-track your career, build your confidence, and broaden your social circle?”.
  • Leaving the reader with something to think about. For example: “After weighing the benefits and the drawbacks, it is apparent that convenience food, while palatable, may negatively impact other areas of your life. Think about this before you reach for your next snack!”.

Points to keep in mind

  • Organize your article into 4-5 paragraphs (4 if it’s a two-sided article and 5 if it’s a one-sided article). Leave a line between paragraphs or indent the first line of each new paragraph. Don’t do both!
  • Take care of spelling, punctuation, and grammar . This is important as the examiner will look at the accuracy of your language.
  • Use a combination of simple, compound, and complex sentences . A series of long sentences will make your writing difficult to read, and a series of short simple sentences will make your writing boring to read. Balance is the key.
  • Use a wide range of formal vocabulary, including some advanced and less commonly used ones .
  • Use a wide variety of formal linking words. Examples have been mentioned earlier.
  • Use advanced punctuation sparingly (1-3 in the whole article), for example, colon (:) and semicolon (;).
  • Aim to complete towards the maximum word limit (approximately 200 words for the current syllabus and 160 words for the new syllabus). Exceeding the word limit slightly (15-20 words) is fine as long as you write accurately and complete the task within the correct time. If you exceed the word limit by any number of words, be it even 100, no marks will be cut directly, but you increase your chances of making more mistakes and spending more time than required for this exercise, which may affect your mark indirectly. If you write towards the lower limit or below, you are highly unlikely to achieve the highest band for Content as your content is not well developed.
  • Spend about 30 minutes on this exercise : the initial 5 minutes for planning and the last 2-3 minutes for checking your work for simple spelling, punctuation, and grammatical mistakes.
  • Include your audience throughout by using pronouns such as we, us and you.
  • You could give a suitable attention-grabbing title (first letter of each word capital), but it’s not necessary. In fact, many students waste a lot of time trying to come up with a title and end up with their own version which does not match the rubric. As a result, the content is not always focused correctly and tends to follow the direction chosen by the student, rather than the specific requirements of the topic, thus affecting the content marks.
  • Passive voice could be used but not too much.
  • Write legibly

Don’ts :

  • Avoid contractions . However, if the article is for your school magazine, you can use contractions (not recommended).
  • Avoid abbreviations and slang (texting language) such as how r u, OMG, BTW, etc.
  • Avoid using informal vocabulary
  • Avoid listing (firstly, secondly, thirdly, etc.). There is no problem in writing “firstly”, but avoid writing “secondly” and “thirdly”.
  • Avoid repetition of vocabulary and beginning your sentences with the same words . Sometimes, students write 3 or more sentences in a row starting with “The”!

Practice a lot of past papers and get feedback on your writing. If you don’t have a teacher, reread these notes and check for what you have done right and what you haven’t. Read some of the samples on the samples page to see what you have just learned effectively used and incorporated in an article.

Good luck! Go get that A*!

2 responses to “Exercise 6: Writing an article (Ultimate Guide)”

Kashyav Bhutani avatar

this was extremely helpful and educational i am an IGCSE Grade 9 litreture student and this is something i have nevar Heard of. was not expecting to see this in fle

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Multiple Choice Questions and Answers for Engineering & Medical

Engineering interview questions, Mcqs, Objective Questions,Class Notes,Seminor topics,Lab Viva Pdf free download. CIVIL | Mechanical | CSE | EEE | ECE | IT | Chemical Online Quiz Tests for Freshers.

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300+ TOP Article Writing MCQs and Answers Online Quiz Exam

Article writing multiple choice questions class 12.

1. What is placed on the top of an article? A. Date B. Heading/Title C. Subscription D. Salutation

Answer: Heading/Title

2. What is placed just below the title of an article? A. Date B. By-Line C. Place of the writer D. Salutation

Answer: By-Line

3. How many paragraphs should be there in an article? A. One B. Two C. Three to Four D. Eight to Ten

Answer: Three to Four

4. Which of the following is not an element of an article? A. Date B. Subscription C. Salutation D. All of these

Answer: All of these

5. What should the first paragraph of an article be all about? A. Conclusion B. Consequences C. Statistics D. Brief introduction of the topic

Answer: Brief introduction of the topic

6. On which parameters is article writing assessed? A. Content B. Expression C. Fluency & Format D. All of these

7. How should an article be ended? A. Thanking the audience B. Greeting the audience C. With a suitable conclusion D. All of these

Answer: With a suitable conclusion

8. Pick the even one out in context of Article Writing? A. Heading/Title B. Salutation C. Thanking the audience D. Greeting to the audience

Answer: Heading

9. Which of the following can be added to make an article writing interesting? A. Quotes B. Statistics C. Both a and b D. Neither a nor b

Answer: Both a and b

10. What should be the ratio of active and passive voice while writing an article? A. 30:70 B. 70:30 C. 50:50 D. None of these

Answer: 70:30

11. What is the word limit of an article for class 12? A. 50-100 words B. 100-150 words C. 150-200 words D. 300-500 words

Answer: 150-200 words

12. How should an article be commenced? A. By greeting the audience B. By thanking the audience C. By requesting the audience D. None of these

Answer: None of these

13. Article is a…. A. Short piece of writing B. long piece of writing C. Exaggeration of lies D. All of these

Answer: Long piece of writing

14. Which of the following is correct about the ‘Title’ in article writing? A. It should be long B. It should be short and irrelevant C. It should be eye-catching D. It should be a long-tail keyword

Answer: It should be eye-catching

15. What do pros and cons mean? A. Advantages and disadvantages B. Arguments in favour and arguments against C. Positives and Negatives D. All of these

16. What is fluency in article writing? A. Ability to weave the content together B. Ability to set the content apart C. Ability to find out the pros and cons D. Ability to greet the audience

Answer: Ability to weave together the content

17. What are the elements of a marking scheme of article writing? A. Format B. Content C. Expression D. All of these

18. What are the constituents of ‘Format’ in article writing? A. Heading B. Writer’s Name C. Both a and b D. Neither a nor b

19. What are the constituents of ‘Expression’ in article writing? A. Spellings B. Grammatical Accuracy C. Coherence D. All of these

20. What are the elements of ‘Conclusion’ in article writing? A. Suggestions B. Remedial Measures C. Reminders D. All of these

21. ____ states the name of the writer. A. Heading B. By-Line C. Dateline D. None of these

22. What can an article describe? A. An event B. Experience C. Person’s life D. All of these

23. An article should be written in ________ A. a single paragraph B. clear paragraphs C. informal language D. None of these

Answer: clear paragraphs

24. One should ______ before writing an article A. Exercise B. Research about the topic C. Pray to God D. None of these

Answer: Research about the topic

25. Article writing is meant for _____ A. Small group of readers B. Large group of readers C. Unemployed people D. Only employed people

Answer: Large group of readers

26. What makes an article good A. Accuracy B. Ample research about the topic C. Drafting before being written D. All of these

27. What should one do if one runs out of words while writing an article? A. Repeat the same lines again and again B. Add quotations related to the topic C. Forget the coherence and write anything D. All of these

Answer: Add quotations related to the topic

28. Which of the following adds beauty to an article and makes it high-scoring? A. Legible handwriting B. Scribbling on the page of article C. Illegible handwriting D. Filthy presentation

Answer: Legible handwriting

29. What is coherence in article writing? A. Logical writing B. Orderly writing C. Consistent relation of paragraphs D. All of these

30. Who should be kept in mind while writing a good article? A. Editor of the newspaper B. Owner of the newspaper C. Readers and their mood D. English teacher of the school

Answer: Readers and their mood

31. Answer the following questions based on the article given below.

Addiction of Social Networking Sites

( By : Riya Mishra )

Social networking sites are web-based programs run ___(i)____ where people create their dynamic profiles in order to share what they exactly feel and exchange their views via chats, calls, video conferences etc. Some of the most popularly-known apps are; WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram and Twitter which connect not only billions of people across the world but help them remain updated of their surroundings.

Despite the fact that these sites are boon for human beings, they have their own ___(ii)____ as well. We all know that ‘Excess of everything is bad.’ Therefore, excessive use of social networking sites can make us lethargic, unproductive and procrastinators. Sitting for long hours, engaged with such sites, can give a ___(iii)____rise to the quantum of headaches, backaches and many more diseases. It affects student’s academics adversely for they become prone to using the all day long and can’t resist their temptations of frequently logging in their accounts created on various platforms. Apart from all that, the ___(iv)____ content present on such sites distract students’ attention to a different level resulting in loss of their academics precious time.

Freedom of speech, one of the fundamental rights of us, is often seen being misused at such platforms. ___(v)____, without giving second thought, comment or write whatever they feel like to humiliate others. Consequently, a white-collar gentry or renowned celebrities have to undergo a irreparable mental harassment. Independent women have to face incidents of ___(vi)____ which causes depression and anxiety to them . Above all, the hike in number of suicidal cases has a close association with social networking sites for a long time. Even, youngsters who have hardly stepped out of their homes, can be seen shooting videos before committing suicides. These virtual platforms have created a very ___(vii)____ environment for the teenagers where they are facing bullying, emotional distress and insecurity.

It has also emboldened the cybercrime since we all have updated our profiles on social media. Our personal information is no longer ___(viii)____on those platform. Even an unknown person can take advantage of this act .

To conclude that, if we use social networking sites wisely they are really a ___(ix)____ whereas its excessive use can make us scourge and a ___(x)____ plague.

i) A. on internet B. in internet C. through internet D. All of these

Answer: Through internet

ii) A. limitations B. flaws C. shortcomings D. All of these

iii) A. decline B. steep C. low D. None of these

Answer: Steep

iv) A. fruitful B. Obnoxious C. valuable D. invaluable

Answer: Obnoxious

v) A. Local people B. Local politicians C. Netizens D. Local police

Answer: Founder

vi) A. respect B. grateful respect C. body-shaming D. beautiful body

Answer: Body-shaming

vii) A. Peaceful B. Healthy C. Toxic D. None of these

Answer: Toxic

viii) A. open B. public C. protected D. unprotected

Answer: Protected

ix) A. Boon B. Blessing C. Bane D. Both a and b

x) A. short-lived B. lifetime C. never-lasting D. temporary

Answer: Lifetime

Corona Virus Disease (Covid-19) had been a talk of the town, due to its outbreak, throughout the year 2020 when it gripped millions of people and it is still making headlines around the world even in 2021 with its fast-approaching new strain in UK and other parts of the world. From Lockdown to social distancing, it has insisted on the people to change their lifestyle and perspective towards the life altogether.

Covid-19 is caused by a newly discovered corona virus, one of the unknown viruses of Corona Virus family. It has already taken life of more than 2.6 million people and many of us are still circling around this deadly pandemic. As per the history and views of Covid-19 patients, who once had been suffering or are suffering from this virus, it starts with a mild respiratory illness which leads further to fever, cold, congestion in throat and utter weariness of body. People, suffering from this often complain of breathing and fatigue irrespective of any hard or unaccustomed labour. However, it is not mandatory that all and sundry, whomsoever are suffering from this disease, may have these same signs of tiredness and fatigue. Some of them may be asymptomatic and not the carriers of this virus as well.

It usually spreads from person to person through droplets of saliva when an infected person sneezes or coughs without following respiratory etiquettes. So, it becomes essential for one to learn respiratory etiquettes and practice them as much as possible. Besides, touching the things unnecessarily also could be one of the reasons of its outbreak. Therefore, one must take care of all these things in order to protect themselves from this deadly corona virus.

As the saying goes “Prevention is better than cure” The best way to protect ourselves from this deadly disease is to be well-informed about the virus and maintain hygienic environment around us. Putting on a mask properly and sanitizing our hands frequently can help us a lot in making a long distance from this disease. Besides, we should avoid visiting crowded places uselessly like malls, theaters, and parks etc. where there is more risk of getting contacted with other people and maintain proper distance of at least 2 meters from the people while talking to them.

Our safety lies in our own hands. In case of urgency and emergency, we must contact a specialized doctor and act on his/her advice without being doctors ourselves.

i) What does the phrase ‘Talk of the Town’ mean in the first line? A. A thing being discussed by few persons in the town B. A thing being discussed by many persons in the town C. A thing being discussed by no one in the town D. None of these

Answer: A thing being discussed by many persons in the town

ii) What is pandemic? A. A widespread epidemic B. Panacea C. Vaccine D. None of these

Answer: A widespread epidemic

iii) Find out the synonym of the word ‘Unaccustomed’ from the following? A. Unusual B. Familiar C. Used to D. None of these

Answer: Unusual

iv) What should one do to stay away from Corona Virus? A. Wash one’s hands frequently B. Put on a mask properly C. Sanitize our hands regularly D. All of these

32. Answer the following questions on the based of the heading (Article) given below.

The number of crime cases has been rising day by day in your locality. Write an article on this issue in about 150 words. Do suggest corrective measure to deal with this problem.

i) Which of the following is the perfect heading/title for this article? A. Steep Downfall in Crime B. Steep Rise in Crime C. Ebbing of Crime D. None of these

Answer: Steep Rise in Crime

ii) Which of the following corrective measure must be added in this article? A. Advise not to people to step out of their homes B. Advise people to bear with the criminals C. Advise people to not to be afraid of such goons and confront them by raising their voice D. None of these

Answer: Advise people to not to be afraid of such goons and confront them by raising their voice

iii) This article should be begun with A. A detailed introduction of the writer B. A brief introduction of the problem C. A subtle introduction of the problem D. None of these

Answer: A brief introduction of the problem

iv) How should this article be concluded? A. By advising people to raise their weapons B. By advising people to support the administration C. Bu advising people not to be scare but brave enough to face this problem D. Both B and C

Answer: Both B and C

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Article Writing Class 12 Format, Topics, Examples, Samples

Article Writing Class 12

Writing an article is quite challenging. It involves a high degree of creativity, a wide vocabulary, a thorough knowledge of the subject, and a lot of organizational abilities.

This grammar section explains  English Grammar in a clear and simple way. There are example sentences to show how the language is used. NCERT Solutions for Class 12 English will help you to write better answers in your Class 12 exams. Because the Solutions are solved by subject matter experts. https://ncertmcq.com/article-writing-class-12/

Articles express the personal opinions of the writer. Input for an article/speech may be in the form of verbal/visual input. The output may be descriptive or argumentative.

Article Writing Class 12

Purpose Articles are written:

  • to present information on a variety of themes (describing an event; a person and his life and actions; places; experiences, opinions on topics of social interest; arguments for or against a topic) in a long and sustained piece of writing.
  • to pass on such information in a wide range of contexts (magazine, school, newspaper, etc.).

Content An article should contain

  • a title that is eye-catching and that summarizes the theme.
  • content that is clear, accurate and offers a balanced view of issues.
  • paragraphs that
  • introduce the theme,
  • bring out the cause-effect relationship and
  • conclusion, suggestions, personal observations, predictions.
  • original ideas.
  • logical arrangement of ideas.

♦ Sample Articles

Article Writing Class 12 Isc Question 1. By 2050, India will be amongst the countries which will face acute water shortage. You are highly alarmed and terrified of the future world without water. To write an article on ‘Save Water – Are we doing enough?’ for the local daily in 150-200 words. (10 marks) [CBSE Sample Paper 2019] Answer:

Save Water-Are we doing enough? By XYZ

‘Water -the elixir of life’. When people have ample facilities, they don’t care but when they are short of it then only, they realise how important it is to them. As water scarcity is all around in the metro cities, the situation is alarming. The man’s body is 70% water. Water is probably the most important resource on earth. Water is essential for life, i.e., plant life, animal life as well as human life. It is also needed for many human activities, such as cooking and washing.

What would the future be without water? Are we doing enough to save it? Perhaps not. Human callousness towards the misuse of water is taking him to a dungeon of its scarcity. The acute shortage of water is going to affect adversely on all. People throw garbage in the Yamuna. Water pollution is on the rise. The day is not so far away when it will prove right, ‘Water water everywhere, not a drop to drink’.

The need of the hour is to use it judiciously. People should use it moderately. One should use used water for plants. Everyone should stop washing cars with running water. A pledge should be taken to conserve this universal solvent. The motto of ‘Save Water – Save Life’ should be understood. The wholehearted efforts must be put it to save it.

Let us live, let her live, and let us help her live with pride courage, and freedom.

Article Writing Format Isc Class 12 Question 2. Our performance in Rio Olympics has told us that we do not pay enough attention to athletics and outdoor games. It is time we revise our attitude. Sports should be an important part of the school’s daily routine. Write an article in 150-200 words in the ‘Importance of Outdoor Games’. You are Sreeja/Thomas. (10 marks) [CBSE Paper 2018] Answer:

Importance of Outdoor Games By Thomas

The impact of computerisation is severely affecting the youth today. Sports and games that were only outdoor have now become primarily virtual, and boys and girls are literally glued to the screens of their monitor sets playing computer games.

What is however worrying is the poor performance of our athletes, swimmers, footballers, bikers, car racers or basketball players to name a few. Outdoor games are very much neglected at home and given little importance in most school curriculums. Physical exercises through sports and games not only tone and maintain our bodies but relax our mind too thus, warding off several diseases at an early age and on the contrary, increases the resistance to innumerable ailments.

The body of a young person not only remains flexible but acquires toughness that keeps his comfortable even at old age too. Even the septuagenarians abroad play badminton, table tennis, or trek to maintain their health. Local clubs, state and national level coaching camps need to create better ambiance, give encouragement, and pool in government commitments to discover and nurture sports, talents to improve our performance in the international arena for sports.

Two silver and bronze medals in the Rio Olympics bring our heads down in shame. Is this the outcome of years of training to lakhs of players from a country with about 1.2 billion population? Does it mean that real talents are either not interested or yet to be discovered or lost indoors in the virtual world of computers?

Article Writing Isc Class 12 Question 3. Every teenager has a dream to achieve something in life. What they are going to become tomorrow depends on what our youth dream of today. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘What I want to be in life’. You are Simranjit/Smita. (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2017] Answer:

What I Want in Life By Simranjit

Ever since I was a child, I minutely observed my father, who was in the Indian Police Service. I decided that one day, I would be like him; as idealistic and ethical as any human can be.

The youth around have dreams that I guess are dependent on their exposures and experiences. I have been not only drilled with discipline, honesty, transparency, diligence, and academic regularity but had grown up with exemplaries in my ambiance of such virtues of life. Time is changing and I know that compatibility and compromise are the order of the day. However, I have a holistic scheme to develop on the atmosphere created by my role model father.

Regularity is what I adhere to, but simultaneously efficient time management helps me to cultivate my hobbies of playing badminton, swimming, reading, writing, travelling, slum literacy, and martial arts. Policing has a wider range of functions and I enjoy being an indirect participant in the community. Policing with some of my father’s colleagues, whereby not only do I get to meet the demarcated class of people who are mentored to be re-introduced to the mainstream of the society but I have an opportunity to practically know how situations make criminals and nobody is a born one.

I know fulfilling my wishes and materialising my dream to be born as IPS of the highest order will have paths laid with horns, hot coals, and incredible impediments, but the love for my father and this nation should be the foremost incentive to make my dream come true.

Article Writing Isc Question 4. Teenagers are full of energy as well as ideas. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘How to Channelise the Energy of the Teenagers’. You are Tejinder/Simran. You may use the following clues:

Teenagers curious-full of questions-question elders-sometimes even wrongly- generation gap-may go astray-effect on society-how to channelise-productive hobbies-social work-sports-part-time, etc. (10 marks) [CBSE (F) 2017] Answer:

How to Channelise the Energy of the Teenagers By Tejinder

The students in their teenage or early adulthood are full of physical and emotional energy. Unless this energy is rightly channelised to positive avenues, it is possible that they use it negatively because they cannot stop themselves.

Teenagers are curious to know more. This is the age when they develop their outlook towards the world. They are full of questions about the world around them and about themselves. These young adults question their elders, sometimes even wrongly, and try to make their own decisions. This creates a generation gap. The influence of cinema and media promotes rash behaviour as heroic. If at this time, their energy is not channelized in a positive direction, they may go astray and can affect society negatively.

In channelising a teenager’s energy, the parents and the mentor in schools play the most important roles. Parents should inculcate and educate their children about the right and wrong things. They should teach them their culture and stories of courage and good manners, engage the students in positive and social activities apart from academics. The students who have underutilized time end up using it in unwanted activities. Encourage them to take part in productive hobbies, social work, part-time jobs, and sports of their interest. Art, culture, and literature are also avenues for using youth energy.

The most important of all, educational institutions should be a place where they have the freedom to express, develop confidence and skills, and that develop good behaviour and discipline. Every teacher should become a personality development trainer. The dynamic energy of the youth needs to be channelised positively and not politically or by media.

Article Writing Class 12 Up Board Question 5. You are Vignesh/ Viharika. Of late, there has been an increase in the number of suicide cases among students because of the increased workload. You are deeply disturbed and decide to write an article for the ‘The Hindu’. Write the article in 150-200 words. (10 marks) Answer:

Student Suicides on a Rise By Vignesh

It is common these days for youngsters to come up with expressions like very little leisure time. I believe there are two main causes of this situation. The first is parental pressure and the second is competition for university places.

The parents want to see their children do well in school and have a successful career. This makes them exert pressure on their children to spend hours each day studying. Some even arrange extra tuition for their children. As a consequence, their leisure time is extremely limited and the pressure on them is considerable.

The second cause is related to the higher education system. Due to less number of seats at the university level, only those students with very good grades manage to obtain a place. This contributes to the pressure on teenagers since they must work long hours to have any chance of success.

One solution to the problem is to create awareness among parents. Schools should inform parents that too much pressure can lead to anxiety, stress and depression. They should be shown ways in which they can help their children lead more balanced lives with a reasonable amount of leisure time.

Another effective measure would be for the government to invest in the creation of more university places. This could he done by expanding existing universities or by building new ones. This would reduce the competition for places giving teenagers some of their precious free time back.

Article Writing Format Isc Question 6. You are an active member of the Animals Lovers’ Club of your school which works for preventing cruelty to animals. Write an article in 150-200 words for your school magazine emphasising the need to co-exist peacefully with animals. You are Zaheeda/ Zahir of P.K. Senior Secondary School, Hyderabad. (10 marks) [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] Answer:

Stop Cruelty Towards Animals By Zaheeda

Every day in India animals are beaten, neglected, or forced to struggle for survival. Left in unsanitary conditions with no food or water, they have little hope as they live out their days without the compassion they deserve. Some are found and rescued, given the chance to experience how great life and humans can be; others aren’t so lucky. To grow as a nation, we must fight for these abused animals’ rights and severely punish heartless owners.

It is up to us to speak for these creatures who lack a voice. Who will if we don’t? It is important that stringent laws are made to protect all animals. Large fines and lengthy prison time should be levied. Seasoned abusers should not be allowed to own animals. Along with these laws, we need officials who will strongly enforce them. Police and psychologists, both need to work in tandem to understand the link between animal cruelty and violence against people. To better protect communities, work should be done to increase public awareness of these crimes.

It’s not only up to the legal system to ensure that communities across the country are aware and educated about animal cruelty. There are plenty of things that citizens can do everyday. The simplest action is for people to take care of their own pets and learn the facts, so they can educate others on proper animal care. Another easy way to help is by donating to or volunteering at a local animal shelter. By writing letters, you can remind your local lawmakers that animal abuse is a real problem that needs to be addressed.

It is our job to be the voice for creatures who cannot speak up for themselves. As a nation, we need to make it our priority to come together and ensure the safety of our beloved pets.

Article Writing Class 12 Pdf Question 7. Over the past few years there has been a constant rise in coaching institutes and private tuition centres all over India. Write an article in about 150-200 words highlighting the exploitation of young minds that seek sincere counselling and proper direction. You are Gurpreet, a student of Class XII of Indira Public School, Jamshedpur. (10 marks) [CBSE Sample Paper 2015] Answer:

Coaching Institutes – The Real Purpose By Gurpreet

The recent trend of joining a coaching institute to get good marks has led to the mushrooming of coaching institutes and private tuition centres all over India. The real purpose of coaching institutes was to provide help by providing students proper guidance. Of late, however, the purpose has become exploitation of young minds.

Some may say that it is a tall claim. Others might still say that we cannot blame the whole §et because of some money-minded people. Being a victim of this rigmarole of coaching and tuitions, I can say from my experience that things are not the same. Parents and children diligently, visit various coaching institutes, in order to choose the best. The counsellors at the institute aim to fill their centres with the cream, so that their results are not compromised. In case a weak student comes for coaching, they sincerely offer a crash course knowing fully well that the needs of the student are different.

All this because if the student (without any doubt in this particular case) does not get through any entrance exam or does not get good marks, one can always say that they did only a crash course. Such exploitation of the students and their parents needs to be regulated by the Education Department. Parents should be made aware of the various courses at the coaching institute. The most important thing would be to believe in their wards and understand that just like earlier days, children can still do well without any extra help from coaching centres. True, some students might need such help, but it should not be done to blindly follow a trend.

Article Topics For Class 12 Question 8. Ragging has raised its ugly head again. A recent incident at a prestigious school has shown that this evil has not yet come to an end. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘Ragging, an Evil’. You are Navtej/Navita. (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2015]

  • a practice from the British era
  • original aim, respect for hierarchy
  • enforcing traditions, discipline
  • prefect – a teacher substitute
  • misuse of authority
  • vulgar aspect

Ragging, An Evil By Navtej

Ragging is a social evil which has spread to the educational institutions. It has to be eradicated with a heavy hand, so that lives of innocent students who fell victims to these evils, can be saved. Initially, ragging started in British era with the excuse that it was to teach the social hierarchy in early career, and also learn other important values in life. Ragging has let down humanity on innumerable occasions. It is also a pity that the practice has been going on for decades and the victims of last year become the perpetrators this year. In the name of the ‘Tradition’, this course is on and the authorities keep mum on the happenings in their institutions. Under the pretext of fun, a poor student is often assaulted, sometimes even stripped and intimidated by his seniors. The chilling incident continues to haunt him throughout his life, and he unknowingly develops various psychological disorders.

After experiencing the evil of ragging, a student develops a feeling of revenge for his ‘unjustified harassment’ and derives pleasure in ragging his juniors. So, the trend goes on and students continue to suffer.

Those who surrender before their seniors are set free from the torment after going through a series of inhuman acts, but those who refuse to follow their diktats are subjected to barbaric and brutal treatment and are forced to urinate on high voltage heaters, take part in naked parades, shave off their moustaches and beards, and stand upside down on their heads, etc. The situation sometimes turns so bad that it compels the victim being ragged to commit suicide.

In spite of the strict warning by the Supreme Court for enforcement of these recommendations, some institutions have failed in this regard. Therefore, seeing the gravity of the situation and inhuman aspect associated with it, ragging has been declared a criminal offence. We need stringent laws and punishment for the criminals.

Strict action should be taken against students indulging in ragging. There should be sensitisation on the issues. More activities requiring the collaboration of both seniors and juniors, will also help bridge this gap.

Article Writing Format Class 12 Isc Question 9. India is a tourist’s dream destination. Give your views on the tourism potential of India in an article in 150-200 words. You are Navtej/Navita.

places of worship – religious tourism – foreigners – places of historical interest – the rich – hill stations during summers – the sun-kissed beaches in winters – leisure tourism – medical tourism – world class hospitals (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2015] Answer:

India – A Dream Destination By Navita

From the snow clad mountains in the North to the desert areas of Rajasthan to the beaches of Goa, India is a land of diversity-Diversity of culture, religion, language, food, occupation. Besides this, exquisite monuments and temples together with archaeological finds for the tourists make India a travellers delight. In fact, diversity is synonymous with India. Being the birth place of many religions like Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism, India is also an ideal place for religious tourism. Places like Bodhgaya, Shirdi, and Rishikesh are thriving because of religious tourism.

The other attractions include beautiful beaches, forests and wildlife, and landscapes for ecotourism, snow, river and mountain peaks for adventure tourism, technological parks and science museums for science tourism, centres of pilgrimage for spiritual tourism, heritage trains and hotels for heritage tourism. The Indian handicrafts particularly jewelleries, carpets, leather goods, ivory and brass work are the main shopping items of foreign tourists. A new growth sector is medical tourism. It is currently growing steadily with world class hospitals. Yoga, ayurveda and natural health resorts also attract tourists.

However, the tourism industry in India has been generating very low revenue of late. It would be worthwhile to look at the factors that have led to this untapped potential. The major constraint in the expansion of international tourist traffic to India is non – availability of adequate infrastructure.

Indian tourism has vast potential for generating employment and earning large sums of foreign exchange besides giving a boost to the country’s overall economic and social development. Much has been achieved by way of increasing trains and railway connectivity to important tourist destinations, four-lane roads connecting important tourist centres and increasing availability of accommodation by adding heritage hotels to the hotel industry and encouraging paying guest accommodation. But much more remains to be done, if India is to become a world player in the tourism industry.

Class 12 Article Writing Question 10. In the year to come (if you have not already done this year) you are going to celebrate our 18th birthday. Write an article in 150-200 words on the joys and responsibilities of being eighteen. You are Navtej/Navita. (10 marks) [CBSE Delhi 2015] Answer:

I am Eighteen! By Navtej

Reaching milestones in age (For example, hitting 18, 21, silver jubilee or sweet sixteen) is a great birthday to celebrate! It packs all that magical ‘specialness’ which a normal year doesn’t. Whether it actually brings along that much more in its stride is still a question. For me, becoming 18 was an awesome feeling. I was allowed to vote. That for me was the best part of turning 18. Becoming responsible for your actions is again something I really loved, as it leads to proper personality development and our parents are no longer responsible for us.

It also brings with it a feeling of independence and loads of freedom. They said that age was just a number! I don’t think so! Turning 18 has led to a thousand new duties entrusted upon us. Right to vote, driving, helping parents with their work; the list is endless. It opened up a new domain of responsibilities and made us aware how much our parents deal with. As they say, grass is always greener on the other side. When we were kids, we wanted to be adults but now that we are adults, we want to be kids again! With every age comes lots of experience and learning so just go along with it, live life to the fullest and no matter what your age, don’t forget to be yourself! But remember, being 18 is also about being more responsible, mature, thoughtful and balanced.

Article Class 12 Question 11. Write an article in 150-200 words on how we can make India a carefree and enjoyable place for women when they can go wherever they like to without any fear of being stared at, molested or discriminated against. You are Navtej/Navita. (10 marks) [CBSE Delhi 2015] Answer:

Women safety in india By Navita

Women in India, today, are becoming the most vulnerable section as far as their safety and security is concerned. When we turn the pages of a newspaper, we come across many headlines reporting cases of molestation, harassment, trafficking, ill treatment of women in houses, violence against women in remote areas, etc. Women feel unsafe and unsecure and feel that their freedom and liberty are jeopardised. It is unbearable to imagine the plight of women who are sufferers of such crimes. It is a jolt on the confidence of the women, of society and on our judicial system.

We generally play the blame game for any such incidence and hence, have not succeeded to reach the root cause of this issue. An effective implementation of laws protecting women’s rights is the first step in this direction. There should be stringent laws and the perpetrators of such crimes should be severely punished. We also need to create social awareness about these issues and ostracise those who commit such crimes and not the victims. Better surveillance by law enforcing authorities is also required. The last but the most effective would be to compulsorily teach self-defence techniques to girls and women in schools, colleges, offices and residential colonies. Only when these measures are taken, India can become a carefree and enjoyable place for women.

Isc Article Writing Format Question 12. Emotionally as well as intellectually, a woman is as good as a man if not better. Yet we don’t allow her the same status as a man enjoys in society. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘Status of Women in Society’. You are Navtej/Navita. (10 marks) [CBSE Delhi 2015] Answer:

Status of Women in Society By Navtej

The worth of a civilisation can be judged by the place given to women in the society. One of the several factors that justify the greatness of India’s ancient culture is the honourable place granted to women. However, the status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millenniums. From equal status with men in ancient times through the low points of the medieval period, to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of women in India has been eventful. In modern India, women have adorned high offices in India including that of the President, Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha and Leader of the Opposition.

However, women in India generally are still exposed to numerous social issues. Though emotionally as well as intellectually a woman is as good as a man, they are not allowed the same status as a man in the Indian society. Even when women are working, they are not given equal pay for equal work at certain places. To add to all these woes, they are stared at, ill-treated and discriminated against at home, at workplace and in the society.

We need to promote education and skill development for women. They should be given priority in jobs. We also need more women-friendly laws. Though we celebrate Women’s Day on March 8, what we need in reality is to understand the real contribution that women make to the society. It is not just about celebrating one day. In fact it is about understanding and thanking all the women in our lives. We need to understand the small sacrifices that they make every day, so that we can have a better tomorrow.

Topics For Article Writing Class 12 Question 13. When children watch TV, the adults generally scold them without realising that some programmes on TV can be educative too. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘TV as a tool of instruction’. You are Navtej/Navita. (10 marks) [CBSE Delhi 2016] Answer:

Tv as a Tool of Instruction By Navita

Since the invention of TV, there have been contrasting views on its usability. Many parents believe that watching violence on television makes the children aggressive and violent. Parents also believe that watching too much television is not good for health. Excessive TV watching (more than 3 hours a day) can also contribute to sleep difficulties, behaviour problems, lower grades, and other health issues. Television makes us antisocial, taking the place of family and friends. Many people call it the idiot box and feel that watching TV is just a waste of time and resources. Time which could be spent in doing something important and enriching is lost. Children feel lost without television. They do not have any hobby or creativity left.

But is TV viewing so bad? Are there no educative programmes on TV? Children feel that they are not always wrong and immature. They can also take right decisions. Parents must have faith in their children. Parental discretion is important but not always. Some shows can motivate people who are interested in that field and help them to pursue their dreams. Not only does it keep one entertained and informed, it also expands one’s horizon. Certain channels like Discovery Science and History TV are good and informative. To supplement education with entertainment, children can also watch cartoons, though the proportion needs to be maintained. Sometimes, it can be a family viewing session too. This will in fact bring the family together.

Article Writing Class 12 Topics Question 14. Mid-day meal scheme in the schools introduced by the government serves several purposes. Millions of children from the deprived sections of society get nutritious food leading to good health, are attracted to the schools, kept from going astray and developed into good citizens. The scheme may have some drawbacks too. Write an article in 150-200 words on all aspects of the scheme. You are Navtej/Navita. (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2015] Answer:

Mid-day Meal Scheme By Navita

The renowned ‘midday meal project’ is a famous school meal scheme in the country, India. The scheme began in the year 1960. The main objective of the scheme is to provide day lunch to students during working school days. Some other important aims of this scheme include: protecting students from study-room hunger, improved socialization especially among the students, increasing enrollment as well as attendance, social empowerment; addressing malnutrition, etc. It also prevents children from going astray and develops them into good citizens.

However, there are certain drawbacks to this scheme. Sometimes, due to lack of monitoring and hygiene, children are provided with contaminated food. This is furthered by corruption at all levels. In most places, teachers manage kitchens and are often not dignified in distributing food. A lack of infrastructure in schools and delay in payment by the Government further aggravates the issue. Children are often treated as burden. Only when the government, school authorities and the parents join hands, can this mid-day meal scheme be a true success.

Article Writing Examples Isc Question 15. Morning assembly in the schools gives a cool and calm start to the otherwise hectic schedule of the day. It can be a means of passing important information to the students. What are your views on this significant event of the day? Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘Importance of Morning Assembly’. You are Navtej/Navita. (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2015] Answer:

Importance of Morning Assembly By Navtej

Morning assembly is the most important feature of the school curriculum, where students learn the value of collective prayer and are exposed to the need to inculcate moral and ethical values. The morning assembly helps each child to showcase his or her talent and ensure a robust start of the day. They are also guided to the path of spiritualism through educational talks. Meditation and introspection form an integral feature of the morning assembly. It is a symbol of unity of our school. It helps children to cultivate a sense of belonging towards the school. The assembly is creative canalisation of the innate talent of students and is an integral part of the school activities.

Morning assembly provides a channel to release information related to the school operations, such as the club activities and extra-curricular activities. We can know what is going on in the school every day. It also provides a training platform for both, the students and the teachers to share their ideas about cultures, festivals and current affairs. To conclude, morning assembly plays a major part in the development of a child.

Article Writing Format Cbse Class 12 Question 16. On the occasion of Teachers’ Day, the Honourable PM of India had an interactive Session with students from all over the country through satellite link. Your school also made special arrangements for the students to view the telecast. Write an article in aboutl50-200 words for your school magazine giving details of the talk and its impact on you. You are Akshay/Akshita of Brightland Public School. (10 marks) [CBSE Sample Paper 2016] Answer: On the occasion of Teacher’s Day, the Honourable Prime Minister, Mr Ram Kumar Sharma interacted with students from all over the country through satellite link. Our school made special arrangements for the students to view the telecast in the school auditorium. It was indeed an enthralling experience to see the great dignitary interacting with the students. The importance of teacher’s in shaping our lives was an important part of his talk. Mr Sharma talked about how he was thankful to his teachers for instilling the beliefs that he has today.

He thanked his teachers for helping him fulfil his dreams. Whatever difficulties may come one’s way, one should strive hard to succeed. He gave examples from his childhood about the times when he had to walk 10 kms to reach school. It was difficult but he used to wade through even deep waters during rains, so that he could study. His talk was truly inspiring. We realised how only after one has put in full efforts, one gets complete satisfaction, the sense of achievement. He motivated the students to give their best in the face of difficulties, so that they can be successful in life.

Article For Class 12th Question 17. On the occasion of Earth Day, you participated in various eco-friendly campaigns initiated by your school. Write an article in about 150-200 words for your school magazine giving details of these campaigns and the impact on you. You are Akshay/ Akshita of Brightland Public School. (10 marks) [CBSE Sample Paper 2016] Answer:

Earth Day Celebrations By Akshita

On the occasion of Earth Day, April 22, various eco-friendly campaigns were organised by our school. Many of you might question, why we celebrate Earth Day? It’s because we seem to have forgotten what a beautiful gift we have been given in the form of planet earth. We also seem to have forgotten that this is our home and we need to keep it in order to stay healthy and alive.

Over the centuries, we have ruthlessly used and depleted the earth’s resources. All this has led to severe problems like depletion of the ozone layer, cyclones, flash floods, earthquakes, tsunami, forest fires, global warming, etc. To satisfy our quest for modernisation, heavy amount of deforestation is also taking place. All this has harmed the earth’s environment. The ice at the Polar caps has started to melt due to the rise in earth’s temperature.

All this is bringing the doom’s day nearer. So, days like the Earth Day remind us to be caring and loving to the earth. This Earth Day, our school had a series of enlightening lectures on the theme ‘Save Earth’ by the famous environmentalist Dr Ramakant Mishra. Poster making competition, planting saplings, cleanliness drive in and around the school were also organised.

Special screening of James Cameroon’s movie ‘Avatar’ was also conducted to make the students aware of the importance of saving earth. These programs were thoroughly enjoyed by the students. Many students also pledged to do their share to help the planet. Students were made aware of how little things like switching off lights and fans when not in use, stop using plastic bags, saving fuel by walking small distances, recycling paper can go a long way in saving the earth. Let us pledge to save earth this Earth Day.

Article Writing Format Class 12 Question 18. India is a land of diversity. One way in which it makes us feel proud of it is the number of festivals we enjoy. Write an article in 150-200 words on, ‘Festivals of India’. You are Karuna/Karan. (10 marks) [CBSE Delhi 2016] Answer:

Festivals of India By Karan

India is a land of fairs and festivals. People belonging to different communities and different religions live here, therefore, many festivals are celebrated regularly every year. Among these festivals, some are religious, some are based on seasons while some are of national importance. The commonality being the great enthusiasm in a colourful atmosphere.

Diwali, Dussehra, Raksha Bandhan, Id-ul-Fitr, Id-ul-Zuha, Christmas, Mahavir Jayanti, Guru Nanak Jayanti, Ganesh Chaturthi, etc. are the religious festivals of India. These festivals are celebrated by different communities, but they are celebrated as a whole. We can see festive atmosphere everywhere in India.

Holi, Baisakhi, Basant Panchami, Bihu, Pongal, Onam, etc. are seasonal or harvest festivals. During the harvest festival, the farmers worship the sun, the earth and the cattle as thanks giving for a bounteous harvest.

Then comes our national festivals – The Independence Day, The Republic Day and Gandhi Jayanti. These festivals are celebrated by all communities throughout the country. The Independence Day celebrated on 15th August every year reminds us those numerous freedom fighters that made the Britishers leave the country. Our long-cherished dream of freedom came true. All these days are observed with great national feeling. On The Republic day, a colourful parade starts from Vijay Chowk which ends at the Red Fort.

The festivals make our life colourful. People come together to welcome with open arms and forget the narrow differences. Festivals are very important and they must be celebrated with pomp.

Article Writing For Class 12 Question 19. Rising pollution, fast and competitive lifestyle, lack of nutritious food, etc. have caused health woes for a large section of our population. Providing health care used to be a charitable and ethical activity. Today, it has become commercialised, a money spinning business. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘How to provide proper health care to the common man’. You are Karan/Karuna. (10 marks) [CBSE Delhi 2016] Answer:

How to Provide Proper Health Care to the Common Man? By Karan

In the rat-race to earn more and live a better lifestyle, people do not have time to take care of themselves. Exercising, yoga, meditation have become uncommon these days. They have become fancy terms which people only talk about. Rising pollution, fast and competitive lifestyle, lack of nutritious food, etc. have caused health woes for a large section of our population. Providing health care used to be an ethical activity. Today, it has become commercialised. The poor illiterate man who goes to the hospital for some other treatment ends up losing kidney. Such cases of kidney theft in hospitals have become quite common. Doctors refuse to start treatment of people unless payment is done. Can the poor afford?

Many government hospitals are in pathetic conditions. There are hardly any provisions for the sick. The government hospital doctors have made the hospitals a referral point for their private practices. Inclusion of private sector in health care has made the entire situation commercialised. Unnecessary tests and operations are done without any human concern. Proper health care has stopped being affordable even to the middle class, leave alone the poor class.

Though the cost of treatment is lower than the west, it is still \iot affordable to the common man. The government needs to take necessary steps and allocate more funds to the health care in India. Better health care facilities at the Primary health care centres, provision of essential medicines free of cost, strict vigilance on the doctors at the government hospitals, health insurance should be improved and private hospitals should provide health care to the common man at affordable cost. “Prevention is better than cure”. Therefore, proper precaution and care should start at home.

Article For Class 12 Question 20. India is an emerging economy. We are rich in natural resources. Yet a significant proportion of our people are living below poverty line. One cause of this poverty is our rising population. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘How to keep a check on population’. You are Karuna/Karan. (10 marks) [CBSE Delhi 2016] Answer:

How to Keep a Check on Population? By Karima

“We all worry about population explosion but we don’t worry about it at the right time.” With limited resources and an ever increasing population, the developing countries face a lot of problems. As per United Nations population statistics, the world population grew by 30% between 1990 and 2010 which is an alarmingly high rate. There are many ways of keeping a check on our population. Out of the many, the most important is women empowerment; it should be up to women if they want to have a child or not. They shouldn’t be forced to give birth to a child just for the continuity of a family name.

Secondly, as education is the most powerful tool, the society needs to be made aware of the current situations and be educated enough that they break the stereotypes. With a powerful legislation and making sure that the laws and policies get implemented, population can be controlled more effectively. A proper family planning can also help to curb the menace. All of these measures are just a few of the many. It is the need of the hour to control the population in order to handle the problem of scarcity of resources and for a steady economic development.

Question 21. Women feel unsafe on the road, at their place of work and even at home. There is an urgent need to change the male mindset in its attitude towards women. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘How to make women feel safe’. You are Karan/Karuna. (10 marks) [CBSE Delhi 2016] Answer:

How to Make Women Feel Safe? By Karuna

The status of women in India has been subject to great changes over the past few millennia. Today, Indian women are found working in all fields like aeronautics, space, politics, banks, schools, sports, businesses, army, police, and many more.

However in the recent years, we have seen a lot of changes. On the one hand, we find female figurines being worshipped in our temples, on the other hand, we hear about the manifold increase in crime against women. Molestation, dowry deaths, rape, murder have all become everyday news now. With the rising number of rape cases in the country, more and more women have fear regarding their safety. Women are harassed everywhere at all times.

Perpetrator of such crimes have been found to have a stereotypical male mindset, that the job of a woman is only to beget children. It has been found that crimes against women are rising due to the lack of gender-friendly environment and improper functional infrastructure, such as consumption of alcohol and drugs in open area, lack of adequate lighting, safe public toilets, sidewalks, lack of effective police service, lack of properly working helpline numbers, etc. There is an urgent need to understand and solve this problem of women safety, so that women feel equally safe in their own country. The police need to be more pro-active.

Counselling at home and in the schools is required to ensure gender equality. It is important that women are made aware of their rights, for example, cyber-crime against women is also punishable. To feel safe, it is important that women/girls are motivated to join self-defense classes, so that she can fight for herself. Let us all work together to make this world a better and safer place to live in.

Question 22. According to 2011 census, literacy rate of hundred per cent or around has been achieved by only a couple of states in India. Illiteracy is found mostly among the old and the deprived sections of society. What can the youth do to spread literacy in society? Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘Role of students in eradicating illiteracy’. You are Karuna/Karan. (10 marks) [CfiSE Delhi 2016] Answer:

Role of Students in Eradicating Illiteracy By Karan

Literacy is a key element in the progress of any nation. In its absence, people often become helpless. It also hinders their development. Though the literacy rate in India has grown over a period of time, literacy is still below average in the country. Despite many government programmes, India’s literacy does not show any improvement. Illiteracy is found mostly among the old and the deprived sections of society. Though some states in India have achieved 100% literacy, the real purpose is yet to be achieved. Students in particular can do a lot in this regard. The youth can help the rural people in many ways, by spreading education among them, by developing adult education programmes and by removing ignorance from their life.

Education creates awareness. Various street plays can be staged to make people aware of the benefits of education. Being a part of programmes like ‘Each one Teach one’ will also help the cause. During summer vacation, students can set up various camps to teach people. If students pledge to eradicate illiteracy from the country and work towards achieving that goal, surely our country will also become a nation of literates soon.

Question 23. Increase in the number of private vehicles has caused problems like rising air pollution, traffic jams, lack of parking space, road rage, etc. The solution lies in the use of public transport. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘The Importance of Public Transport’. You are Karan/Karuna. (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2016] Answer:

The Importance of Public Transport By Karuna

Nowadays with the arrival of low end private vehicles in the market, we find people preferring private vehicles over public transport. This increase in the number of private vehicles has led to rising levels of congestion and air pollution. Increasing number of road accidents, incidents of road rage in most of the world cities can be attributed directly to the rapidly increasing number of private vehicles in use. The increasing number of private vehicles contribute to greenhouse gases, further leading to global warming. In order to reverse this decline in the quality of life in cities, attempts must be made to encourage people to use public transport more. There are many benefits of using public transport.

Firstly, it is affordable and accessible any day, and at most times to the public, unlike private transport where the responsibility of maintaining and financing the vehicle falls on the shoulders of the owner. The increasing cost of fuel further gives a reason for use of public transport. Private vehicle owners need to check the road-worthiness of the vehicle and ensure that the vehicle is taxed and insured.

Secondly, public transport is a means of relieving traffic congestions since a greater number of passengers can be accommodated in it. Less number of vehicles means less fuel consumption, thereby saving fuel. Reducing the number of vehicles on the road has the effect of reducing the Amount of air pollution in the environment, reducing global warming. This will lead to better health of individuals. Furthermore, in this fast paced life where people do not have time to interact with others, public transport gives an opportunity not only to relax but also to interact with other people. Therefore, public transport is very important and should be advocated.

Question 24. In certain states of India there is a great imbalance in the male female ratio. This is the result of special treatment given to boys in the family. Why is it so? How can we change this mindset? Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘Gender Discrimination in Society’. You are Karuna/Karan. (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2016] Answer:

Gender Discrimination in Society By Karan

India is a male dominant society. Men enjoy certain privileges over women. Birth of a boy is celebrated, whereas girl’s birth is considered as a curse. It is pity that in a country where women are said to be worshipped, there is widespread discrimination. Even before they are born, injustice is meted out to them in this male chauvinistic world in varying degrees. Certain brutal practices like female foeticide throw light on our attitude. The girl child is considered a liability and doesn’t enjoy the privileges of a boy. She is denied the advantages of proper education. The dowry system haunts parents and the harassment she is subjected to at the in-laws often force her to commit suicide.

Even in enlightened homes, women have to live their life under surveillance, if not in strict ‘purdah’. Working women are physically and verbally abused, denied opportunities of growth and subjected to discrimination.

Social evils like dowry system, honour killing, human trafficking, societal dogmas, etc., take a toll on women. Only education and economic independence can empower women. Proper law making and execution, spreading awareness, exemplary punishment for the predators etc., surely will bring positive changes. Women need to be empowered instead of treating them as a helpless victim of male chauvinism. Let us live, let her live and let us help her live in better developed society.

Question 25. For admission to colleges, there is a lot of competition today. For one available seat, there are hundreds of candidates. Such a situation leads to stress on the minds of students in the schools. However, the practice of Yoga can help them feel calm and stress-free. Write an article in 150-200 words on the topic, ‘Importance of Yoga to Students’. You are Karan/Karuna. (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2016] Answer:

Importance of Yoga to Students By Karan

Yoga is a holistic method of fitness that aims at balancing the body through various poses and meditative techniques. It aims at all-round health and improves all systems of the body. It is suitable for any age group.

Yoga can have great importance for students. Students these days have to face stiff competition. To reach the number-one spot has become a priority for everyone. There is a mad rush among hundreds of candidates to get that one available seat in college. All this creates stress among students. This is where yoga helps. The practice of yoga can help them feel calm and stress-free. The benefits of yoga for students can be manifold. Yoga makes students flexible, helping them remain fit. Some particular asanas like surya namaskars increase the blood flow to the brain, helping the brain to function better.

Regularly practising yoga also helps students to concentrate better and train the body to do things unconsciously. Breathing exercises in yoga or pranayama are also very helpful to students. They help in removing stress and tension from their minds and reducing behavioural problems. It keeps their mind healthy and decreases physical ailments. Yoga also helps in reducing depression, a by-product of stress. It calms mind and helps students concentrate better.

Meditation skills also help students focus on important things. Seeing the benefits of yoga, the United Nations has declared 21 June as the International Day of Yoga and it is celebrated worldwide since the year 2015. So with these umpteen benefits rolled into one, let us make yoga a part of our life.

Question 26. Education has always been a noble profession. Our ancestors received their learning at gurukuls and ashrams. Even in the near past, pathshalas (schools) were associated with places of worship. Today, education is fast becoming commercialised. Parents halve to shell out a lot of money on coaching classes, tuition fees, etc. Write an article in 150-200 words on ‘The State of Education Today’. You are Karan/Karuna. (10 marks) [CBSE (AI) 2016] Answer:

The State of Education Today By Karan

Education is a means of acquiring knowledge, skills, values and beliefs. It enables people to know the real world. It enlightens them and helps in bringing out the individuality. Education helps people in forming perspectives. Having said all this, education in India is in a deplorable state today. It has become a source of producing large number of unemployed graduates. Though there has been a spurt of various colleges, the quality of education is questionable. It has become more of a money generating enterprise. The students who come out of these educational institutes these days lack the basic communication and problem-solving skills.

Education has become just a degree. It has become commercialised. This is evident from the flourishing coaching centres and tutorials. To add to the woes, the education system is all about rote-learning and curbs creativity and originality. The real purpose of education is lost. Education has become marks-oriented without any actual learning happening on the part of the students. There is a mindless rat race to get good marks, but it is not done with understanding of the subject, it is highly focused on marks.

To aid to this state, there is a poor student- teacher ratio in schools. For 60 students, there will be only one teacher. How can a single teacher focus on all the students at the same time? The need of the hour is to redefine the purpose of education-it should not be making of endless number of puppets, who have lost their individuality and their power to think; rather it should be to make strong individuals. After all, these children are our future, the future of our nation.

Test: Article Writing - Class 12 MCQ

15 questions mcq test - test: article writing, what is the purpose of an article.

To express an opinion

To report the news

To provide information

All of the above

An article is a piece of writing that provides information on a particular topic. While an article may express an opinion or report news, its primary purpose is to provide information.

heading of an article should be mcq

What is the structure of an article?

Introduction, body, conclusion

Thesis statement, supporting paragraphs, conclusion

Headline, lead, body, conclusion

None of the above

An article typically begins with a headline, followed by a lead or introduction, the body of the article, and a conclusion.

What is the purpose of the lead in an article?

To provide a summary of the article

To grab the reader's attention

To introduce the author's opinion

The lead in an article is designed to grab the reader's attention and draw them into the article.

Which of the following is an appropriate way to begin an article?

"I believe that"

"In today's world"

"According to recent studies"

An article should begin by introducing the topic and providing context, such as by citing recent studies or other relevant information.

Which of the following is an appropriate way to end an article?

"That's all for now"

"Thanks for reading"

"In conclusion"

An article should conclude by summarizing the main points and providing a final thought, such as by using the phrase "in conclusion."

Which of the following is an appropriate tone for an article?

Casual and conversational

Formal and academic

Emotional and dramatic

An article should be written in a formal and academic tone, as it is designed to provide information rather than to entertain or persuade.

What is the purpose of the body of an article?

To provide background information

To present the author's opinion

To provide details and examples

The body of an article should provide details and examples that support the main points introduced in the lead.

Which of the following is an appropriate way to cite sources in an article?

"Some people say"

"According to a friend of mine"

"According to a recent study by Smith et al. (2019)"

When citing sources in an article, it is important to use credible sources and to provide proper citations.

Which of the following is an appropriate way to uWhat is the purpose of the headline in an article?

None of the abovese quotes in an article?

The headline in an article should be attention-grabbing and provide a preview of the content to follow.

What is the purpose of subheadings in an article?

To break up the text and make it easier to read

Subheadings can be used in an article to break up the text and make it easier to read. They can also help to organize the content and provide a preview of what is to come.

Which of the following is an appropriate length for an article?

There is no set length for an article

Articles can vary in length depending on the topic and the purpose of the article.

Which of the following is an appropriate format for an article?

Double-spaced with wide margins

Single-spaced with narrow margins

Formatted like a business letter

An article should be formatted with single spacing and narrow margins to make it easier to read and to fit more content on each page.

Which of the following is an appropriate way to use images in an article?

To break up the text and make it more visually appealing

To provide evidence or support for a point

To make the article more entertaining

Images can be used in an article to break up the text and make it more visually appealing. They can also help to illustrate key points and provide additional information.

Which of the following is an appropriate way to revise an article?

Check for spelling and grammar errors

Edit for clarity and coherence

Make sure the article is well-organized

When revising an article, it is important to check for spelling and grammar errors, edit for clarity and coherence, and make sure the article is well-organized.

Which of the following is an appropriate way to promote an article?

Share it on social media

Submit it to article directories

Include a link to the article in your email signature

When promoting an article, it is important to share it on social media, submit it to article directories, and include a link to the article in your email signature.

heading of an article should be mcq

Important Questions for Article Writing

Article writing mcqs with answers, online tests for article writing, welcome back, create you account for free.

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Research guidance, Research Journals, Top Universities

Understanding Research & Publication Ethics through MCQ

Research and Publication Ethics : In this blog post (MCQ on Research & Publication Ethics), you will understand Research ethics through various MCQs.

Topics Covered : Literature Review, Review Paper Writing, Writing a Research article, etc;

MCQs on Research & Publication Ethics

1. In the Literature review, systematic reorganization and reshuffling of the information to develop knowledge/ reasoning/ problem definition is referred to as-

 Synthesizing

 Summarizing

 Both 1 and 2

 None of these

2. Rationale of the study is

 Logic leading to methodology

 Logic leading to aim and objectives

 Logic behind Introduction

 All the above

3. Literature review for which body of knowledge is collected from the supervisor is –

 Literature Survey

 Experience survey

 Objective survey

 Both 2 and 1

4. A literature review is ………… of research.

  Foundation

 Last step

 a formality

 Both 2 and 3

5. Doing literature review from broader topic to a focal point is the-

 Literature search

 Convergent search

 Objective search

 Both b and c

6. Objectives of a study must be –

 Specific & Measurable

 Relevant & Time-bound

 1 & 2 both

 Easy to do

7. Literature review/survey is a –

 Continuous process

 Initial stage process

 Offline process

 All of the above

8. Curly bracket {} will search for the –

 Specific phrases

 Fussy phrases

 Both a and b

9. Systematic and organized compilation and critical study of a related body of knowledge is called

 Literature review

 Data analysis

 Statistical analysis

 Result & Discussion

10. Boolean search does not include-

11. SHODHGANGOTRI is the databases of-

 Thesis

  Synopsis

12. PUBMED is maintained in the US by the

  NCBI

13. SHODHGANGA is the database of –

  Thesis

 Synopsis

14. INFLIBNET is –

 Informatics and Library Network Centre

 Library and Information Network Centre

 Information and Library Network Centre

15. Which does not cover the social sciences database

 Scopus

  Pubmed

 Web of Science

16. The free national repository of Indian synopsis database is/are

 Shodhshudhi

 Shodhganga

 Eshodhsindhu

 None of the above

17. Literature management tool/(s)-

 Mendeley

 Endnote

 b & c both

18. DOAR stands for –

 Directory of open access repository

 Dictionary of open access repository

 Development of analytical report

 Development of access report

19. Which is a huge subscription-based scientific citation indexing service

 Shodganga

 Shodgangotri

20. Endnote supports importing in

 BiBtex

 EndNote

 a & b both

Research & Publication Ethics MCQs on Review Paper

21. Outline of the review paper

 drawn in the planning stage in consultation with mentor and research team

 should be tight and focussed

 unique summarising and synthesizing of idea

22. The review paper is different from the literature review in

 size, shape, and approach

 size only

 shape only

 size and shape

23. Systematic reviews are common in

 social sciences

 sciences

 life sciences

 sciences and life sciences

24. The section of the article which must not have subheadings

 methods

 introduction

 discussion

25. Writing review paper should be started

 in the early stage of planning your research topic

 in the later stage of planning of your research topic

 in the final stage of execution of your research work

 a & c both

26. The first rule of writing a body of the paper is

 include many references

 stick to your outline

 use effective English

27. In the conclusion section

 no separate headings are used

 the objective of the paper is restated

 the expected outcome may be included

28. Review papers are written for

 giving a new direction to existing research

 increasing the h index of author/researcher

 wide readership

29. Abstract is

 same as your Ph.D. research synopsis

 a comprehensive research summary with good length

 crisp, short, and representative summary of research work

30. Review paper writing is associated with a paradox

 Intensive task but not much recognition as compared to research papers

 Less effort is needed but more recognition as compared to research papers

 No lab work but more readership as compared to research papers

31. Which one of the following should not be acknowledged in an article

 Project grant

 Analytical facility provider

 Gift sample providers

 Senior authors

32. Identify which one of the following is a correct pair

 Acknowledgment – sources of study

 Materials and methods – output of the experiments

 The abstract – central idea

 Discussion – rationality of the work

33. Which is not a good a practice

 to cut the work into smaller pieces of work

 Plan the preliminary promising studies which yielded good and novel results

 Select journals with good indexing or Impact factor

34. IMRaD stands for

 introduction, material /methods, results and discussion

 investigation, methods results and discussion

 investigation, methods, results, analysis discussion

35. Title of the paper should be?

 Simple

 Reader-friendly

 Representative of study

36. Two key features of the Method section are

 short and catchy sentences

 clarity and the reproducibility

 accuracy and precision

37. In the introduction, you should

 give a brief background and brief literature review

 introduce the topic

 identify research gap, define problem & present rationality

38. In the result section

 Do not exaggerate the results

 Do not be afraid of reporting negative results

 Statistical support must be there

39. Infographics

 must be self-explanatory

 must have suitable legends or footnotes

40. The materials and methods section is also known as

 Methods

 Experimental

 Methodology

41. Major factors to be considered in right referencing are

 Quality

 Quantity

 Uniform Styles/ guidelines

 All of these

42. Sources of information that you are giving at the end of your manuscript is termed as

  Reference

 Results

 Discussions

43. When references are listed in alphabetical order stating the last name of the first author like Smith, G. (2008) is –

 APA style

 MLA style

 CMS style

44. Graphical abstract may contain –

 A graph

 A figure

 An image

45. Suggested reviewers should not include-

 Your supervisor

 Field experts

 Both A and B

46. Keywords of a manuscript can be related to the –

 Title

 Content

47. When “neither author nor peer reviewers know about the names of each other” This technique are called as –

 Double-blind

 Single Blind

48. The proofreading step is the final step –

 After acceptance

 Before acceptance

49. One should Discuss the results-

 Critically

 With Logical reasoning

 With general statements

50. The author should address the reviewer’s comments –

 Humbly

 Logically

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how to write hypothesis and predictions

Writing a hypothesis and prediction.

  • A hypothesis is an idea about how something works that can be tested using experiments.
  • A prediction says what will happen in an experiment if the hypothesis is correct.

Why do scientists ask questions?

Show answer Hide answer

To help find things out and solve problems.

Watch this video about how to make a scientific prediction.

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While you are watching, look out for how different types of variables are identified and used to make a prediction

Video Transcript Video Transcript

Presenter 1: We are going to look at the two words "prediction" and "hypothesis". It's important to know the difference between them.

Presenter 2: A hypothesis is an idea about how something works that can be tested using experiments.

Presenter 1: A prediction is a statement of what we think will happen if the hypothesis is correct.

Presenter 2: So you use your hypothesis to make a prediction.

Student 1: I reckon, because there's more oxygen, it'll last longer. So, I'm thinking maybe 40 seconds?

Presenter 1: Here, my hypothesis is that the more air and oxygen candles have, the longer they stay alight.

Presenter 2: So, if my hypothesis is correct, then my prediction is that candles in larger measuring beakers will burn for longer.

Presenter 1: As the volume of air increases, then the time the candle takes to go out also increases. Our graph shows us the pattern in our results.

Presenter 2: The bigger the measuring beaker, the more air and the longer the candle burnt.

Presenter 1: So, we have seen an experiment looking at how long a candle burns under different beakers.

Presenter 2: We have formed a hypothesis and then we have tested it, looking at the difference between the meaning of the word "hypothesis" and the word "prediction".

What's the question?

Science is all about asking questions and then trying to find answers to them. For example:

  • Why are there so many different animals on Earth?
  • Why is the sky blue?
  • Will humans need to live on the moon?

Science can provide answers to some questions, by using observations close Observation Something that can be seen happening. and experiments. Data is collected to help answer these questions.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Ideas from observations are developed into questions. For example, it may be thought that a heavy ball would travel faster down a hill than a lighter one. The question would be: ‘Will a heavy ball travel faster down a hill than a lighter one?’

True or false?

Science can provide answers to all questions.

False. Science can’t solve all problems but can help understand more about them.

Scientific method

Scientists test the ideas that they come up with using a 'scientific method' close scientific method A way of investigating that involves collecting and analysing data to show whether an idea is right or wrong. .

Observations lead to questions and these can be answered using experiments. Then an idea is thought of to help answer the question. This is known as a hypothesis close hypothesis An idea about how something works that can be tested using experiments. .

After this, a prediction close prediction A statement that describes what you expect to happen, according to scientific theory, during an experiment. is made. It says what will happen in an experiment if the hypothesis is right.

A prediction suggests a relationship between an independent variable close independent variable The variable that is changed during an experiment. and a dependent variable close dependent variable The variable that is measured in an experiment. . To ensure that only one variable affects the outcome of the experiment, control variables close control variable A variable which must be kept the same so that the result of the experiment is not affected. must be identified.

The scientific method

The scientific method: Observation, question, hypothesis, prediction, experiment, analysis conclusion.

The scientific method is a useful way of guiding scientists through an investigation. A hypothesis is developed from an idea or question based on an observation . A prediction is then made, an experiment carried out to test this, then the results are analysed and conclusions can be drawn.

A prediction suggests that there is a relationship between which two types of variables?

Independent and dependent variables.

Prediction and hypothesis

A teenager rests their head on a desk, with books and laptop visible.

Below are two examples of a prediction based on a hypothesis:

Identify if the following sentence is a hypothesis or a prediction:'Drinking sugary drinks and eating too many sweets make teeth rot more quickly.'

This is a hypothesis. It is an idea based on an observation. A prediction would be that people who eat and drink too much sugar without cleaning their teeth properly will need more visits to the dentist.

Activity - The apple experiment

Write a hypothesis and prediction for the apple experiment below, and carry it out to see the results.To help, think what can be used to preserve food, and what might make food go off.

  • Carefully cut an apple into four equal pieces.
  • Put each piece in a container (eg a glass tumbler).
  • Cover one piece of apple with vinegar, one with lemon juice, one with salt water and leave one with nothing on.
  • Leave them for about a week in a cool place, and look at the results.

Expected results:

  • Container (vinegar) – the apple will go very brown as vinegar speeds up the oxidation process.
  • Container (lemon juice) – the apple should not go very brown as the lemon juice acts as a preservative.
  • Container (salt water) – the apple should not go very brown as the salt water acts as a preservative.
  • Container (nothing added) – the apple will go a little brown as it reacts with the air.

Test your knowledge

Quiz - writing a hypothesis and prediction, did you know.

dog licking mouth

Nobel Prize winner Ivan Pavlov came up with a hypothesis that a hungry dog could be trained to drool when a bell is rung, before being offered any food. He thought that they would associate the sound of the bell with being fed.

He investigated this by sounding a bell before feeding sessions and observing the dogs.

From the data he concluded that a hungry dog would drool on hearing the bell as they linked the sound with mealtimes. This experiment is known as 'Pavlov's Dogs.'

Working safely in the lab

Find out how to spot risks, hazards and understand hazard symbols

Working safely in the lab

More on Working scientifically

Find out more by working through a topic

Planning an experiment

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how to write hypothesis and predictions

Maths skills for science

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Drawing scientific apparatus

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Observation and measurement skills

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how to write hypothesis and predictions

How to Write a Hypothesis: A Step-by-Step Guide

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Introduction

An overview of the research hypothesis, different types of hypotheses, variables in a hypothesis, how to formulate an effective research hypothesis, designing a study around your hypothesis.

The scientific method can derive and test predictions as hypotheses. Empirical research can then provide support (or lack thereof) for the hypotheses. Even failure to find support for a hypothesis still represents a valuable contribution to scientific knowledge. Let's look more closely at the idea of the hypothesis and the role it plays in research.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

As much as the term exists in everyday language, there is a detailed development that informs the word "hypothesis" when applied to research. A good research hypothesis is informed by prior research and guides research design and data analysis , so it is important to understand how a hypothesis is defined and understood by researchers.

What is the simple definition of a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about an outcome between two or more variables. It functions as a navigational tool in the research process, directing what you aim to predict and how.

What is the hypothesis for in research?

In research, a hypothesis serves as the cornerstone for your empirical study. It not only lays out what you aim to investigate but also provides a structured approach for your data collection and analysis.

Essentially, it bridges the gap between the theoretical and the empirical, guiding your investigation throughout its course.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

What is an example of a hypothesis?

If you are studying the relationship between physical exercise and mental health, a suitable hypothesis could be: "Regular physical exercise leads to improved mental well-being among adults."

This statement constitutes a specific and testable hypothesis that directly relates to the variables you are investigating.

What makes a good hypothesis?

A good hypothesis possesses several key characteristics. Firstly, it must be testable, allowing you to analyze data through empirical means, such as observation or experimentation, to assess if there is significant support for the hypothesis. Secondly, a hypothesis should be specific and unambiguous, giving a clear understanding of the expected relationship between variables. Lastly, it should be grounded in existing research or theoretical frameworks , ensuring its relevance and applicability.

Understanding the types of hypotheses can greatly enhance how you construct and work with hypotheses. While all hypotheses serve the essential function of guiding your study, there are varying purposes among the types of hypotheses. In addition, all hypotheses stand in contrast to the null hypothesis, or the assumption that there is no significant relationship between the variables.

Here, we explore various kinds of hypotheses to provide you with the tools needed to craft effective hypotheses for your specific research needs. Bear in mind that many of these hypothesis types may overlap with one another, and the specific type that is typically used will likely depend on the area of research and methodology you are following.

Null hypothesis

The null hypothesis is a statement that there is no effect or relationship between the variables being studied. In statistical terms, it serves as the default assumption that any observed differences are due to random chance.

For example, if you're studying the effect of a drug on blood pressure, the null hypothesis might state that the drug has no effect.

Alternative hypothesis

Contrary to the null hypothesis, the alternative hypothesis suggests that there is a significant relationship or effect between variables.

Using the drug example, the alternative hypothesis would posit that the drug does indeed affect blood pressure. This is what researchers aim to prove.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Simple hypothesis

A simple hypothesis makes a prediction about the relationship between two variables, and only two variables.

For example, "Increased study time results in better exam scores." Here, "study time" and "exam scores" are the only variables involved.

Complex hypothesis

A complex hypothesis, as the name suggests, involves more than two variables. For instance, "Increased study time and access to resources result in better exam scores." Here, "study time," "access to resources," and "exam scores" are all variables.

This hypothesis refers to multiple potential mediating variables. Other hypotheses could also include predictions about variables that moderate the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable.

Directional hypothesis

A directional hypothesis specifies the direction of the expected relationship between variables. For example, "Eating more fruits and vegetables leads to a decrease in heart disease."

Here, the direction of heart disease is explicitly predicted to decrease, due to effects from eating more fruits and vegetables. All hypotheses typically specify the expected direction of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable, such that researchers can test if this prediction holds in their data analysis .

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Statistical hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is one that is testable through statistical methods, providing a numerical value that can be analyzed. This is commonly seen in quantitative research .

For example, "There is a statistically significant difference in test scores between students who study for one hour and those who study for two."

Empirical hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis is derived from observations and is tested through empirical methods, often through experimentation or survey data . Empirical hypotheses may also be assessed with statistical analyses.

For example, "Regular exercise is correlated with a lower incidence of depression," could be tested through surveys that measure exercise frequency and depression levels.

Causal hypothesis

A causal hypothesis proposes that one variable causes a change in another. This type of hypothesis is often tested through controlled experiments.

For example, "Smoking causes lung cancer," assumes a direct causal relationship.

Associative hypothesis

Unlike causal hypotheses, associative hypotheses suggest a relationship between variables but do not imply causation.

For instance, "People who smoke are more likely to get lung cancer," notes an association but doesn't claim that smoking causes lung cancer directly.

Relational hypothesis

A relational hypothesis explores the relationship between two or more variables but doesn't specify the nature of the relationship.

For example, "There is a relationship between diet and heart health," leaves the nature of the relationship (causal, associative, etc.) open to interpretation.

Logical hypothesis

A logical hypothesis is based on sound reasoning and logical principles. It's often used in theoretical research to explore abstract concepts, rather than being based on empirical data.

For example, "If all men are mortal and Socrates is a man, then Socrates is mortal," employs logical reasoning to make its point.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

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In any research hypothesis, variables play a critical role. These are the elements or factors that the researcher manipulates, controls, or measures. Understanding variables is essential for crafting a clear, testable hypothesis and for the stages of research that follow, such as data collection and analysis.

In the realm of hypotheses, there are generally two types of variables to consider: independent and dependent. Independent variables are what you, as the researcher, manipulate or change in your study. It's considered the cause in the relationship you're investigating. For instance, in a study examining the impact of sleep duration on academic performance, the independent variable would be the amount of sleep participants get.

Conversely, the dependent variable is the outcome you measure to gauge the effect of your manipulation. It's the effect in the cause-and-effect relationship. The dependent variable thus refers to the main outcome of interest in your study. In the same sleep study example, the academic performance, perhaps measured by exam scores or GPA, would be the dependent variable.

Beyond these two primary types, you might also encounter control variables. These are variables that could potentially influence the outcome and are therefore kept constant to isolate the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. For example, in the sleep and academic performance study, control variables could include age, diet, or even the subject of study.

By clearly identifying and understanding the roles of these variables in your hypothesis, you set the stage for a methodologically sound research project. It helps you develop focused research questions, design appropriate experiments or observations, and carry out meaningful data analysis . It's a step that lays the groundwork for the success of your entire study.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Crafting a strong, testable hypothesis is crucial for the success of any research project. It sets the stage for everything from your study design to data collection and analysis . Below are some key considerations to keep in mind when formulating your hypothesis:

  • Be specific : A vague hypothesis can lead to ambiguous results and interpretations . Clearly define your variables and the expected relationship between them.
  • Ensure testability : A good hypothesis should be testable through empirical means, whether by observation , experimentation, or other forms of data analysis.
  • Ground in literature : Before creating your hypothesis, consult existing research and theories. This not only helps you identify gaps in current knowledge but also gives you valuable context and credibility for crafting your hypothesis.
  • Use simple language : While your hypothesis should be conceptually sound, it doesn't have to be complicated. Aim for clarity and simplicity in your wording.
  • State direction, if applicable : If your hypothesis involves a directional outcome (e.g., "increase" or "decrease"), make sure to specify this. You also need to think about how you will measure whether or not the outcome moved in the direction you predicted.
  • Keep it focused : One of the common pitfalls in hypothesis formulation is trying to answer too many questions at once. Keep your hypothesis focused on a specific issue or relationship.
  • Account for control variables : Identify any variables that could potentially impact the outcome and consider how you will control for them in your study.
  • Be ethical : Make sure your hypothesis and the methods for testing it comply with ethical standards , particularly if your research involves human or animal subjects.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Designing your study involves multiple key phases that help ensure the rigor and validity of your research. Here we discuss these crucial components in more detail.

Literature review

Starting with a comprehensive literature review is essential. This step allows you to understand the existing body of knowledge related to your hypothesis and helps you identify gaps that your research could fill. Your research should aim to contribute some novel understanding to existing literature, and your hypotheses can reflect this. A literature review also provides valuable insights into how similar research projects were executed, thereby helping you fine-tune your own approach.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Research methods

Choosing the right research methods is critical. Whether it's a survey, an experiment, or observational study, the methodology should be the most appropriate for testing your hypothesis. Your choice of methods will also depend on whether your research is quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods. Make sure the chosen methods align well with the variables you are studying and the type of data you need.

Preliminary research

Before diving into a full-scale study, it’s often beneficial to conduct preliminary research or a pilot study . This allows you to test your research methods on a smaller scale, refine your tools, and identify any potential issues. For instance, a pilot survey can help you determine if your questions are clear and if the survey effectively captures the data you need. This step can save you both time and resources in the long run.

Data analysis

Finally, planning your data analysis in advance is crucial for a successful study. Decide which statistical or analytical tools are most suited for your data type and research questions . For quantitative research, you might opt for t-tests, ANOVA, or regression analyses. For qualitative research , thematic analysis or grounded theory may be more appropriate. This phase is integral for interpreting your results and drawing meaningful conclusions in relation to your research question.

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  • How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples

Published on 6 May 2022 by Shona McCombes .

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.

Table of contents

What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

Variables in hypotheses

Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables . An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .

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Step 1: ask a question.

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Step 2: Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalise more complex constructs.

Step 3: Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

Step 4: Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:

  • The relevant variables
  • The specific group being studied
  • The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

Step 5: Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if … then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.

Step 6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

A hypothesis is not just a guess. It should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

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What is and How to Write a Good Hypothesis in Research?

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Table of Contents

One of the most important aspects of conducting research is constructing a strong hypothesis. But what makes a hypothesis in research effective? In this article, we’ll look at the difference between a hypothesis and a research question, as well as the elements of a good hypothesis in research. We’ll also include some examples of effective hypotheses, and what pitfalls to avoid.

What is a Hypothesis in Research?

Simply put, a hypothesis is a research question that also includes the predicted or expected result of the research. Without a hypothesis, there can be no basis for a scientific or research experiment. As such, it is critical that you carefully construct your hypothesis by being deliberate and thorough, even before you set pen to paper. Unless your hypothesis is clearly and carefully constructed, any flaw can have an adverse, and even grave, effect on the quality of your experiment and its subsequent results.

Research Question vs Hypothesis

It’s easy to confuse research questions with hypotheses, and vice versa. While they’re both critical to the Scientific Method, they have very specific differences. Primarily, a research question, just like a hypothesis, is focused and concise. But a hypothesis includes a prediction based on the proposed research, and is designed to forecast the relationship of and between two (or more) variables. Research questions are open-ended, and invite debate and discussion, while hypotheses are closed, e.g. “The relationship between A and B will be C.”

A hypothesis is generally used if your research topic is fairly well established, and you are relatively certain about the relationship between the variables that will be presented in your research. Since a hypothesis is ideally suited for experimental studies, it will, by its very existence, affect the design of your experiment. The research question is typically used for new topics that have not yet been researched extensively. Here, the relationship between different variables is less known. There is no prediction made, but there may be variables explored. The research question can be casual in nature, simply trying to understand if a relationship even exists, descriptive or comparative.

How to Write Hypothesis in Research

Writing an effective hypothesis starts before you even begin to type. Like any task, preparation is key, so you start first by conducting research yourself, and reading all you can about the topic that you plan to research. From there, you’ll gain the knowledge you need to understand where your focus within the topic will lie.

Remember that a hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship that exists between two or more variables. Your job is to write a hypothesis, and design the research, to “prove” whether or not your prediction is correct. A common pitfall is to use judgments that are subjective and inappropriate for the construction of a hypothesis. It’s important to keep the focus and language of your hypothesis objective.

An effective hypothesis in research is clearly and concisely written, and any terms or definitions clarified and defined. Specific language must also be used to avoid any generalities or assumptions.

Use the following points as a checklist to evaluate the effectiveness of your research hypothesis:

  • Predicts the relationship and outcome
  • Simple and concise – avoid wordiness
  • Clear with no ambiguity or assumptions about the readers’ knowledge
  • Observable and testable results
  • Relevant and specific to the research question or problem

Research Hypothesis Example

Perhaps the best way to evaluate whether or not your hypothesis is effective is to compare it to those of your colleagues in the field. There is no need to reinvent the wheel when it comes to writing a powerful research hypothesis. As you’re reading and preparing your hypothesis, you’ll also read other hypotheses. These can help guide you on what works, and what doesn’t, when it comes to writing a strong research hypothesis.

Here are a few generic examples to get you started.

Eating an apple each day, after the age of 60, will result in a reduction of frequency of physician visits.

Budget airlines are more likely to receive more customer complaints. A budget airline is defined as an airline that offers lower fares and fewer amenities than a traditional full-service airline. (Note that the term “budget airline” is included in the hypothesis.

Workplaces that offer flexible working hours report higher levels of employee job satisfaction than workplaces with fixed hours.

Each of the above examples are specific, observable and measurable, and the statement of prediction can be verified or shown to be false by utilizing standard experimental practices. It should be noted, however, that often your hypothesis will change as your research progresses.

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How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Format, Examples, and Tips

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

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  • The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis, operational definitions, types of hypotheses, hypotheses examples.

  • Collecting Data

Frequently Asked Questions

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more  variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.

One hypothesis example would be a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance might have a hypothesis that states: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

  • Forming a question
  • Performing background research
  • Creating a hypothesis
  • Designing an experiment
  • Collecting data
  • Analyzing the results
  • Drawing conclusions
  • Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. It is only at this point that researchers begin to develop a testable hypothesis. Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you  expect  to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not  support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

  • Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
  • Can your hypothesis be tested?
  • Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the  journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

  • Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
  • Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
  • Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
  • After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method ,  falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis.   In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that  if  something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in a number of different ways. One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.   By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. How would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

In order to measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming other people. In this situation, the researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness.

Hypothesis Checklist

  • Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
  • Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
  • Can you manipulate the variables?
  • Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

  • Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests that there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
  • Complex hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent variables and a dependent variable.
  • Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
  • Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
  • Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative sample of the population and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
  • Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the  dependent variable  if you change the  independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

  • "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
  • Complex hypothesis: "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."​
  • "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

  • "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
  • "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

  • "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have scores different than students who do not receive the intervention."
  • "There will be no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

  • "Children who receive a new reading intervention will perform better than students who did not receive the intervention."
  • "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children." 

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as  case studies ,  naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when it would be impossible or difficult to  conduct an experiment . These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used to look at how the variables are related. This type of research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods  are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually  cause  another to change.

A Word From Verywell

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Some examples of how to write a hypothesis include:

  • "Staying up late will lead to worse test performance the next day."
  • "People who consume one apple each day will visit the doctor fewer times each year."
  • "Breaking study sessions up into three 20-minute sessions will lead to better test results than a single 60-minute study session."

The four parts of a hypothesis are:

  • The research question
  • The independent variable (IV)
  • The dependent variable (DV)
  • The proposed relationship between the IV and DV

Castillo M. The scientific method: a need for something better? . AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2013;34(9):1669-71. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A3401

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Hypothesis Testing | A Step-by-Step Guide with Easy Examples

Published on November 8, 2019 by Rebecca Bevans . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics . It is most often used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses, that arise from theories.

There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:

  • State your research hypothesis as a null hypothesis and alternate hypothesis (H o ) and (H a  or H 1 ).
  • Collect data in a way designed to test the hypothesis.
  • Perform an appropriate statistical test .
  • Decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.
  • Present the findings in your results and discussion section.

Though the specific details might vary, the procedure you will use when testing a hypothesis will always follow some version of these steps.

Step 1: state your null and alternate hypothesis, step 2: collect data, step 3: perform a statistical test, step 4: decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis, step 5: present your findings, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about hypothesis testing.

After developing your initial research hypothesis (the prediction that you want to investigate), it is important to restate it as a null (H o ) and alternate (H a ) hypothesis so that you can test it mathematically.

The alternate hypothesis is usually your initial hypothesis that predicts a relationship between variables. The null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between the variables you are interested in.

  • H 0 : Men are, on average, not taller than women. H a : Men are, on average, taller than women.

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For a statistical test to be valid , it is important to perform sampling and collect data in a way that is designed to test your hypothesis. If your data are not representative, then you cannot make statistical inferences about the population you are interested in.

There are a variety of statistical tests available, but they are all based on the comparison of within-group variance (how spread out the data is within a category) versus between-group variance (how different the categories are from one another).

If the between-group variance is large enough that there is little or no overlap between groups, then your statistical test will reflect that by showing a low p -value . This means it is unlikely that the differences between these groups came about by chance.

Alternatively, if there is high within-group variance and low between-group variance, then your statistical test will reflect that with a high p -value. This means it is likely that any difference you measure between groups is due to chance.

Your choice of statistical test will be based on the type of variables and the level of measurement of your collected data .

  • an estimate of the difference in average height between the two groups.
  • a p -value showing how likely you are to see this difference if the null hypothesis of no difference is true.

Based on the outcome of your statistical test, you will have to decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.

In most cases you will use the p -value generated by your statistical test to guide your decision. And in most cases, your predetermined level of significance for rejecting the null hypothesis will be 0.05 – that is, when there is a less than 5% chance that you would see these results if the null hypothesis were true.

In some cases, researchers choose a more conservative level of significance, such as 0.01 (1%). This minimizes the risk of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis ( Type I error ).

The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of your research paper , dissertation or thesis .

In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary of the results of your statistical test (for example, the estimated difference between group means and associated p -value). In the discussion , you can discuss whether your initial hypothesis was supported by your results or not.

In the formal language of hypothesis testing, we talk about rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis. You will probably be asked to do this in your statistics assignments.

However, when presenting research results in academic papers we rarely talk this way. Instead, we go back to our alternate hypothesis (in this case, the hypothesis that men are on average taller than women) and state whether the result of our test did or did not support the alternate hypothesis.

If your null hypothesis was rejected, this result is interpreted as “supported the alternate hypothesis.”

These are superficial differences; you can see that they mean the same thing.

You might notice that we don’t say that we reject or fail to reject the alternate hypothesis . This is because hypothesis testing is not designed to prove or disprove anything. It is only designed to test whether a pattern we measure could have arisen spuriously, or by chance.

If we reject the null hypothesis based on our research (i.e., we find that it is unlikely that the pattern arose by chance), then we can say our test lends support to our hypothesis . But if the pattern does not pass our decision rule, meaning that it could have arisen by chance, then we say the test is inconsistent with our hypothesis .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Normal distribution
  • Descriptive statistics
  • Measures of central tendency
  • Correlation coefficient
  • Cluster sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Types of interviews
  • Cohort study
  • Thematic analysis

Research bias

  • Implicit bias
  • Cognitive bias
  • Survivorship bias
  • Availability heuristic
  • Nonresponse bias
  • Regression to the mean

A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing . The null hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or relationship.

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bevans, R. (2023, June 22). Hypothesis Testing | A Step-by-Step Guide with Easy Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved January 5, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/hypothesis-testing/

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Learn How To Write A Hypothesis For Your Next Research Project!

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Undoubtedly, research plays a crucial role in substantiating or refuting our assumptions. These assumptions act as potential answers to our questions. Such assumptions, also known as hypotheses, are considered key aspects of research. In this blog, we delve into the significance of hypotheses. And provide insights on how to write them effectively. So, let’s dive in and explore the art of writing hypotheses together.

What is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a crucial starting point in scientific research. It is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables. In other words, a hypothesis acts as a foundation for a researcher to build their study.

Here are some examples of well-crafted hypotheses:

  • Increased exposure to natural sunlight improves sleep quality in adults.

A positive relationship between natural sunlight exposure and sleep quality in adult individuals.

  • Playing puzzle games on a regular basis enhances problem-solving abilities in children.

Engaging in frequent puzzle gameplay leads to improved problem-solving skills in children.

  • Students and improved learning hecks.

S tudents using online  paper writing service  platforms (as a learning tool for receiving personalized feedback and guidance) will demonstrate improved writing skills. (compared to those who do not utilize such platforms).

  • The use of APA format in research papers. 

Using the  APA format  helps students stay organized when writing research papers. Organized students can focus better on their topics and, as a result, produce better quality work.

The Building Blocks of a Hypothesis

To better understand the concept of a hypothesis, let’s break it down into its basic components:

  • Variables . A hypothesis involves at least two variables. An independent variable and a dependent variable. The independent variable is the one being changed or manipulated, while the dependent variable is the one being measured or observed.
  • Relationship : A hypothesis proposes a relationship or connection between the variables. This could be a cause-and-effect relationship or a correlation between them.
  • Testability : A hypothesis should be testable and falsifiable, meaning it can be proven right or wrong through experimentation or observation.

Types of Hypotheses

When learning how to write a hypothesis, it’s essential to understand its main types. These include; alternative hypotheses and null hypotheses. In the following section, we explore both types of hypotheses with examples. 

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

This kind of hypothesis suggests a relationship or effect between the variables. It is the main focus of the study. The researcher wants to either prove or disprove it. Many research divides this hypothesis into two subsections: 

  • Directional 

This type of H1 predicts a specific outcome. Many researchers use this hypothesis to explore the relationship between variables rather than the groups. 

  • Non-directional

You can take a guess from the name. This type of H1 does not provide a specific prediction for the research outcome. 

Here are some examples for your better understanding of how to write a hypothesis.

  • Consuming caffeine improves cognitive performance.  (This hypothesis predicts that there is a positive relationship between caffeine consumption and cognitive performance.)
  • Aerobic exercise leads to reduced blood pressure.  (This hypothesis suggests that engaging in aerobic exercise results in lower blood pressure readings.)
  • Exposure to nature reduces stress levels among employees.  (Here, the hypothesis proposes that employees exposed to natural environments will experience decreased stress levels.)
  • Listening to classical music while studying increases memory retention.  (This hypothesis speculates that studying with classical music playing in the background boosts students’ ability to retain information.)
  • Early literacy intervention improves reading skills in children.  (This hypothesis claims that providing early literacy assistance to children results in enhanced reading abilities.)
  • Time management in nursing students. ( Students who use a  nursing research paper writing service  have more time to focus on their studies and can achieve better grades in other subjects. )

Null Hypothesis (H0)

A null hypothesis assumes no relationship or effect between the variables. If the alternative hypothesis is proven to be false, the null hypothesis is considered to be true. Usually a null hypothesis shows no direct correlation between the defined variables. 

Here are some of the examples

  • The consumption of herbal tea has no effect on sleep quality.  (This hypothesis assumes that herbal tea consumption does not impact the quality of sleep.)
  • The number of hours spent playing video games is unrelated to academic performance.  (Here, the null hypothesis suggests that no relationship exists between video gameplay duration and academic achievement.)
  • Implementing flexible work schedules has no influence on employee job satisfaction.  (This hypothesis contends that providing flexible schedules does not affect how satisfied employees are with their jobs.)
  • Writing ability of a 7th grader is not affected by reading editorial example. ( There is no relationship between reading an  editorial example  and improving a 7th grader’s writing abilities.) 
  • The type of lighting in a room does not affect people’s mood.  (In this null hypothesis, there is no connection between the kind of lighting in a room and the mood of those present.)
  • The use of social media during break time does not impact productivity at work.  (This hypothesis proposes that social media usage during breaks has no effect on work productivity.)

As you learn how to write a hypothesis, remember that aiming for clarity, testability, and relevance to your research question is vital. By mastering this skill, you’re well on your way to conducting impactful scientific research. Good luck!

Importance of a Hypothesis in Research

A well-structured hypothesis is a vital part of any research project for several reasons:

  • It provides clear direction for the study by setting its focus and purpose.
  • It outlines expectations of the research, making it easier to measure results.
  • It helps identify any potential limitations in the study, allowing researchers to refine their approach.

In conclusion, a hypothesis plays a fundamental role in the research process. By understanding its concept and constructing a well-thought-out hypothesis, researchers lay the groundwork for a successful, scientifically sound investigation.

How to Write a Hypothesis?

Here are five steps that you can follow to write an effective hypothesis. 

Step 1: Identify Your Research Question

The first step in learning how to compose a hypothesis is to clearly define your research question. This question is the central focus of your study and will help you determine the direction of your hypothesis.

Step 2: Determine the Variables

When exploring how to write a hypothesis, it’s crucial to identify the variables involved in your study. You’ll need at least two variables:

  • Independent variable : The factor you manipulate or change in your experiment.
  • Dependent variable : The outcome or result you observe or measure, which is influenced by the independent variable.

Step 3: Build the Hypothetical Relationship

In understanding how to compose a hypothesis, constructing the relationship between the variables is key. Based on your research question and variables, predict the expected outcome or connection. This prediction should be specific, testable, and, if possible, expressed in the “If…then” format.

Step 4: Write the Null Hypothesis

When mastering how to write a hypothesis, it’s important to create a null hypothesis as well. The null hypothesis assumes no relationship or effect between the variables, acting as a counterpoint to your primary hypothesis.

Step 5: Review Your Hypothesis

Finally, when learning how to compose a hypothesis, it’s essential to review your hypothesis for clarity, testability, and relevance to your research question. Make any necessary adjustments to ensure it provides a solid basis for your study.

In conclusion, understanding how to write a hypothesis is crucial for conducting successful scientific research. By focusing on your research question and carefully building relationships between variables, you will lay a strong foundation for advancing research and knowledge in your field.

Hypothesis vs. Prediction: What’s the Difference?

Understanding the differences between a hypothesis and a prediction is crucial in scientific research. Often, these terms are used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings and functions. This segment aims to clarify these differences and explain how to compose a hypothesis correctly, helping you improve the quality of your research projects.

Hypothesis: The Foundation of Your Research

A hypothesis is an educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables. It provides the basis for your research question and is a starting point for an experiment or observational study.

The critical elements for a hypothesis include:

  • Specificity: A clear and concise statement that describes the relationship between variables.
  • Testability: The ability to test the hypothesis through experimentation or observation.

To learn how to write a hypothesis, it’s essential to identify your research question first and then predict the relationship between the variables.

Prediction: The Expected Outcome

A prediction is a statement about a specific outcome you expect to see in your experiment or observational study. It’s derived from the hypothesis and provides a measurable way to test the relationship between variables.

Here’s an example of how to write a hypothesis and a related prediction:

  • Hypothesis: Consuming a high-sugar diet leads to weight gain.
  • Prediction: People who consume a high-sugar diet for six weeks will gain more weight than those who maintain a low-sugar diet during the same period.

Key Differences Between a Hypothesis and a Prediction

While a hypothesis and prediction are both essential components of scientific research, there are some key differences to keep in mind:

  • A hypothesis is an educated guess that suggests a relationship between variables, while a prediction is a specific and measurable outcome based on that hypothesis.
  • A hypothesis can give rise to multiple experiment or observational study predictions.

To conclude, understanding the differences between a hypothesis and a prediction, and learning how to write a hypothesis, are essential steps to form a robust foundation for your research. By creating clear, testable hypotheses along with specific, measurable predictions, you lay the groundwork for scientifically sound investigations.

Here’s a wrap-up for this guide on how to write a hypothesis. We’re confident this article was helpful for many of you. We understand that many students struggle with writing their school research . However, we hope to continue assisting you through our blog tutorial on writing different aspects of academic assignments.

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Understanding Hypotheses and Predictions

Hypotheses and predictions are different components of the scientific method. The scientific method is a systematic process that helps minimize bias in research and begins by developing good research questions.

Research Questions

Descriptive research questions are based on observations made in previous research or in passing. This type of research question often quantifies these observations. For example, while out bird watching, you notice that a certain species of sparrow made all its nests with the same material: grasses. A descriptive research question would be “On average, how much grass is used to build sparrow nests?”

Descriptive research questions lead to causal questions. This type of research question seeks to understand why we observe certain trends or patterns. If we return to our observation about sparrow nests, a causal question would be “Why are the nests of sparrows made with grasses rather than twigs?”

In simple terms, a hypothesis is the answer to your causal question. A hypothesis should be based on a strong rationale that is usually supported by background research. From the question about sparrow nests, you might hypothesize, “Sparrows use grasses in their nests rather than twigs because grasses are the more abundant material in their habitat.” This abundance hypothesis might be supported by your prior knowledge about the availability of nest building materials (i.e. grasses are more abundant than twigs).

On the other hand, a prediction is the outcome you would observe if your hypothesis were correct. Predictions are often written in the form of “if, and, then” statements, as in, “if my hypothesis is true, and I were to do this test, then this is what I will observe.” Following our sparrow example, you could predict that, “If sparrows use grass because it is more abundant, and I compare areas that have more twigs than grasses available, then, in those areas, nests should be made out of twigs.” A more refined prediction might alter the wording so as not to repeat the hypothesis verbatim: “If sparrows choose nesting materials based on their abundance, then when twigs are more abundant, sparrows will use those in their nests.”

As you can see, the terms hypothesis and prediction are different and distinct even though, sometimes, they are incorrectly used interchangeably.

Let us take a look at another example:

Causal Question:  Why are there fewer asparagus beetles when asparagus is grown next to marigolds?

Hypothesis: Marigolds deter asparagus beetles.

Prediction: If marigolds deter asparagus beetles, and we grow asparagus next to marigolds, then we should find fewer asparagus beetles when asparagus plants are planted with marigolds.

A final note

It is exciting when the outcome of your study or experiment supports your hypothesis. However, it can be equally exciting if this does not happen. There are many reasons why you can have an unexpected result, and you need to think why this occurred. Maybe you had a potential problem with your methods, but on the flip side, maybe you have just discovered a new line of evidence that can be used to develop another experiment or study.

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How to Write a Hypothesis

Last Updated: May 2, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Bess Ruff, MA . Bess Ruff is a Geography PhD student at Florida State University. She received her MA in Environmental Science and Management from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2016. She has conducted survey work for marine spatial planning projects in the Caribbean and provided research support as a graduate fellow for the Sustainable Fisheries Group. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,030,561 times.

A hypothesis is a description of a pattern in nature or an explanation about some real-world phenomenon that can be tested through observation and experimentation. The most common way a hypothesis is used in scientific research is as a tentative, testable, and falsifiable statement that explains some observed phenomenon in nature. [1] X Research source Many academic fields, from the physical sciences to the life sciences to the social sciences, use hypothesis testing as a means of testing ideas to learn about the world and advance scientific knowledge. Whether you are a beginning scholar or a beginning student taking a class in a science subject, understanding what hypotheses are and being able to generate hypotheses and predictions yourself is very important. These instructions will help get you started.

Preparing to Write a Hypothesis

Step 1 Select a topic.

  • If you are writing a hypothesis for a school assignment, this step may be taken care of for you.

Step 2 Read existing research.

  • Focus on academic and scholarly writing. You need to be certain that your information is unbiased, accurate, and comprehensive. Scholarly search databases such as Google Scholar and Web of Science can help you find relevant articles from reputable sources.
  • You can find information in textbooks, at a library, and online. If you are in school, you can also ask for help from teachers, librarians, and your peers.

Step 3 Analyze the literature.

  • For example, if you are interested in the effects of caffeine on the human body, but notice that nobody seems to have explored whether caffeine affects males differently than it does females, this could be something to formulate a hypothesis about. Or, if you are interested in organic farming, you might notice that no one has tested whether organic fertilizer results in different growth rates for plants than non-organic fertilizer.
  • You can sometimes find holes in the existing literature by looking for statements like “it is unknown” in scientific papers or places where information is clearly missing. You might also find a claim in the literature that seems far-fetched, unlikely, or too good to be true, like that caffeine improves math skills. If the claim is testable, you could provide a great service to scientific knowledge by doing your own investigation. If you confirm the claim, the claim becomes even more credible. If you do not find support for the claim, you are helping with the necessary self-correcting aspect of science.
  • Examining these types of questions provides an excellent way for you to set yourself apart by filling in important gaps in a field of study.

Step 4 Generate questions.

  • Following the examples above, you might ask: "How does caffeine affect females as compared to males?" or "How does organic fertilizer affect plant growth compared to non-organic fertilizer?" The rest of your research will be aimed at answering these questions.

Step 5 Look for clues as to what the answer might be.

  • Following the examples above, if you discover in the literature that there is a pattern that some other types of stimulants seem to affect females more than males, this could be a clue that the same pattern might be true for caffeine. Similarly, if you observe the pattern that organic fertilizer seems to be associated with smaller plants overall, you might explain this pattern with the hypothesis that plants exposed to organic fertilizer grow more slowly than plants exposed to non-organic fertilizer.

Formulating Your Hypothesis

Step 1 Determine your variables.

  • You can think of the independent variable as the one that is causing some kind of difference or effect to occur. In the examples, the independent variable would be biological sex, i.e. whether a person is male or female, and fertilizer type, i.e. whether the fertilizer is organic or non-organically-based.
  • The dependent variable is what is affected by (i.e. "depends" on) the independent variable. In the examples above, the dependent variable would be the measured impact of caffeine or fertilizer.
  • Your hypothesis should only suggest one relationship. Most importantly, it should only have one independent variable. If you have more than one, you won't be able to determine which one is actually the source of any effects you might observe.

Step 2 Generate a simple hypothesis.

  • Don't worry too much at this point about being precise or detailed.
  • In the examples above, one hypothesis would make a statement about whether a person's biological sex might impact the way the person is affected by caffeine; for example, at this point, your hypothesis might simply be: "a person's biological sex is related to how caffeine affects his or her heart rate." The other hypothesis would make a general statement about plant growth and fertilizer; for example your simple explanatory hypothesis might be "plants given different types of fertilizer are different sizes because they grow at different rates."

Step 3 Decide on direction.

  • Using our example, our non-directional hypotheses would be "there is a relationship between a person's biological sex and how much caffeine increases the person's heart rate," and "there is a relationship between fertilizer type and the speed at which plants grow."
  • Directional predictions using the same example hypotheses above would be : "Females will experience a greater increase in heart rate after consuming caffeine than will males," and "plants fertilized with non-organic fertilizer will grow faster than those fertilized with organic fertilizer." Indeed, these predictions and the hypotheses that allow for them are very different kinds of statements. More on this distinction below.
  • If the literature provides any basis for making a directional prediction, it is better to do so, because it provides more information. Especially in the physical sciences, non-directional predictions are often seen as inadequate.

Step 4 Get specific.

  • Where necessary, specify the population (i.e. the people or things) about which you hope to uncover new knowledge. For example, if you were only interested the effects of caffeine on elderly people, your prediction might read: "Females over the age of 65 will experience a greater increase in heart rate than will males of the same age." If you were interested only in how fertilizer affects tomato plants, your prediction might read: "Tomato plants treated with non-organic fertilizer will grow faster in the first three months than will tomato plants treated with organic fertilizer."

Step 5 Make sure it is testable.

  • For example, you would not want to make the hypothesis: "red is the prettiest color." This statement is an opinion and it cannot be tested with an experiment. However, proposing the generalizing hypothesis that red is the most popular color is testable with a simple random survey. If you do indeed confirm that red is the most popular color, your next step may be to ask: Why is red the most popular color? The answer you propose is your explanatory hypothesis .

Step 6 Write a research hypothesis.

  • An easy way to get to the hypothesis for this method and prediction is to ask yourself why you think heart rates will increase if children are given caffeine. Your explanatory hypothesis in this case may be that caffeine is a stimulant. At this point, some scientists write a research hypothesis , a statement that includes the hypothesis, the experiment, and the prediction all in one statement.
  • For example, If caffeine is a stimulant, and some children are given a drink with caffeine while others are given a drink without caffeine, then the heart rates of those children given a caffeinated drink will increase more than the heart rate of children given a non-caffeinated drink.

Step 7 Contextualize your hypothesis.

  • Using the above example, if you were to test the effects of caffeine on the heart rates of children, evidence that your hypothesis is not true, sometimes called the null hypothesis , could occur if the heart rates of both the children given the caffeinated drink and the children given the non-caffeinated drink (called the placebo control) did not change, or lowered or raised with the same magnitude, if there was no difference between the two groups of children.
  • It is important to note here that the null hypothesis actually becomes much more useful when researchers test the significance of their results with statistics. When statistics are used on the results of an experiment, a researcher is testing the idea of the null statistical hypothesis. For example, that there is no relationship between two variables or that there is no difference between two groups. [8] X Research source

Step 8 Test your hypothesis.

Hypothesis Examples

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Community Q&A

Community Answer

  • Remember that science is not necessarily a linear process and can be approached in various ways. [10] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
  • When examining the literature, look for research that is similar to what you want to do, and try to build on the findings of other researchers. But also look for claims that you think are suspicious, and test them yourself. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
  • Be specific in your hypotheses, but not so specific that your hypothesis can't be applied to anything outside your specific experiment. You definitely want to be clear about the population about which you are interested in drawing conclusions, but nobody (except your roommates) will be interested in reading a paper with the prediction: "my three roommates will each be able to do a different amount of pushups." Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

how to write hypothesis and predictions

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  • ↑ https://undsci.berkeley.edu/for-educators/prepare-and-plan/correcting-misconceptions/#a4
  • ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/research_papers/choosing_a_topic.html
  • ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/writing_in_the_social_sciences/writing_in_psychology_experimental_report_writing/experimental_reports_1.html
  • ↑ https://www.grammarly.com/blog/how-to-write-a-hypothesis/
  • ↑ https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/for-students-and-parents/how-create-hypothesis.html
  • ↑ https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-2.0/section/1.19/primary/lesson/hypothesis-ms-ps/
  • ↑ https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/preparingtopublish/chapter/goal-1-contextualize-the-studys-methods/
  • ↑ http://mathworld.wolfram.com/NullHypothesis.html
  • ↑ http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/scienceflowchart

About This Article

Bess Ruff, MA

Before writing a hypothesis, think of what questions are still unanswered about a specific subject and make an educated guess about what the answer could be. Then, determine the variables in your question and write a simple statement about how they might be related. Try to focus on specific predictions and variables, such as age or segment of the population, to make your hypothesis easier to test. For tips on how to test your hypothesis, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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5 Hypothesis Statements and Predictions

5.1 addressing the h ypothes es in an introduction section  .

In certain experiments where you are analyzing quantitative data, you will need to include hypothesis statements. That means presenting your null (H 0 ) and alternative (H A ) hypotheses using proper scientific language is key to the foundation of your investigation. The Null hypothesis (H 0 ) states that the independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable. The Alternative hypothesis (H A ) states that the independent variable will have an effect on the dependent variable.

To write complete and effective null (H 0 ) and alternative (H A ) hypotheses that contain the proper scientific language you must include: 

  • Both the common and Latin (scientific name using binomial nomenclature) name of the organism used in the experiment.
  • The name of the independent variable that is being tested (i.e., what the experimenter is manipulating) including appropriate units.
  • How the response will be measured or the dependent variable (i.e., what data the experimenter is recording) including appropriate units.

Below is an example of an effective null and alternative hypothesis:

Null hypothesis (H 0 ): Temperature (°C) will have no effect on the pulse rate, measured in beats per minute, of mice ( Mus musculus ).

Alternative hypothesis (H A ): Temperature (°C) will have an effect on the pulse rate, measured in beats per minute, of mice ( Mus musculus ). 

5.2 Activity –Addressing the Predictions in an Introduction Section 

A prediction is a statement of the specific trend you expect (e.g., increase, decrease or no change) to see when you conduct your investigation. The prediction describes the expected relationship between your independent and dependent variable. You should be able to provide sound justification for the reasoning behind your prediction by referencing background information from a peer reviewed source such as a textbook or journal article.

Here is an example of an effective prediction: 

Note how the author uses background information from another study and clearly states their prediction drawing on this information.

Now lets consider the Examples A and B we looked at previously. Here are the paragraphs of the hypotheses and predictions from the 2 examples for you to consider.

Example A  

The paragraphs below reflect how the hypotheses and prediction might be addressed in an introduction section.

Perreault and Whalen (2006) found that the burrowing activity of the endogeic earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa and the anecic earthworm Lumbricus terrestris was influenced by soil temperature and moisture. They found there was less burrowing, but more weight gain and surface castings produced in wetter soil than in drier soil, suggesting that these worms were burrowing less, but feeding more in wetter soils (Perreault & Whalen, 2006). 

The purpose of this lab is to see if the moisture content of soil affects the rate of movement (cm/minute) of the epigeic earthworm Lumbricus rubellus (red earthworm). The null hypothesis is percent soil moisture content (PMC) will have no effect on the movement rate (cm/minute) of red earthworms ( Lumbricus rubellus ). The alternative hypothesis is percent soil moisture content (PMC) will have an effect on the movement rate (cm/minute) of red earthworms ( Lumbricus rubellus ). We predict that similar to the findings of Perreault and Whalen (2006) the rate of movement of Lumbricus rubellus will increase in drier soils.

Now, rev iew the example below. H ow does it compare to Example A? What advice would you give the author to help them professionally write null (H 0 ) and alternative (H A ) hypotheses? What advice would you give them regarding their prediction?    

Example B  

Perreault and Whalen studied earthworms and saw less burrowing of earthworms as the soil got wetter, but the worms ate more. We predict earth worms will move less and eat more like in the study. We are completing this amazing lab experiment for students to get an idea of how to use the scientific method to study earthworms and see if the water makes earthworms move less or more. The null hypothesis is soil wetness will have no change on the movement of red earthworms ( lumbricus Rubellus ). The alternative hypothesis is wetness will increase the movement of red earthworms. 

Consider what advice you would give these authors to improve their hypothesis statements and prediction.  

Complete the following quiz regarding hypothesis statements and predictions:

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How to Write a Research Hypothesis: Good & Bad Examples

how to write hypothesis and predictions

What is a research hypothesis?

A research hypothesis is an attempt at explaining a phenomenon or the relationships between phenomena/variables in the real world. Hypotheses are sometimes called “educated guesses”, but they are in fact (or let’s say they should be) based on previous observations, existing theories, scientific evidence, and logic. A research hypothesis is also not a prediction—rather, predictions are ( should be) based on clearly formulated hypotheses. For example, “We tested the hypothesis that KLF2 knockout mice would show deficiencies in heart development” is an assumption or prediction, not a hypothesis. 

The research hypothesis at the basis of this prediction is “the product of the KLF2 gene is involved in the development of the cardiovascular system in mice”—and this hypothesis is probably (hopefully) based on a clear observation, such as that mice with low levels of Kruppel-like factor 2 (which KLF2 codes for) seem to have heart problems. From this hypothesis, you can derive the idea that a mouse in which this particular gene does not function cannot develop a normal cardiovascular system, and then make the prediction that we started with. 

What is the difference between a hypothesis and a prediction?

You might think that these are very subtle differences, and you will certainly come across many publications that do not contain an actual hypothesis or do not make these distinctions correctly. But considering that the formulation and testing of hypotheses is an integral part of the scientific method, it is good to be aware of the concepts underlying this approach. The two hallmarks of a scientific hypothesis are falsifiability (an evaluation standard that was introduced by the philosopher of science Karl Popper in 1934) and testability —if you cannot use experiments or data to decide whether an idea is true or false, then it is not a hypothesis (or at least a very bad one).

So, in a nutshell, you (1) look at existing evidence/theories, (2) come up with a hypothesis, (3) make a prediction that allows you to (4) design an experiment or data analysis to test it, and (5) come to a conclusion. Of course, not all studies have hypotheses (there is also exploratory or hypothesis-generating research), and you do not necessarily have to state your hypothesis as such in your paper. 

But for the sake of understanding the principles of the scientific method, let’s first take a closer look at the different types of hypotheses that research articles refer to and then give you a step-by-step guide for how to formulate a strong hypothesis for your own paper.

Types of Research Hypotheses

Hypotheses can be simple , which means they describe the relationship between one single independent variable (the one you observe variations in or plan to manipulate) and one single dependent variable (the one you expect to be affected by the variations/manipulation). If there are more variables on either side, you are dealing with a complex hypothesis. You can also distinguish hypotheses according to the kind of relationship between the variables you are interested in (e.g., causal or associative ). But apart from these variations, we are usually interested in what is called the “alternative hypothesis” and, in contrast to that, the “null hypothesis”. If you think these two should be listed the other way round, then you are right, logically speaking—the alternative should surely come second. However, since this is the hypothesis we (as researchers) are usually interested in, let’s start from there.

  • Alternative Hypothesis

If you predict a relationship between two variables in your study, then the research hypothesis that you formulate to describe that relationship is your alternative hypothesis (usually H1 in statistical terms). The goal of your hypothesis testing is thus to demonstrate that there is sufficient evidence that supports the alternative hypothesis, rather than evidence for the possibility that there is no such relationship. The alternative hypothesis is usually the research hypothesis of a study and is based on the literature, previous observations, and widely known theories. 

  • Null Hypothesis

The hypothesis that describes the other possible outcome, that is, that your variables are not related, is the null hypothesis ( H0 ). Based on your findings, you choose between the two hypotheses—usually that means that if your prediction was correct, you reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. Make sure, however, that you are not getting lost at this step of the thinking process: If your prediction is that there will be no difference or change, then you are trying to find support for the null hypothesis and reject H1. 

Directional Hypothesis

While the null hypothesis is obviously “static”, the alternative hypothesis can specify a direction for the observed relationship between variables—for example, that mice with higher expression levels of a certain protein are more active than those with lower levels. This is then called a one-tailed hypothesis. 

Another example for a directional one-tailed alternative hypothesis would be that 

H1: Attending private classes before important exams has a positive effect on performance. 

Your null hypothesis would then be that

H0: Attending private classes before important exams has no/a negative effect on performance.

Nondirectional Hypothesis

A nondirectional hypothesis does not specify the direction of the potentially observed effect, only that there is a relationship between the studied variables—this is called a two-tailed hypothesis. For instance, if you are studying a new drug that has shown some effects on pathways involved in a certain condition (e.g., anxiety) in vitro in the lab, but you can’t say for sure whether it will have the same effects in an animal model or maybe induce other/side effects that you can’t predict and potentially increase anxiety levels instead, you could state the two hypotheses like this:

H1: The only lab-tested drug (somehow) affects anxiety levels in an anxiety mouse model.

You then test this nondirectional alternative hypothesis against the null hypothesis:

H0: The only lab-tested drug has no effect on anxiety levels in an anxiety mouse model.

hypothesis in a research paper

How to Write a Hypothesis for a Research Paper

Now that we understand the important distinctions between different kinds of research hypotheses, let’s look at a simple process of how to write a hypothesis.

Writing a Hypothesis Step:1

Ask a question, based on earlier research. Research always starts with a question, but one that takes into account what is already known about a topic or phenomenon. For example, if you are interested in whether people who have pets are happier than those who don’t, do a literature search and find out what has already been demonstrated. You will probably realize that yes, there is quite a bit of research that shows a relationship between happiness and owning a pet—and even studies that show that owning a dog is more beneficial than owning a cat ! Let’s say you are so intrigued by this finding that you wonder: 

What is it that makes dog owners even happier than cat owners? 

Let’s move on to Step 2 and find an answer to that question.

Writing a Hypothesis Step 2:

Formulate a strong hypothesis by answering your own question. Again, you don’t want to make things up, take unicorns into account, or repeat/ignore what has already been done. Looking at the dog-vs-cat papers your literature search returned, you see that most studies are based on self-report questionnaires on personality traits, mental health, and life satisfaction. What you don’t find is any data on actual (mental or physical) health measures, and no experiments. You therefore decide to make a bold claim come up with the carefully thought-through hypothesis that it’s maybe the lifestyle of the dog owners, which includes walking their dog several times per day, engaging in fun and healthy activities such as agility competitions, and taking them on trips, that gives them that extra boost in happiness. You could therefore answer your question in the following way:

Dog owners are happier than cat owners because of the dog-related activities they engage in.

Now you have to verify that your hypothesis fulfills the two requirements we introduced at the beginning of this resource article: falsifiability and testability . If it can’t be wrong and can’t be tested, it’s not a hypothesis. We are lucky, however, because yes, we can test whether owning a dog but not engaging in any of those activities leads to lower levels of happiness or well-being than owning a dog and playing and running around with them or taking them on trips.  

Writing a Hypothesis Step 3:

Make your predictions and define your variables. We have verified that we can test our hypothesis, but now we have to define all the relevant variables, design our experiment or data analysis, and make precise predictions. You could, for example, decide to study dog owners (not surprising at this point), let them fill in questionnaires about their lifestyle as well as their life satisfaction (as other studies did), and then compare two groups of active and inactive dog owners. Alternatively, if you want to go beyond the data that earlier studies produced and analyzed and directly manipulate the activity level of your dog owners to study the effect of that manipulation, you could invite them to your lab, select groups of participants with similar lifestyles, make them change their lifestyle (e.g., couch potato dog owners start agility classes, very active ones have to refrain from any fun activities for a certain period of time) and assess their happiness levels before and after the intervention. In both cases, your independent variable would be “ level of engagement in fun activities with dog” and your dependent variable would be happiness or well-being . 

Examples of a Good and Bad Hypothesis

Let’s look at a few examples of good and bad hypotheses to get you started.

Good Hypothesis Examples

Bad hypothesis examples, tips for writing a research hypothesis.

If you understood the distinction between a hypothesis and a prediction we made at the beginning of this article, then you will have no problem formulating your hypotheses and predictions correctly. To refresh your memory: We have to (1) look at existing evidence, (2) come up with a hypothesis, (3) make a prediction, and (4) design an experiment. For example, you could summarize your dog/happiness study like this:

(1) While research suggests that dog owners are happier than cat owners, there are no reports on what factors drive this difference. (2) We hypothesized that it is the fun activities that many dog owners (but very few cat owners) engage in with their pets that increases their happiness levels. (3) We thus predicted that preventing very active dog owners from engaging in such activities for some time and making very inactive dog owners take up such activities would lead to an increase and decrease in their overall self-ratings of happiness, respectively. (4) To test this, we invited dog owners into our lab, assessed their mental and emotional well-being through questionnaires, and then assigned them to an “active” and an “inactive” group, depending on… 

Note that you use “we hypothesize” only for your hypothesis, not for your experimental prediction, and “would” or “if – then” only for your prediction, not your hypothesis. A hypothesis that states that something “would” affect something else sounds as if you don’t have enough confidence to make a clear statement—in which case you can’t expect your readers to believe in your research either. Write in the present tense, don’t use modal verbs that express varying degrees of certainty (such as may, might, or could ), and remember that you are not drawing a conclusion while trying not to exaggerate but making a clear statement that you then, in a way, try to disprove . And if that happens, that is not something to fear but an important part of the scientific process.

Similarly, don’t use “we hypothesize” when you explain the implications of your research or make predictions in the conclusion section of your manuscript, since these are clearly not hypotheses in the true sense of the word. As we said earlier, you will find that many authors of academic articles do not seem to care too much about these rather subtle distinctions, but thinking very clearly about your own research will not only help you write better but also ensure that even that infamous Reviewer 2 will find fewer reasons to nitpick about your manuscript. 

Perfect Your Manuscript With Professional Editing

Now that you know how to write a strong research hypothesis for your research paper, you might be interested in our free grammar checker , Wordvice AI, which finds and fixes errors in grammar, punctuation, and word choice in academic texts. Or if you are interested in human proofreading , check out our English editing services , including research paper editing and manuscript editing .

On the Wordvice academic resources website , you can also find many more articles and other resources that can help you with writing the other parts of your research paper , with making a research paper outline before you put everything together, or with writing an effective cover letter once you are ready to submit.

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How to Develop a Good Research Hypothesis

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The story of a research study begins by asking a question. Researchers all around the globe are asking curious questions and formulating research hypothesis. However, whether the research study provides an effective conclusion depends on how well one develops a good research hypothesis. Research hypothesis examples could help researchers get an idea as to how to write a good research hypothesis.

This blog will help you understand what is a research hypothesis, its characteristics and, how to formulate a research hypothesis

What is Hypothesis?

Hypothesis is an assumption or an idea proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be tested. It is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be outcome of the study.  Hypothesis usually involves proposing a relationship between two variables: the independent variable (what the researchers change) and the dependent variable (what the research measures).

What is a Research Hypothesis?

Research hypothesis is a statement that introduces a research question and proposes an expected result. It is an integral part of the scientific method that forms the basis of scientific experiments. Therefore, you need to be careful and thorough when building your research hypothesis. A minor flaw in the construction of your hypothesis could have an adverse effect on your experiment. In research, there is a convention that the hypothesis is written in two forms, the null hypothesis, and the alternative hypothesis (called the experimental hypothesis when the method of investigation is an experiment).

peer review

Essential Characteristics of a Good Research Hypothesis

As the hypothesis is specific, there is a testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. You may consider drawing hypothesis from previously published research based on the theory.

A good research hypothesis involves more effort than just a guess. In particular, your hypothesis may begin with a question that could be further explored through background research.

To help you formulate a promising research hypothesis, you should ask yourself the following questions:

  • Is the language clear and focused?
  • What is the relationship between your hypothesis and your research topic?
  • Is your hypothesis testable? If yes, then how?
  • What are the possible explanations that you might want to explore?
  • Can you manipulate your variables without hampering the ethical standards?
  • Does your research predict the relationship and outcome?
  • Is your research simple and concise (avoids wordiness)?
  • Is it clear with no ambiguity or assumptions about the readers’ knowledge
  • Is your research observable and testable results?
  • Is it relevant and specific to the research question or problem?

research hypothesis example

The questions listed above can be used as a checklist to make sure your hypothesis is based on a solid foundation. Furthermore, it can help you identify weaknesses in your hypothesis and revise it if necessary.

Source: Educational Hub

How to formulate an effective research hypothesis.

A testable hypothesis is not a simple statement. It is rather an intricate statement that needs to offer a clear introduction to a scientific experiment, its intentions, and the possible outcomes. However, there are some important things to consider when building a compelling hypothesis.

1. State the problem that you are trying to solve.

Make sure that the hypothesis clearly defines the topic and the focus of the experiment.

2. Try to write the hypothesis as an if-then statement.

Follow this template: If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.

3. Define the variables

Independent variables are the ones that are manipulated, controlled, or changed. Independent variables are isolated from other factors of the study.

Dependent variables , as the name suggests are dependent on other factors of the study. They are influenced by the change in independent variable.

4. Scrutinize the hypothesis

The types of research hypothesis are stated below:

1. Simple Hypothesis

It predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable.

2. Complex Hypothesis

It predicts the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables.

3. Directional Hypothesis

It specifies the expected direction to be followed to determine the relationship between variables and is derived from theory. Furthermore, it implies the researcher’s intellectual commitment to a particular outcome.

4. Non-directional Hypothesis

It does not predict the exact direction or nature of the relationship between the two variables. The non-directional hypothesis is used when there is no theory involved or when findings contradict previous research.

5. Associative and Causal Hypothesis

The associative hypothesis defines interdependency between variables. A change in one variable results in the change of the other variable. On the other hand, the causal hypothesis proposes an effect on the dependent due to manipulation of the independent variable.

6. Null Hypothesis

Null hypothesis states a negative statement to support the researcher’s findings that there is no relationship between two variables. There will be no changes in the dependent variable due the manipulation of the independent variable. Furthermore, it states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the idea being investigated.

7. Alternative Hypothesis

It states that there is a relationship between the two variables of the study and that the results are significant to the research topic. An experimental hypothesis predicts what changes will take place in the dependent variable when the independent variable is manipulated. Also, it states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in terms of supporting the theory being investigated.

Research Hypothesis Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables:

Research Hypothesis Example 1 The greater number of coal plants in a region (independent variable) increases water pollution (dependent variable). If you change the independent variable (building more coal factories), it will change the dependent variable (amount of water pollution).
Research Hypothesis Example 2 What is the effect of diet or regular soda (independent variable) on blood sugar levels (dependent variable)? If you change the independent variable (the type of soda you consume), it will change the dependent variable (blood sugar levels)

You should not ignore the importance of the above steps. The validity of your experiment and its results rely on a robust testable hypothesis. Developing a strong testable hypothesis has few advantages, it compels us to think intensely and specifically about the outcomes of a study. Consequently, it enables us to understand the implication of the question and the different variables involved in the study. Furthermore, it helps us to make precise predictions based on prior research. Hence, forming a hypothesis would be of great value to the research. Here are some good examples of testable hypotheses.

More importantly, you need to build a robust testable research hypothesis for your scientific experiments. A testable hypothesis is a hypothesis that can be proved or disproved as a result of experimentation.

Importance of a Testable Hypothesis

To devise and perform an experiment using scientific method, you need to make sure that your hypothesis is testable. To be considered testable, some essential criteria must be met:

  • There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is true.
  • There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is false.
  • The results of the hypothesis must be reproducible.

Without these criteria, the hypothesis and the results will be vague. As a result, the experiment will not prove or disprove anything significant.

What are your experiences with building hypotheses for scientific experiments? What challenges did you face? How did you overcome these challenges? Please share your thoughts with us in the comments section.

The steps to write a research hypothesis are: 1. Stating the problem: Ensure that the hypothesis defines the research problem 2. Writing a hypothesis as an 'if-then' statement: Include the action and the expected outcome of your study by following a ‘if-then’ structure. 3. Defining the variables: Define the variables as Dependent or Independent based on their dependency to other factors. 4. Scrutinizing the hypothesis: Identify the type of your hypothesis

Hypothesis testing is a statistical tool which is used to make inferences about a population data to draw conclusions for a particular hypothesis.

Hypothesis in statistics is a formal statement about the nature of a population within a structured framework of a statistical model. It is used to test an existing hypothesis by studying a population.

Research hypothesis is a statement that introduces a research question and proposes an expected result. It forms the basis of scientific experiments.

The different types of hypothesis in research are: • Null hypothesis: Null hypothesis is a negative statement to support the researcher’s findings that there is no relationship between two variables. • Alternate hypothesis: Alternate hypothesis predicts the relationship between the two variables of the study. • Directional hypothesis: Directional hypothesis specifies the expected direction to be followed to determine the relationship between variables. • Non-directional hypothesis: Non-directional hypothesis does not predict the exact direction or nature of the relationship between the two variables. • Simple hypothesis: Simple hypothesis predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable. • Complex hypothesis: Complex hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables. • Associative and casual hypothesis: Associative and casual hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables. • Empirical hypothesis: Empirical hypothesis can be tested via experiments and observation. • Statistical hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis utilizes statistical models to draw conclusions about broader populations.

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Wow! You really simplified your explanation that even dummies would find it easy to comprehend. Thank you so much.

Thanks a lot for your valuable guidance.

I enjoy reading the post. Hypotheses are actually an intrinsic part in a study. It bridges the research question and the methodology of the study.

Useful piece!

This is awesome.Wow.

It very interesting to read the topic, can you guide me any specific example of hypothesis process establish throw the Demand and supply of the specific product in market

Nicely explained

It is really a useful for me Kindly give some examples of hypothesis

It was a well explained content ,can you please give me an example with the null and alternative hypothesis illustrated

clear and concise. thanks.

So Good so Amazing

Good to learn

Thanks a lot for explaining to my level of understanding

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how to write hypothesis and predictions

How do scientists come up with new hypotheses or predictions? They follow a step-by-step process known as the scientific method. This method turns a spark of curiosity into an established theory through research, planning and experimentation.

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Observation: scientists research something that they don’t understand. Once they've compiled their research, they write a simple question about the topic.

Hypothesis: scientists write an answer to their casual questions based on their research.

Prediction: scientists write down the outcome that they expect if their hypothesis is correct

Experiment: scientists gather evidence to see if their prediction is correct

Conclusion: this is the answer that the experiment provides. Does the evidence support the hypothesis?

Understanding the scientific method will help you to create, carry out and analyse your own testing and experiments.

Observation

The first step in the scientific method process is to observe something you wish to understand , learn from , or ask a question you would an answer to. This can be something general or as specific as you like.

Once you've decided on a topic, you will need to research it thoroughly using existing information. You can collect data from books, academic journals, textbooks, the internet and your own experiences. You could even carry out an informal experiment of your own!

Hypothesis and Prediction observation research resources Vaia

Suppose you want to know the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction. After some research, you've discovered that temperature influences the rate of chemical reactions.

Your simple question could be : 'How does temperature affect the rate of reaction?'

What is the Definition of a Hypothesis?

After researching your topic using existing data and knowledge, you will write a hypothesis. This statement should help to answer your simple question.

A hypothesis is an explanation that leads to a testable prediction. In other words, it is a possible answer to the simple question posed during the observation step that can also be tested.

Your hypothesis should be based on a robust scientific rationale supported by the background research conducted in the first step using the scientific method.

Is a theory the same as a hypothesis?

What differentiates a theory from a hypothesis is that a theory tends to address a broader question supported by a vast amount of research and data. A hypothesis (as mentioned above) is a potential explanation for a much smaller and more specific question.

If experiments repeatedly support a hypothesis, that hypothesis can become a theory. However, theories can never become indisputable facts. Evidence supports, not proves, theories.

Scientists don't claim that their findings are correct. Instead, they state that their evidence supports their hypothesis.

Evolution and the Big Bang are widely accepted theories but can never be truly proven.

An Example of a Hypothesis in Science

During the observation stage, you discovered that temperature could affect the rate of a chemical reaction. Further research determined that the rate of reaction is faster at higher temperatures. This is because molecules require energy to collide and react with each other. The more energy there is (i.e., the higher the temperature), molecules will collide and react more often .

A good hypothesis could be:

‘Higher temperatures increase the rate of reaction because the particles have more energy to collide and react.’

This hypothesis makes for a possible explanation that we would be able to test to either prove it correct or not.

What is the Definition of a Prediction?

Predictions assume that your hypothesis is true.

A prediction is an outcome that is expected if the hypothesis is true.

Prediction statements typically use the words ‘if’ or ‘then’.

When putting a prediction together, it should point towards a relationship between an independent and dependent variable. An independent variable stands alone and isn't affected by anything else, whereas, a dependent variable can change due to the independent variable.

An Example of Prediction in Science

As a continuation of the example we are using in this article. A good prediction could be:

' If temperatures are increased, then the rate of reaction will increase.'

Note how if and then are used to articulate the prediction.

The independent variable would be the temperature . Therefore the dependent variable is the rate of reaction - this is the outcome we are interested in, and it depends on the first part of the prediction (the independent variable).

The Relationship and Difference Between Hypothesis and Prediction

Hypothesis and prediction are two different things, but they are frequently confused.

Both are statements assumed to be true, based on existing theories and evidence. However, there are a couple of key differences to remember:

A hypothesis is a general statement of how you think the phenomenon works.

Meanwhile, your prediction shows how you will test your hypothesis.

The hypothesis should always be written before the prediction.

Remember that the prediction should prove the hypothesis to be correct.

Gathering Evidence to Test the Prediction

The purpose of an experiment is to gather evidence to test your prediction. Gather your apparatus, measuring equipment and a pen to keep track of your results!

When magnesium reacts with water, it forms magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH) 2 . This compound is slightly alkaline . If you add an indicator solution to the water, it will change colour when magnesium hydroxide has been produced and the reaction is complete.

To test the reaction rate at different temperatures, heat beakers of water to the desired temperature, then add the indicator solution and the magnesium. Use a timer to track how long it takes for the water to change colour for each water temperature. The less time it takes for the water to change colour, the faster the rate of reaction.

Make sure to keep your control variables the same. The only thing you want to change is the temperature of the water.

Accepting or Rejecting the Hypothesis

The conclusion shows the results of the experiment - have you found evidence to support your prediction?

If your results match your prediction, you accept the hypothesis.

If your results don’t match your prediction, you reject the hypothesis.

You can’t prove your hypothesis, but you can say that your results support the hypothesis that you’ve made. If your evidence backs up your prediction, you are one step closer to figuring out if your hypothesis is true.

If the results of your experiment don't match your prediction or hypothesis, you shouldn't change them. Instead, reject your hypothesis and consider why your results didn't fit. Did you make any errors during your experiment? Did you make sure all the control variables were kept the same?

The less time it takes for the magnesium to react, the faster the rate of reaction.

Will you accept or reject the original hypothesis?

Remember that a hypothesis is an explanation for why something happens. The hypothesis is used to make the prediction - the outcome you would get if your hypothesis is true.

Hypothesis and Prediction - Key takeaways

  • The scientific method is a step-by-step process: observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment and conclusion.
  • The first stage, observation, is researching your chosen topic.
  • Next, you will write a hypothesis: an explanation that leads to a testable prediction.
  • Then you will write a prediction: the expected outcome if your hypothesis is true.
  • The experiment gathers evidence to test your prediction.
  • If your results match your prediction, you can accept your hypothesis. Remember that acceptance doesn't mean proof.

1. CGP, GCSE AQA Combined Science Revision Guide , 2021

2. Jessie A. Key, Factors that Affect the Rate of Reactions, Introductory Chemistry - 1st Canadian Edition, 2014

3. Neil Campbell, Biology: A Global Approach Eleventh Edition , 2018

4. Paul Strode, The Global Epidemic of Confusing Hypotheses with Predictions Fixing an International Problem, Fairview High School, 2011

5. Science Made Simple, The Scientific Method, 2019

6. Trent University, Understanding Hypotheses and Predictions , 2022

7. University of Massachusetts, Effect of Temperature on the Reactivity of Magnesium in Water , 2011

Frequently Asked Questions about Hypothesis and Prediction

--> what is the relationship between a hypothesis and a prediction.

A hypothesis is an explanation of why something happens. This is used to make a testable prediction.

--> What is an example of a hypothesis and prediction?

Hypothesis: 'Higher temperatures increase the rate of reaction because the particles have more energy to collide and react.'

Prediction: 'If temperatures are increased, then the rate of reaction will increase.'

--> What is the difference between hypothesis, prediction and inference?

A hypothesis is an explanation, a prediction is the expected outcome, and an inference is a conclusion reached.

--> How can you write a prediction in science?

Predictions are statements that assume your hypothesis is true. Use the words 'if' and 'when'. For example, 'if temperatures are increased, then the rate of reaction will increase.'

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The hypothesis comes before the prediction.

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Observation is the research stage.

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The purpose of an experiment is to gather evidence to support your prediction.

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how to write hypothesis and predictions

If I [do something], then [this] will happen.

This basic statement/formula should be pretty familiar to all of you as it is the starting point of almost every scientific project or paper. It is a hypothesis – a statement that showcases what you “think” will happen during an experiment. This assumption is made based on the knowledge, facts, and data you already have.

How do you write a hypothesis? If you have a clear understanding of the proper structure of a hypothesis, you should not find it too hard to create one. However, if you have never written a hypothesis before, you might find it a bit frustrating. In this article from EssayPro - custom essay writing services , we are going to tell you everything you need to know about hypotheses, their types, and practical tips for writing them.

Hypothesis Definition

According to the definition, a hypothesis is an assumption one makes based on existing knowledge. To elaborate, it is a statement that translates the initial research question into a logical prediction shaped on the basis of available facts and evidence. To solve a specific problem, one first needs to identify the research problem (research question), conduct initial research, and set out to answer the given question by performing experiments and observing their outcomes. However, before one can move to the experimental part of the research, they should first identify what they expect to see for results. At this stage, a scientist makes an educated guess and writes a hypothesis that he or she is going to prove or refute in the course of their study.

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A hypothesis can also be seen as a form of development of knowledge. It is a well-grounded assumption put forward to clarify the properties and causes of the phenomena being studied.

As a rule, a hypothesis is formed based on a number of observations and examples that confirm it. This way, it looks plausible as it is backed up with some known information. The hypothesis is subsequently proved by turning it into an established fact or refuted (for example, by pointing out a counterexample), which allows it to attribute it to the category of false statements.

As a student, you may be asked to create a hypothesis statement as a part of your academic papers. Hypothesis-based approaches are commonly used among scientific academic works, including but not limited to research papers, theses, and dissertations.

Note that in some disciplines, a hypothesis statement is called a thesis statement. However, its essence and purpose remain unchanged – this statement aims to make an assumption regarding the outcomes of the investigation that will either be proved or refuted.

Characteristics and Sources of a Hypothesis

Now, as you know what a hypothesis is in a nutshell, let’s look at the key characteristics that define it:

  • It has to be clear and accurate in order to look reliable.
  • It has to be specific.
  • There should be scope for further investigation and experiments.
  • A hypothesis should be explained in simple language—while retaining its significance.
  • If you are making a relational hypothesis, two essential elements you have to include are variables and the relationship between them.

The main sources of a hypothesis are:

  • Scientific theories.
  • Observations from previous studies and current experiences.
  • The resemblance among different phenomena.
  • General patterns that affect people’s thinking process.

Types of Hypothesis

Basically, there are two major types of scientific hypothesis: alternative and null.

Types of Hypothesis

This type of hypothesis is generally denoted as H1. This statement is used to identify the expected outcome of your research. According to the alternative hypothesis definition, this type of hypothesis can be further divided into two subcategories:

  • Directional — a statement that explains the direction of the expected outcomes. Sometimes this type of hypothesis is used to study the relationship between variables rather than comparing between the groups.
  • Non-directional — unlike the directional alternative hypothesis, a non-directional one does not imply a specific direction of the expected outcomes.

Now, let’s see an alternative hypothesis example for each type:

Directional: Attending more lectures will result in improved test scores among students. Non-directional: Lecture attendance will influence test scores among students.

Notice how in the directional hypothesis we specified that the attendance of more lectures will boost student’s performance on tests, whereas in the non-directional hypothesis we only stated that there is a relationship between the two variables (i.e. lecture attendance and students’ test scores) but did not specify whether the performance will improve or decrease.

This type of hypothesis is generally denoted as H0. This statement is the complete opposite of what you expect or predict will happen throughout the course of your study—meaning it is the opposite of your alternative hypothesis. Simply put, a null hypothesis claims that there is no exact or actual correlation between the variables defined in the hypothesis.

To give you a better idea of how to write a null hypothesis, here is a clear example: Lecture attendance has no effect on student’s test scores.

Both of these types of hypotheses provide specific clarifications and restatements of the research problem. The main difference between these hypotheses and a research problem is that the latter is just a question that can’t be tested, whereas hypotheses can.

Based on the alternative and null hypothesis examples provided earlier, we can conclude that the importance and main purpose of these hypotheses are that they deliver a rough description of the subject matter. The main purpose of these statements is to give an investigator a specific guess that can be directly tested in a study. Simply put, a hypothesis outlines the framework, scope, and direction for the study. Although null and alternative hypotheses are the major types, there are also a few more to keep in mind:

Research Hypothesis — a statement that is used to test the correlation between two or more variables.

For example: Eating vitamin-rich foods affects human health.

Simple Hypothesis — a statement used to indicate the correlation between one independent and one dependent variable.

For example: Eating more vegetables leads to better immunity.

Complex Hypothesis — a statement used to indicate the correlation between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables.

For example: Eating more fruits and vegetables leads to better immunity, weight loss, and lower risk of diseases.

Associative and Causal Hypothesis — an associative hypothesis is a statement used to indicate the correlation between variables under the scenario when a change in one variable inevitably changes the other variable. A causal hypothesis is a statement that highlights the cause and effect relationship between variables.

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Hypothesis vs Prediction

When speaking of hypotheses, another term that comes to mind is prediction. These two terms are often used interchangeably, which can be rather confusing. Although both a hypothesis and prediction can generally be defined as “guesses” and can be easy to confuse, these terms are different. The main difference between a hypothesis and a prediction is that the first is predominantly used in science, while the latter is most often used outside of science.

Simply put, a hypothesis is an intelligent assumption. It is a guess made regarding the nature of the unknown (or less known) phenomena based on existing knowledge, studies, and/or series of experiments, and is otherwise grounded by valid facts. The main purpose of a hypothesis is to use available facts to create a logical relationship between variables in order to provide a more precise scientific explanation. Additionally, hypotheses are statements that can be tested with further experiments. It is an assumption you make regarding the flow and outcome(s) of your research study.

A prediction, on the contrary, is a guess that often lacks grounding. Although, in theory, a prediction can be scientific, in most cases it is rather fictional—i.e. a pure guess that is not based on current knowledge and/or facts. As a rule, predictions are linked to foretelling events that may or may not occur in the future. Often, a person who makes predictions has little or no actual knowledge of the subject matter he or she makes the assumption about.

Another big difference between these terms is in the methodology used to prove each of them. A prediction can only be proven once. You can determine whether it is right or wrong only upon the occurrence or non-occurrence of the predicted event. A hypothesis, on the other hand, offers scope for further testing and experiments. Additionally, a hypothesis can be proven in multiple stages. This basically means that a single hypothesis can be proven or refuted numerous times by different scientists who use different scientific tools and methods.

To give you a better idea of how a hypothesis is different from a prediction, let’s look at the following examples:

Hypothesis: If I eat more vegetables and fruits, then I will lose weight faster.

This is a hypothesis because it is based on generally available knowledge (i.e. fruits and vegetables include fewer calories compared to other foods) and past experiences (i.e. people who give preference to healthier foods like fruits and vegetables are losing weight easier). It is still a guess, but it is based on facts and can be tested with an experiment.

Prediction: The end of the world will occur in 2023.

This is a prediction because it foretells future events. However, this assumption is fictional as it doesn’t have any actual grounded evidence supported by facts.

Based on everything that was said earlier and our examples, we can highlight the following key takeaways:

  • A hypothesis, unlike a prediction, is a more intelligent assumption based on facts.
  • Hypotheses define existing variables and analyze the relationship(s) between them.
  • Predictions are most often fictional and lack grounding.
  • A prediction is most often used to foretell events in the future.
  • A prediction can only be proven once – when the predicted event occurs or doesn’t occur. 
  • A hypothesis can remain a hypothesis even if one scientist has already proven or disproven it. Other scientists in the future can obtain a different result using other methods and tools.

We also recommend that you read about some informative essay topics .

Now, as you know what a hypothesis is, what types of it exist, and how it differs from a prediction, you are probably wondering how to state a hypothesis. In this section, we will guide you through the main stages of writing a good hypothesis and provide handy tips and examples to help you overcome this challenge:

how to write

1. Define Your Research Question

Here is one thing to keep in mind – regardless of the paper or project you are working on, the process should always start with asking the right research question. A perfect research question should be specific, clear, focused (meaning not too broad), and manageable.

Example: How does eating fruits and vegetables affect human health?

2. Conduct Your Basic Initial Research

As you already know, a hypothesis is an educated guess of the expected results and outcomes of an investigation. Thus, it is vital to collect some information before you can make this assumption.

At this stage, you should find an answer to your research question based on what has already been discovered. Search for facts, past studies, theories, etc. Based on the collected information, you should be able to make a logical and intelligent guess.

3. Formulate a Hypothesis

Based on the initial research, you should have a certain idea of what you may find throughout the course of your research. Use this knowledge to shape a clear and concise hypothesis.

Based on the type of project you are working on, and the type of hypothesis you are planning to use, you can restate your hypothesis in several different ways:

Non-directional: Eating fruits and vegetables will affect one’s human physical health. Directional: Eating fruits and vegetables will positively affect one’s human physical health. Null: Eating fruits and vegetables will have no effect on one’s human physical health.

4. Refine Your Hypothesis

Finally, the last stage of creating a good hypothesis is refining what you’ve got. During this step, you need to define whether your hypothesis:

  • Has clear and relevant variables;
  • Identifies the relationship between its variables;
  • Is specific and testable;
  • Suggests a predicted result of the investigation or experiment.

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Following a step-by-step guide and tips from our essay writers for hire , you should be able to create good hypotheses with ease. To give you a starting point, we have also compiled a list of different research questions with one hypothesis and one null hypothesis example for each:

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Sometimes, coping with a large academic load is just too much for a student to handle. Papers like research papers and dissertations can take too much time and effort to write, and, often, a hypothesis is a necessary starting point to get the task on track. Writing or editing a hypothesis is not as easy as it may seem. However, if you need help with forming it, the team at EssayPro is always ready to come to your rescue! If you’re feeling stuck, or don’t have enough time to cope with other tasks, don’t hesitate to send us you rewrite my essay for me or any other request.

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How to Write a Hypothesis with Examples and Explanations

20 August 2023

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A hypothesis refers to a statement that predicts the findings of a research study. Basically, researchers develop propositions to provide tentative answers to research questions that address different aspects of the research question. In this case, a scholar must use existing theories and knowledge to create an assumption. Besides, a researcher focuses on testing supposed claims through different methods, like experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of the data. In practice, the findings from a study can either support or refute a hypothesis. Then, when writing a suggestion, scholars should conduct adequate research on the topic, brainstorm for ideas, draft a hypothesis, revise a draft supposition, and write a final claim in simple language. Also, these steps lead to the development of accurate and precise propositions that identify relationships between independent and dependent variables. In practice, one should rely on a cause and effect theory when developing a hypothesis.

General Aspects of Writing a Hypothesis

A hypothesis suggests a sentence as a statement that gives a prediction about the findings of a research study. Basically, researchers make a hypothesis, which acts as a tentative answer to the research question. In this case, a proposition lacks scientific or scholarly proof. Then, a reasonable hypothesis must address different aspects of the research question. In turn, researchers must base a proposition on existing theories and knowledge. Besides, it has to be testable through various methods, like experiments, observations, and statistical analysis. In practice, the findings from a study can either support or refute a working hypothesis. Therefore, a hypothesis refers to a statement that tries to predict the results of a survey.

How to write a hypothesis

Independent and Dependent Variables

A hypothesis in some studies must contain independent and dependent variables. For example. experimental and correlational research examines relationships between two or more variables. In turn, independent variables refer to factors that researchers can control or change. Besides, a dependent variable refers to factors that scholars observe or measure. Then, a null hypothesis of experimental and correlational studies must predict relationships between dependent and independent variables. Moreover, such predictions should not be guesses but should contain evidence from research studies.

Types of a Hypothesis

There are different types of hypotheses that researchers can develop in their studies. In this case, the following are the common types of hypotheses:

  • A simple hypothesis refers to predictions of relationships between independent and dependent variables.
  • A complex hypothesis predicts relationships between two or more independent and dependent variables.
  • An empirical hypothesis is a working prediction that exists when a researcher tests a theory by using observations and experiments. Basically, this type of hypothesis goes through some trial and error methods to obtain the necessary findings. In some instances, researchers may change some variables around other variables.  
  • A null hypothesis , denoted as H 0 , exists when a researcher believes that a relationship does not exist between independent and dependent variables. Basically, this hypothesis may exist when a researcher lacks adequate information to make a scientific prediction. Besides, inferences made from the findings attempt to disapprove or discredit a null hypothesis.  
  • An alternative hypothesis , denoted as H 1 , attempts to disapprove a null hypothesis. In this case, researchers attempt to discover or affirm an alternative proposition. 
  • A logical hypothesis refers to a proposed explanation of a concept that contains limited evidence. In practice, investigators intend to turn a reasonable assumption into an empirical claim. Also, researchers put theories or postulate it to the test.
  • A statistical hypothesis is a claim related to studies that examine a section of the population. In this case, researchers identify a sample population and study their behaviors related to the research question. 

Crafting a Hypothesis

Researchers should focus on developing reasonable hypotheses for their studies. For example, one should consider different factors that relate to existing studies or theories. In this case, some predictions should pertain to research data and provide tentative answers to research questions. Hence, the following are the essential steps that a researcher should consider when developing a hypothesis.

Step 1. Researching

The first step in developing a hypothesis is to research and gather details related to the intended topic. Basically, researching allows a scholar to gain more knowledge concerning issues and factors and how variables change. Besides, this step will enable researchers to become familiar with the expected results. As a result, it influences a relevant hypothesis’s development.

Step 2. Asking Questions

A researcher should develop research questions before developing a hypothesis. For instance, investigators should create scientific questions that relate to the study and identified variables. In this case, brainstorming enhances the ability to determine relationships between independent and dependent variables. Basically, successful scholars remain focused on one cause and effect theory to ensure that they develop accurate ideas for a hypothesis. Therefore, the second step in developing a proposition is to brainstorm questions that reveal the relationship between independent and dependent variables. 

Step 3. Use Clear Language

Scholars should use simple and clear language when developing a hypothesis for a study. For instance, one should draft concise predictions that answer developed research questions. In practice, one should write a hypothesis in a form that proposes that an action leads to a specific result. Moreover, a researcher should not state a supposition as a question but as an affirmative statement that predicts outcomes from a particular course of action. Therefore, the third step in developing a hypothesis involves selecting a simple language for drafting scientific predictions. 

Step 4. Revising a Hypothesis

A scholar should revise a draft hypothesis to ensure that it makes a testable thesis through research and experimentation. For instance, a researcher should review a prediction to ensure that it captures relationships between at least two variables. Hence, a scholar must revise a drafted hypothesis to ensure that it captures a testable relationship between independent and dependent variables.     

Examples of a Hypothesis

1. sociology.

  • Research question – How does divorce affect sociological development among young children?
  • H 0 – Challenges that lead to divorce hurt young children’s social development, which affects their ability to interact with other people. 
  • H 1 – Most children manage to cope with domestic challenges that lead to divorce, enabling them to realize healthy sociological development.
  • Research question – How did tenebrism influence baroque art during the 16 th and 17 th centuries?
  • H 0 – The origin of tenebrism had a positive impact on the dynamic appearance of baroque art.
  • H 1 – Baroque art emerged as a unique art that did not have any form of external influence.

3. Geography

  • Research question – To what extent does geological activity affect the Earth?
  • H 0 – The movement of tectonic plates beneath the Earth’s surface results in volcanic eruptions and faults that lead to mountains and lift valleys.  
  • H 1 – Mountains and valleys are natural features with little connection with geological activities like the movement of tectonic plates beneath the Earth’s surface.

4. Philosophy Hypothesis

  • Research question – Do animals have rights and welfare in society?
  • H 0 – Wild and domestic animals are living creatures with a right to care and protection by humans.
  • H 1 – Wild and domestic animals are subordinate to a human, which implies that they do not have a right to care and protection.  
  • Research question – Does the consumption of genetically modified plants cause health complications in humans?
  • H 0 – Genetically modified foods are safe for human consumption and do not pose any possible health risks.
  • H 1 – Genetically modified foods interfere with healthy cell development, which leads to health complications.

4. Indigenous Studies

  • Research question – What role does culture play among indigenous communities?
  • H 0 – Cultural practices among aboriginals promote their identity and contribute to the members’ overall well-being.
  • H 1 – cultural practices among aboriginals do not significantly contribute to the quality of their lives.
  • Research question – Does fascism exist in the twenty-first century?
  • H 0 – The established forms of democracy in the twenty-first century do not allow political leaders to implement all the fascism elements.
  • H 1 – Some political leaders in the twenty-first century adopt radical policies that promote the existence of fascism.
  • Research question – Do neutrons have mass?
  • H 0 – Neutrons are small particles that have masses.
  • H 1 – Neutrons are small particles whose weight remains insignificant.

7. Health Studies

  • Research question – How do evidence-based treatment approaches enhance the quality of the treatments?
  • H 0 – Evidence-based treatment methods allow doctors to gather adequate and accurate information about the patient, which helps tailor treatment and care approaches to meet the patient’s needs.
  • H 1 – Evidence-based approaches do not enhance the quality of the treatments since they lead to inconsistency in the care and medications given to a patient.

8. Environmental Studies

  • Research question – To what extent do human activities contribute to global warming?
  • H 0 – Most human activities release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, which results in the rise of average temperatures.
  • H 1 – Most human activities release insignificant amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming.

Summing Up on How to Write a Good Scientific Hypothesis in a Research Paper

A hypothesis gives a prediction about the findings of a research study. Basically, researchers develop hypotheses to provide a tentative answer to research questions. In turn, some of the factors that one must consider when writing a hypothesis include:

  • conduct adequate research on the topic;
  • brainstorm for ideas;
  • draft a hypothesis;
  • revise a draft proposition;
  • write a final hypothesis in simple language.

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Behavior-relevant top-down cross-modal predictions in mouse neocortex

Affiliations.

  • 1 Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. [email protected] .
  • 2 Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. [email protected] .
  • 3 Neuroscience Center Zurich (ZNZ), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. [email protected] .
  • 4 University Research Priority Program (URPP), Adaptive Brain Circuits in Development and Learning, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. [email protected] .
  • PMID: 38177341
  • DOI: 10.1038/s41593-023-01534-x

Animals adapt to a constantly changing world by predicting their environment and the consequences of their actions. The predictive coding hypothesis proposes that the brain generates predictions and continuously compares them with sensory inputs to guide behavior. However, how the brain reconciles conflicting top-down predictions and bottom-up sensory information remains unclear. To address this question, we simultaneously imaged neuronal populations in the mouse somatosensory barrel cortex and posterior parietal cortex during an auditory-cued texture discrimination task. In mice that had learned the task with fixed tone-texture matching, the presentation of mismatched pairing induced conflicts between tone-based texture predictions and actual texture inputs. When decisions were based on the predicted rather than the actual texture, top-down information flow was dominant and texture representations in both areas were modified, whereas dominant bottom-up information flow led to correct representations and behavioral choice. Our findings provide evidence for hierarchical predictive coding in the mouse neocortex.

© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature America, Inc.

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What to Expect from the Global Economy in 2024

  • Walter Frick

how to write hypothesis and predictions

The outlook for interest rates, jobs, financial markets, and more.

The economy is ending 2023 in better shape than expected. Most importantly, inflation is falling in much of the world and some central bankers have signaled likely interest rate cuts in 2024. But risks remain as higher interest rates work their way through markets. Geopolitics also looms large.

As 2023 comes to a close, the global economy is, in many ways, doing better than expected. The U.S. not only avoided a recession but has grown at a steady clip. Unemployment has been low and, crucially, inflation is falling in most of the world .

  • Walter Frick is a contributing editor at Harvard Business Review , where he was formerly a senior editor and deputy editor of HBR.org. He is the founder of Nonrival , a newsletter where readers make crowdsourced predictions about economics and business. He has been an executive editor at Quartz as well as a Knight Visiting Fellow at Harvard’s Nieman Foundation for Journalism and an Assembly Fellow at Harvard’s Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society. He has also written for The Atlantic , MIT Technology Review , The Boston Globe , and the BBC, among other publications.

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Will KJ-T strike Olympic gold? Will Sunak go for an early election? How much will Taylor Swift fans bring to the UK economy? From tech to fashion, food to politics, the Observer’s top writers predict who and what will make the headlines

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Fashion and lifestyle have a knack for the surprise. The out-of-the-blue rise of butter moulding, say, or the sudden coolness of a shoe with a cloven toe.

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Divergence and disparateness are the mood music for 2024. What this means for fashion is yet more extreme luxury , both of the stealth wealth and exhibitionist varieties. But there will also be more emphasis than ever on thrifting , textile recycling, and the development of new materials, especially in the luxury market. Expect more seaweed yarns, plastic-free sequins and grape leathers like those shown by designer Stella McCartney at Cop28.

With several elections set for 2024, slogan T-shirts will be used once more for political statements and to pledge allegiance rather than for more personal messages. Expect Maga caps and merch in the vein of Keir Starmer’s Sparkle With Starmer tee, turned around at speed after he was glitter-bombed at Labour conference. There’ll also be more politicians in the pages of Vogue, à la Angela Rayner.

Pinterest predicts that slowcations are the new holidays, with searches up for things like “slow life” and “digital detox challenge”. That doesn’t mean we’ll stay at home, however. This is meant to be the year that travel will surpass pre-pandemic levels, so the holidaywear market is expected to boom. Guessing the mood for summer of 2024 is a fool’s errand this many months out. However, it probably will involve something sporty, given this summer will see Paris, city of chic, play host to the Olympics. Get ready to see some very well-dressed athletes, and the rest of us trying to copy them.

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Americans can be sure when they will be choosing their president because the election date – the Tuesday after the first Monday in November – is mandated by law. We don’t know when the UK will go to the polls because the decision lies in the hands of the prime minister.

Rishi Sunak could even swerve an election in 2024 because the last possible legal date open to him is 28 January 2025. Clinging on until he hit the buffers would make him look totally terrified of the voters. It would also entail the campaign running over Christmas, which would be popular with no one.

Rishi Sunak

Spring or autumn is the choice facing the Tory leader. Anyone who claims to be certain what he will do is either a fool or a fibber, because he doesn’t know himself. Like any politician in his dire circumstances, he’s trying to keep his options open and his opponents guessing. Take with a pinch of salt the flurry of speculation that he is leaning to spring since the announcement that the budget will be on 6 March. That gives him the scope to go to the king soon afterwards to ask for the dissolution of parliament in order to time the general election to coincide with the locals on 2 May.

That might appeal to the Tories if they were suddenly looking competitive, but I struggle to visualise the circumstances in which their whopping deficit in the polls will shrink enough to make that look attractive. As for any budget “giveaways” that Jeremy Hunt might conjure up, tax cuts will look extremely cynical and suspicious if they are almost instantly followed by a dash to the country.

I forecast an autumn contest for two main reasons. There’s a better chance that the Bank of England will have started to cut interest rates by then. For many voters, reductions in inflation and borrowing costs will make a bigger difference to their quality of life than any tax cuts.

My second reason for expecting an autumn election is the psychology of beleaguered incumbents who fear the verdict of the electorate. Leaders who aren’t confident of winning almost invariably delay the moment of reckoning in the hope that something will turn up to save them, as did Alec Douglas-Home in the early 1960s, Jim Callaghan in the late 70s, John Major in the late 90s and Gordon Brown in the run-up to the 2010 election. Delay didn’t spare any of them, but it did give them some extra months at No 10. Never underestimate how much their position on the longevity league table matters to prime ministers.

The environment

by Ashish Ghadiali

It looks as if 2024 will be the year of climate action versus the culture wars as crucial elections take place across the US, the UK, the EU and India. These four are some of the world’s highest emitters of greenhouse gases and, across them all, rightwing parties are promising to row back on existing commitments to climate action in an appeal for the populist vote.

An elephant lies dead in Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe

Donald Trump, who as US president in 2016 made withdrawal from the Paris agreement an early statement of intent, is again the frontrunner for the Republican nomination and has already promised to renege on the Biden administration’s $3bn pledge at Cop28 for a Green Climate Fund. He also promises to reverse the Environment Protection Agency’s plan to require two-thirds of all new cars sold in the US to be electric by 2032.

Meanwhile, elections for the European parliament in June will see citizens across the EU weigh in on the future of the European Green New Deal , the proposal developed over the past four years by European Commission president Ursula von der Leyen to achieve climate neutrality by 2050.

Such decisive contests will take place during what many climate scientists predict will be the hottest year on record (an accolade currently held by 2023) when, according to Professor Petteri Taalas, secretary-­general of the World Meteorological Organisation, unprecedented levels of greenhouse gas, new global temperature highs, record sea level increases and Antarctic sea ice lows, amounted to a “deafening cacophony of ­broken records”.

Extreme heat in 2024 will be driven by the “ super El Niño ” – a phenomenon of ocean warming in the Pacific that disrupts the Earth’s weather systems, increasing the risk of extreme events around the world, including heatwaves, wildfires, heavy rains and floods – which, in turn, has the potential to hit crop yields threatening both food and global commodity supply chains.

The environmental cost of political instability will be evident, nowhere more than in Gaza where the 25,000 tonnes of munitions dropped on the city within the first few weeks of the conflict amounted to the annual greenhouse gas emissions produced by nearly 5,000 passenger vehicles.

Ramallah-based Nada Majdalani, director of EcoPeace Middle East, says decaying bodies and contaminated water supplies now amount to a “ticking time bomb” that may lead to the spread of deadly diseases, including cholera.

The total shutdown of wastewater treatment plants in Gaza last October is currently driving the release of more than 130,000 cubic metres of untreated sewage into the Mediterranean every day, according to data released by the Norwegian Refugee Council.

by Barbara Ellen

Dramatisation of significant novels is a big theme for 2024. On BBC One, there’ll be an adaptation of Mr Loverman , the novel by Booker-prizewinning author, Bernardine Evaristo, starring Lennie James and focusing on life and love in the older British Caribbean community. On Netflix, One Day by David Nicholls is another key adaptation. A 14-episode series will feature Ambika Mod and Leo Woodall as the star-crossed lovers, with each episode representing one year.

Ambika Mod and Leo Woodall in One Day, on Netflix.

Anna Maxwell Martin is to star in the BBC Three series of Holly Jackson’s A Good Girl’s Guide to Murder . Meanwhile, those who loved Anthony Minghella’s film of Patricia Highsmith’s The Talented Mr Ripley may be interested to hear that a TV series, Ripley , is imminent. Made by Netflix, it will star Andrew Scott, Johnny Flynn and Dakota Fanning.

Elsewhere in 2024, there looks to be a strong trend for heightened social commentary in British drama. Steven Knight (creator of Peaky Blinders ) is to deliver a new six-part BBC One show, This Town , about 1980s-era working-class life focused on the ska music scene. Alongside the four young leads (Levi Brown, Jordan Bolger, Ben Rose and Eve Austin), it also stars Michelle Dockery, Nicholas Pinnock and Geraldine James. On the same channel, actor Michael Sheen co-creates and directs The Way , a sociopolitical tale of a fictional civil uprising in a small industrial town.

Over on ITV1, Joanne Froggatt is to play an NHS doctor at the time of the pandemic in the three-part series Breathtaking . This is adapted by medic Rachel Clarke from her personal memoir, and co-written by Line of Duty’s Jed Mercurio and Prasanna Puwanarajah, both also former doctors.

On BBC One, there’s the return of two acclaimed hard-hitting dramas. Nottingham-set Sherwood , with returning cast members, David Morrissey and Lesley Manville, joined by David Harewood and Monica Dolan. Also, Tony Schumacher’s The Responder , which once again stars Martin Freeman as a policeman mired in criminality and corruption in Liverpool.

Regarding talent to look out for in 2024, young Irish actor Katherine Devlin recently shone in the BBC One Northern Irish police drama, Blue Lights . With another series of the show planned, Devlin is also due to star alongside Eddie Redmayne in the forthcoming TV version of The Day of the Jackal , produced by Top Boy’s Ronan Bennett.

Theatre, dance and visual arts

by Vanessa Thorpe

New Year’s fireworks continue in the West End, where a run of glittering theatrical turns is due to light up early 2024. In February, Succession ’s Sarah Snook will perform her one-woman version of Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray to Royal Theatre Haymarket audiences, and, before that, the queen of Manhattan heels, Sarah Jessica Parker, appears at the Savoy Theatre alongside her husband, Matthew Broderick, late of Netflix’s pharma-drama Pain , in a revival of Neil Simon’s 1968 comedy, Plaza Suite .

More powerful wattage still may come in February from homegrown star Matt Smith, who returns to the West End stage after 15 years to take the lead role of Dr Stockmann in Henrik Ibsen’s time-tested classic, An Enemy of the People . It’s a play that repeatedly picks up fresh political resonance, as well as purportedly inspiring Peter Benchley to write Jaws . It’s the English-language premiere of German director Thomas Ostermeier’s acclaimed “townhall debate” production, in which the audience is invited to tackle the ethics of the plot.

Georges Seurat’s Bathers at Asnières, 1884

In March, another beloved television Smith, Sheridan, opens at the Gielgud Theatre in a new musical by Rufus Wainwright, all about such a stage premiere. Based on John Cassavetes’s 1977 film, Opening Night , it’s directed by Ivo van Hove. Wainwright has said: “I’ve been waiting for ages to write my first musical … I don’t think I could’ve aimed any higher.”

Spectacle, in the shape of thousands of silk carnations strewn across the stage of Sadler’s Wells, will draw ballet fans to the first revival of Pina Bausch’s Nelken (Carnations) since 2005 . Opening on Valentine’s Day, it features the now-fabled “Nelken line” dance motif, illustrating the passing seasons. The latest generation of 20 of the late Bausch’s Tanztheater Wuppertal dancers will hop over, kiss and squash the flowers once again.

Bradford receives an early taste of national attention this summer, as it gears up for 2025’s UK City of Culture status. The Bradford Live venue is unveiled shortly after the National Science & Media Museum is due to reopen its doors, following £6m of work. The city’s literature festival gets in first though, celebrating a 10th anniversary at the end of June.

And for those not yet sick of Barbie pink, London’s Design Museum salutes the doll’s 65th birthday with a dedicated show running from early July. More conventional museum fare will be widely available from May when Britain’s historic repository of visual art, the National Gallery, marks its 200th anniversary. The gallery is linking up with 12 other sites – including museums in Liverpool, Newcastle, Cambridge and Brighton – to display key pieces, for free.

January also offers a partial answer to all the mystery surrounding the new Matthew Vaughn thriller, Argylle . The publication date of the book the film is supposedly based upon, written by an “Elly Conway” (last heard of as a fictional character in TV’s Neighbours ), is 9 January. Vaughn’s big budget film, which stars Henry Cavill and Dua Lipa, is released in February.

by John Naughton

If 2023 was the year of ChatGPT, then 2024 will be the year when the world recovers from the shock of generative AI and takes stock of what the technology offers. At the moment, the Gartner Hype Cycle – a visualisation of the social use of technologies – has AI right at the “Peak of Inflated Expectations”, poised to begin the downward slide into the “Trough of Disillusionment” with a predicted time to productive deployment of five to 10 years. So we’re embarking on a decade of experimentation and deployment. Our future, says Steven Levy, Wired’s editor at large, “will be characterised by a tension between copilot (AI as collaborator) and autopilot (humans as sidekick to AI). The latter is more efficient and cheaper in a narrow labour economics sense but troublesome in all sorts of ways.”

Tesla electric cars on charge.

Sales of electric vehicles (EVs) will increase, further outpacing countries’ national charging infrastructures. And Europe will find itself locked into a toxic loop as Chinese-built EVs flood in. This is happening because European governments subsidise the purchase of EVs, while China subsidises their production. Since Chinese domestic demand for the cars has slumped, they are being effectively dumped on Europe. This won’t end well.

Twitter/X will continue its self-imposed decline as its owner thrashes around trying to staunch the bleeding. No matter how decrepit the network becomes, though people will use it because of the absence of an alternative that isn’t owned by Mark Zuckerberg.

With its legislative triad of the Digital Services Act, Digital Markets Act and (forthcoming) AI Act, the EU will continue to be the only game in town for tech regulation . Signs of its effectiveness are beginning to surface – for example with Meta, Facebook’s owner, offering customers in Europe ad-free subscriptions. Google’s competition problems in the US will go on. Self-driving cars will continue to be – like artificial general intelligence and nuclear fusion – “some decades off”.

Foreign affairs

by Simon Tisdall

Suspense over the outcome of the US presidential election in November will increasingly command American domestic and international attention. Joe Biden plans to ignore many in his own party and seek a second term despite his age (81) and low approval ratings. The Democrats’ nightmare: Biden becomes unwell or suffers some disastrous embarrassment when it’s too late to replace him. Few believe vice-president Kamala Harris could step into his shoes. Donald Trump, who will be 78 in November, will win the Republican nomination. But his overall national approval rating is as negative as Biden’s, at roughly -15%. It’s also possible Trump will be in jail come the election. Prediction: Biden wins the popular vote, Trump the electoral college – which means Trump gets a second term.

Donald Trump

President Xi Jinping, is now the most powerful Chinese leader since Mao Zedong. The downside, for him, is that when things go wrong, he cannot escape blame. And things are going wrong. The economy is struggling, unemployment among young people is up, there’s a debt, investment and property crisis, and the population is ageing. Xi’s expansionist policies, predatory trade practices, disregard for international law, and human rights abuses have alienated neighbours, provoking western pushback. Taiwan, which Xi insists is part of China, worries he may attack to distract attention from domestic problems. Purges of top officials have added to a sense of instability. Prediction: Xi is stripped of some or all of his powers in an internal Communist party revolt.

At a time when democracy is everywhere under attack, 2024, paradoxically, will see record numbers of elections – possibly in more than 50 countries, depending on dates and how defined. Sadly, a lot of these polls will not be freely contested. Results can be predicted in advance. Vladimir Putin’s re-election as Russia’s president in March is not in doubt. In other countries, too, the cards are stacked against opponents to such a degree that incumbents can hardly fail to win. Examples are India, Iran, Belarus and Venezuela. Genuinely open contests are expected in the UK, Taiwan, across the EU – including for the European parliament in June – and in the US. Holding elections in the midst of a war will be a big test for Ukraine’s democracy. Prediction: this global vote-fest will see further advances for authoritarian and populist-nationalist far right leaders.

by Rupert Jones

The cost of living crisis will continue to dominate the headlines – although economists will be watching to see if the signs that pressure is easing develop into something more substantial.

Just when many people’s finances will be feeling especially fragile as a result of festive spending, households will begin the new year with a typical 5% increase in energy bills . That’s because the regulator, Ofgem, raised the energy price cap to £1,928 a year for a typical household using gas and electricity and paying by direct debit.

Taylor Swift

The cap is for 1 January to 31 March, but the energy consultancy Cornwall Insight predicts it will then fall back: to £1,816 from 1 April, and then to £1,793 from the start of July.

Another bit of potential bad news concerns food prices . New border checks on food and fresh produce from the EU that begin on 31 January will add costs to imported ingredients and could be a big inflationary factor, bodies such as the British Sandwich & Food to Go Association have warned.

But an expansion of free childcare schemes starting from April should, in theory, relieve some pressure on family finances. From that month, eligible working parents of two-year-olds will get 15 hours a week of taxpayer-funded childcare for 38 weeks of the year – the first part of a phased expansion.

House prices and mortgages will continue to be a national obsession. The Office for Budget Responsibility has predicted house prices will fall by 4.7% in 2024, which would please first-time buyers, though maybe not homeowners. However, the housing market has form when it comes to defying a predicted downturn or crash. And with Halifax and Nationwide reporting house prices rose in both October and November, you wouldn’t bet against the market ending the year in positive territory.

The cost of new fixed-rate mortgages has been coming down, and Nicholas Mendes at mortgage broker John Charcol predicts there will be further cuts in 2024. “Five-year fixed rates will be the first to see a sub-4% rate, with two- and three-year fixed rates then breaking the 4.5% benchmark,” he added.

Meanwhile, analysts will be waiting to find out if Taylor Swift can sprinkle her stardust on the UK economy when her tour arrives in June. Earlier this year the market research firm QuestionPro estimated that her Eras Tour could generate $5bn (£3.9bn) for the US economy – more than the gross domestic product of 50 countries. “The Taylor Swift economy” is not just folklore: the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia confirmed her three concerts in the city in May had boosted tourism revenue.

Swift is doing 15 shows in Great Britain, in front of almost 1.2 million people. The gigs should unleash a wave of spending on merchandise, food and drink, travel, accommodation and new outfits. Lighthouse, a travel and hospitality industry data specialist, said there were clear indications the singer would positively affect the cities where she is playing.

by Sean Ingle

Sport will be dominated by two mega events: the Olympic Games and the men’s football European Championships. Britain’s biggest stars should take centre stage in both.

Half a million people will attend the opening ceremony of the Paris Games on 26 July, which will see a flotilla of 160 boats carrying athletes travelling along nearly four miles of the Seine. Expect spectacular theatre, dance and circus performances before the Games are officially opened at the Trocadéro.

Katarina Johnson-Thompson

That should set the stage for the rest of the Olympics, which organisers hope will be a spectacular reboot after corruption and then Covid marred the Rio and Tokyo Games.

Rather than build new venues, Paris’s famous sites will take centre stage. Skateboarding, breaking and 3x3 basketball will be held at Place de la Concorde, equestrian at the Palace of Versailles. Beach volleyball will be in front of the Eiffel Tower.

It means this will be the first true Olympics for the Insta generation, and once again Team GB should be near the top of the medal table. Expect Adam Peaty, Tom Daley and Katarina Johnson-Thompson to return – and new stars, such as super-heavyweight boxer Delicious Orie and 21-year-old cyclist Emma Finucane , to emerge.

Before the Olympics, England’s male footballers will hope to match the women’s team success in 2022 by winning the Euro 2024 . A kind draw has given Gareth Southgate’s side every chance – with bookies making them joint favourites alongside France, although Scotland are also through, with Wales hoping for a play-off win to qualify. If England do go far, don’t be surprised if Jude Bellingham , the 20-year-old Real Madrid midfielder, wins the 2024 BBC’s Sports Personality of the Year.

Meanwhile, after women’s sport delivered record audiences in football, basketball, golf, tennis and cricket in 2023, the global sports and culture company IMG is predicting that “will convert to tangible dollars” in 2024. “There is already data to suggest that fans of women’s sports will… support the brands that commit to it,” IMG’s recent report states. “[Women’s sport sponsor] Michelob Ultra found fans of women’s sport are 30% more likely to engage with its brand than fans of men’s sports.”

The report also predicts the rise of the mega influencer will grow even further after Cristiano Ronaldo joined the Saudi Pro League and Lionel Messi went to Major League Soccer.

by Tony Naylor

Restaurant land remains volatile. Costs are high, staff in short supply, spending was down for long periods last year. But hospitality will adapt, survive, in many cases thrive. It is resilient, with escapism very much on the menu in 2024.

Bubble tea

The new Leeds branch of Pizza Pilgrims features a pink flamingo pedalo that dispenses soft-serve ice-creams. Diners can sit in it and use pedal power to play an old gramophone. That is where we are now. Goodbye leather aprons, hand-thrown earthenware and artisan minimalism. Hello eye-popping interiors, DJs, live music, theatrical tableside service, chefs on display in counter kitchens and endless collaborations, as restaurants seek an experiential edge over their rivals.

Big food hall openings , such as the forthcoming Boxpark Liverpool, will continue for similar reasons of entertainment and variety, as traditional meal times and formats change. Wine bars serving snack-y, quality small plates will also embed.

That is, if you’re still drinking. A recent Olive magazine survey of Gen Z habits found more 16-to-26-year-olds drink bubble tea weekly than alcohol. Alcohol-free options will grow, but also creativity in lower-strength cocktails and, after recent alcohol duty changes, beers under 3.5% ABV. Carlsberg has already reformulated its flagship pils for UK drinkers at 3.4%.

Need something stronger? Orange wine, whiskey and spicy, chilli-mined cocktails are trending. You may think heat has peaked. But hot sauce sales are still surging, up 94% last year at specialist Hop, Burns & Black.

With excitement around veganism cooling, flexitarianism is back on the agenda. Though focusing on veg-led dishes is a win-win for restaurants in managing ingredient costs, menu prices and on sustainability. In fish, predicts Jack Stein, chef-director at Rick Stein’s restaurants, there’ll be growing interest in the cheaper pouting, dab and whiting.

Cuisine-wise, Waitrose tips Nepalese and Pakistani food for greater exposure in Britain. The supermarket is also backing Korean doenjang paste as the new miso, as east Asian food continues to enthral foodies. From omakase dining (a menu set by the chef) to senbei rice crackers (a 2024 tip from specialist retailer, Sous Chef), Japanese food , in particular, will be a huge inspiration.

Alternatively, Pinterest is reporting search increases for “melty mashups”, comfort food crossovers which, despite the terrifying name, sound (pizza-inspired pies, smashed burger tacos, ramen noodle carbonara) quite tasty, actually. Jelly sweet kebabs, less so.

How that fits with our burgeoning interest in gut health, who knows? But as we toast 2024 – perhaps, with Joia restaurant’s squid ink-blackened cocktail – it is guaranteed to be interesting.

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Opinion | Look for the death of X and audio deepfakes in 2024

A look back at the big trends in misinformation in 2023, and what to expect this year.

how to write hypothesis and predictions

The Pope in a Balenciaga puffer coat. An explosion at the Pentagon . Donald Trump fleeing the police .

None of these things happened last year. But, thanks to generative artificial intelligence, realistic images of them went viral.

Generative AI has added a new threat to the information ecosystem. Although the technology, available to anyone and easily accessible for the first time in 2023, did not have an outsized impact in terms of misinformation, I worry about where the technology will take us.

In 2024, billions of people in dozens of nations will head to the polls for the biggest election year in history . Gearing up for that — and the inevitable falsehoods that come with every election — here is a rundown of the biggest trends in misinformation in 2023, and what to expect this year.

Generative AI: Threat, overblown or solution to the misinformation problem?

In early December, I attended the Google News Initiative’s Trusted Media Summit APAC , where I had two conversations dozens of times.

The first: Generative AI is going to supercharge the spread of misinformation, the tools to identify it are inadequate and fact-checkers are underresourced to fight it at scale. The second: The AI panic is overblown, and fact-checkers should start using the technology themselves ( Full Fact, Chequadeo, Aos Fatos and others have AI tools in place now.)

I think we’re somewhere in between. The technology underpinning generative AI is advancing quickly, with Google recently announcing a new AI model that allegedly outperforms the current standard-bearer, GPT-4 (as in ChatGPT from OpenAI.)

With the technology evolving so fast, we’re bound to see more AI misinformation this year, especially with misinformers looking to swing elections. Bad actors won’t necessarily be trying to fool anyone with AI-generated images or videos, they’ll aim to create enough poor-quality content — such as these images of a pro-Israel rally featuring 3- and 4-armed people in balconies — to make social media users skeptical of anything they see.

It’s similar to the “flood the zone” tactic touted by U.S. political operatives in past elections .

By the end of this year, people might not trust anything they see — or hear. Audio deepfakes will be the main source of generative AI misinformation, since it’s the easiest kind to make and has already proven impactful in some countries .

But I don’t see generative AI overtaking cheap fakes , dumb memes or political statements as the primary vectors for misinformation. And I wholeheartedly agree with my colleagues at the Trusted Media Summit that fact-checkers and newsrooms should suspend their fear of generative AI and experiment with tools like ChatGPT , Bard , Bing or Claude .

X inches toward death, as crowdsourced fact-checking gets attention

X was already a misinformation disaster before Elon Musk restored Alex Jones’ account in mid-December.

Musk increased the incentive to lie for clout on the platform when he elevated posts from anyone who pays for a blue checkmark — and promised them advertising revenue on viral tweets. The results have been disastrous: The amount of misinformation about the Israel-Hamas war on the platform is the worst I’ve seen for any topic.

Musk spent much of 2023 touting crowdsourced fact-checking as a solution to the problem. It’s not .

Community Notes allows roughly 270,000 users to add “context notes” to misleading posts. It has promise to be a powerful new tool to help trust and safety teams flag misinformation on social platforms. I liked it before it was cool .

But it doesn’t scale. And it cannot supplant the work of trust and safety teams.

Notes have appeared on about 35,000 tweets since 2021 (compare that to the millions of tweets posted every day). That’s because for notes to become public, users from diverse ideological backgrounds must agree they’re useful, accurate and contain high-quality sources, among other variables. That’s no easy feat in this polarized environment, which has led to less than 9% of notes going public.

Further, Musk himself claimed state actors are able to manipulate note status , elevating questionable notes to be public or unpublish legitimate ones, and I’ve heard similar claims from fact-checkers in Brazil.

I’ve long advocated for human intervention that could quickly surface legitimate notes regardless of ideological agreement (facts are facts regardless).

After Jones’ reinstatement, I’m fairly certain X will go the way of Myspace before 2024’s end. And with it, so will go an incredibly interesting — yet woefully underutilized — crowdsourced fact-checking experiment.

Israel-Hamas war proves to be a misinformation nightmare

Speaking of X, the platform perpetuated some of the most egregious misinformation coming out of the Israel-Hamas war . And it was a lot.

My colleague Angie Drobnic Holan, director of the International Fact-Checking Network, has a great write-up of how fact-checkers have responded to the flood of misinformation around the topic. And I wrote up some tips for anyone to navigate social media factually on their own.

The war served as a microcosm of the biggest trends in misinformation last year:

  • We’ve seen cheap fakes outshine images and videos created with generative AI, although a few examples of the latter have gone viral.
  • The false narrative that those injured or killed in the war are “faking it” has been promoted endlessly.
  • X has relied on Community Notes to address misinformation — but it has not functioned at scale and surfaced falsehoods itself.
  • Video game footage was commonly packaged as real war footage.
  • State actors have latched onto the conflict to push false narratives about other conflicts, like the Russia-Ukraine war.

It’s worth watching the misinformation surrounding the Israel-Hamas war as we move into 2024, because it will likely foreshadow what fact-checkers will be fighting across the world.

Disinformation researchers under threat

Clearly, 2024 is shaping up to be a scary year for misinformation. Unfortunately, lawmakers are using subpoenas, records requests and the accusation of “censorship” to stifle academics who research falsehoods and the information ecosystem.

U.S. Rep Jim Jordan led the charge. This, along with social media platforms’ reduction in trust and safety staff and collaboration with researchers, means fact-checkers and journalists will have fewer sources to help fight misinformation in 2024.

And I was shocked when the Harvard Crimson broke the news that disinformation expert Joan Donovan was being forced out of the Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics and Public Policy. Donovan, now at Boston University, recently accused Harvard University of pushing her out at the behest of donors with ties to Meta.

Still, I’m hopeful knowing how determined academics are to keep up their work in 2024.

“It’s clear to me that researchers and their institutions won’t be deterred by conspiracy theorists and those seeking to smear and silence this line of research for entirely political reasons,” Kate Starbird, co-founder of the University of Washington Center for an Informed Public, told The Washington Post .

how to write hypothesis and predictions

Opinion | How AI will reshape journalism’s narrative in 2024

As AI transforms the media landscape, a blend of technology and human touch will be the key to success.

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How to write a good story in 800 words or less

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how to write hypothesis and predictions

Methodology How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples Published on May 6, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023. A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research.

1 Simple hypothesis A simple hypothesis suggests only the relationship between two variables: one independent and one dependent. Examples: If you stay up late, then you feel tired the next day. Turning off your phone makes it charge faster. 2 Complex hypothesis

Photo by AbsolutVision. What is an example of a hypothesis? If you are studying the relationship between physical exercise and mental health, a suitable hypothesis could be: "Regular physical exercise leads to improved mental well-being among adults."

, Staff Writer Updated July 14, 2020 Image Credits Hypothesis and prediction are commonly used interchangeably. But are they the same? Learning the difference between hypothesis and prediction comes down to science. Explore hypothesis vs. prediction through examples of each one. Difference Between a Hypothesis and Prediction

Step 1: Ask a question Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project. Example: Research question Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results? Step 2: Do some preliminary research

Remember that a hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship that exists between two or more variables. Your job is to write a hypothesis, and design the research, to "prove" whether or not your prediction is correct. A common pitfall is to use judgments that are subjective and inappropriate for the construction of a hypothesis.

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. It is only at this point that researchers begin to develop a testable hypothesis. ... Some examples of how to write a hypothesis include: "Staying up late will lead to ...

Table of contents. Step 1: State your null and alternate hypothesis. Step 2: Collect data. Step 3: Perform a statistical test. Step 4: Decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis. Step 5: Present your findings. Other interesting articles. Frequently asked questions about hypothesis testing.

It's possible to make predictions with a hypothesis. For example, you could make a prediction about the accuracy of the hypothesis or the expected outcome of an experiment. Related: What Is Qualitative Forecasting? Definition and Methods Hypothesis vs. prediction

How to Write a Hypothesis 101: A Step-by-Step Guide Learn How To Write A Hypothesis For Your Next Research Project! Undoubtedly, research plays a crucial role in substantiating or refuting our assumptions. These assumptions act as potential answers to our questions. Such assumptions, also known as hypotheses, are considered key aspects of research.

In simple terms, a hypothesis is the answer to your causal question. A hypothesis should be based on a strong rationale that is usually supported by background research.

1 Select a topic. Pick a topic that interests you, and that you think it would be good to know more about. [2] If you are writing a hypothesis for a school assignment, this step may be taken care of for you. 2 Read existing research. Gather all the information you can about the topic you've selected.

5.1 Addressing the Hypotheses in an Introduction Section. In certain experiments where you are analyzing quantitative data, you will need to include hypothesis statements. That means presenting your null (H 0) and alternative (H A) hypotheses using proper scientific language is key to the foundation of your investigation.

Another example for a directional one-tailed alternative hypothesis would be that. H1: Attending private classes before important exams has a positive effect on performance. Your null hypothesis would then be that. H0: Attending private classes before important exams has no/a negative effect on performance.

The steps to write a research hypothesis are: 1. Stating the problem: Ensure that the hypothesis defines the research problem. 2. Writing a hypothesis as an 'if-then' statement: Include the action and the expected outcome of your study by following a 'if-then' structure. 3.

1. "Null" Hypothesis: Says there's no connection between things. 2. "Alternative" Hypothesis: Says there is a connection between things. 3. "Simple" Hypothesis: Predicts how one thing affects another. 4. "Complex" Hypothesis: Predicts how several things affect other things. 5. "Directional" Hypothesis: Predicts how one thing will change another. 6.

You're not alone. Many people use these terms interchangeably, but they actually have distinct meanings in the scientific world. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. It is an educated guess based on observations and prior knowledge. A hypothesis can be either proven or disproven through experimentation and analysis of data.

The scientific method is a step-by-step process: observation, hypothesis, prediction, experiment and conclusion. The first stage, observation, is researching your chosen topic. Next, you will write a hypothesis: an explanation that leads to a testable prediction. Then you will write a prediction: the expected outcome if your hypothesis is true.

Essay Writing How to Write a Hypothesis Written by Daniel Pn. July 21, 2022 11 min read Share the article If I [do something], then [this] will happen. This basic statement/formula should be pretty familiar to all of you as it is the starting point of almost every scientific project or paper.

In practice, one should rely on a cause and effect theory when developing a hypothesis. General Aspects of Writing a Hypothesis. A hypothesis suggests a sentence as a statement that gives a prediction about the findings of a research study. Basically, researchers make a hypothesis, which acts as a tentative answer to the research question.

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At least 8 children among 22 hit by gunfire at end of Chiefs’ Super Bowl parade; 1 person killed

22 people were hit by gunfire in a shooting at the end of Wednesday’s parade to celebrate the Kansas City Chiefs’ Super Bowl win, authorities said, as terrified fans ran for cover and yet another high-profile public event was marred by gun violence. One person was killed. (Feb 14) (AP production by Javier Arciga)

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Law enforcement surged to the area of a shooting at the end of the Kansas City Chiefs’ Super Bowl parade as terrified fans in the crowd running for cover. Lisa Money first thought somebody might be joking until she saw the SWAT team jumping over the fence.

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One person was killed and up to 15 were injured in a shooting at the end of the parade to celebrate the Super Bowl win by the Kansas City Chiefs, the city’s police chief said. (Feb 14) (AP production by Javier Arciga)

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Shots were fired at the end of the Kansas City Chiefs’ Super Bowl parade Wednesday, injuring eight to 10 people, a fire official said. Police said in a news release that two people were detained. (Feb. 14)

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U.S. President Joe Biden and the First lady Jill Biden made an appearance at North Lawn to look at Valentines Decorations Wednesday evening. President Biden said he was awaiting more information about the shooting in Kansas City. (Feb.14)

A person is taken to an ambulance following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said. (AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

A person is taken to an ambulance following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said. (AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

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A person is taken to an ambulance after an incident following the Kansas City Chiefs victory parade in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

A woman is taken to an ambulance after an incident following the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the Super Bowl 58. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Emergency personnel, left, take a stretcher into Union Station following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said.(AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

A law enforcement officer looks around the scene following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said.(AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

Law enforcement personnel clear the area around Union Station following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said.. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Law enforcement personnel arrive to investigate following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said.(AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Police clear the area following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said.(AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Kansas City Chiefs quarterback Patrick Mahomes is mobbed by his teammates during their victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

The Kansas City Chiefs celebrate during their victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Kansas City Chiefs fans gather for a Super Bowl victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

The Kansas City Chiefs celebrate during their victory parade in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

A young Kansas City Chiefs fan waits for the Super Bowl victory rally to start in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Fans watch as the Kansas City Chiefs celebrate during their victory rally at Union Station in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

A Kansas City Chiefs fan wears a Native American headdress at a Super Bowl victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Kansas City Chiefs fans celebrate during a victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Kansas City Chiefs quarterback Patrick Mahomes, left, watches Kansas City Chiefs linebacker Willie Gay dance with a teddy bear head during their victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Former Kansas City Chiefs player Dwayne Bowe takes selfies with fans at the Chiefs Super Bowl victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Kansas City Chiefs chairman and CEO Clark Hunt holds the Vince Lombardi Trophy as their bus arrives at the victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Kansas City Chiefs tight end Travis Kelce, right, serenades the crowd, as Patrick Mahomes, second from right, and teammates look on at the Chiefs’ victory rally in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the NFL Super Bowl 58 football game. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

Kansas City Chiefs linebacker Willie Gay wears a teddy bear head as the NFL football team takes the stage during their Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

KANSAS CITY, Mo. (AP) — Eight children were among 22 people hit by gunfire in a shooting at the end of Wednesday’s parade to celebrate the Kansas City Chiefs’ Super Bowl win , authorities said, sending terrified fans running for cover as yet another high-profile public event was marred by gun violence. One of those victims — a mother of two identified by her radio station as a DJ — was killed.

Kansas City Police Chief Stacey Graves said three people had been detained as part of the investigation. She said she has heard that fans may have been involved in tackling a suspect but couldn’t immediately confirm that.

“I’m angry at what happened today. The people who came to this celebration should expect a safe environment.” Graves said. Police did not immediately release any details about the people who were detained or about a possible motive for the shootings. She said firearms had been recovered, but not what kind.

A woman is taken to an ambulance after an incident following the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. The Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers Sunday in the Super Bowl 58. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

“All of that is being actively investigated,” she said.

It is the latest sports celebration in the U.S. to end in gun violence , following a shooting that injured several people last year in downtown Denver after the Nuggets’ NBA championship, and gunfire last year at a parking lot near the Texas Rangers’ World Series championship parade.

Social media users posted shocking video of police running through a crowded scene as people hurriedly scrambled for cover and fled. One video showed someone apparently performing chest compressions on a shooting victim as another person, seemingly writhing in pain, lay on the ground nearby. People screamed in the background.

Another video showed two people chase and tackle a person, holding them down until two police officers arrived.

Law enforcement personnel clear the area around Union Station following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said.. (AP Photo/Reed Hoffmann)

AP AUDIO: 1 dead and at least 15 injured after shooting near Kansas City Chiefs parade, police chief says.

AP correspondent Jackie Quinn reports.

Radio station KKFI said in a Facebook post Wednesday evening that Lisa Lopez-Galvan, host of “Taste of Tejano,” was killed in the shooting.

A law enforcement officer looks around the scene following a shooting at the Kansas City Chiefs NFL football Super Bowl celebration in Kansas City, Mo., Wednesday, Feb. 14, 2024. Multiple people were injured, a fire official said.(AP Photo/Charlie Riedel)

“This senseless act has taken a beautiful person from her family and this KC Community,” KKFI said in a statement.

Lopez-Galvan, whose DJ name was “Lisa G,” was an extrovert and devoted mother from a prominent Latino family in the area, said Rosa Izurieta and Martha Ramirez, two childhood friends who worked with her at a staffing company. Izurieta said Lopez-Galvan had attended the parade with her husband and her adult son, a die-hard Kansas City sports fan who also was shot.

“She’s the type of person who would jump in front of a bullet for anybody — that would be Lisa,” Izurieta said.

The shooting outside Union Station happened despite more than 800 police officers who were in the building and around the area, including on top of nearby buildings, said Mayor Quinton Lucas, who attended with his wife and mother and had to run for cover when gunfire broke out.

“I think that’s something that all of us who are parents, who are just regular people living each day, have to decide what we wish to do about,” Lucas said. “Parades, rallies, schools, movies. It seems like almost nothing is safe.”

Kansas City has long struggled with gun violence, and in 2020 it was among nine cities targeted by the U.S. Justice Department in an effort to crack down on violent crime. In 2023 the city matched a record with 182 homicides, most of which involved guns.

Lucas has joined with mayors across the country in calling for new laws to reduce gun violence, including mandating universal background checks.

Lisa Money, a resident of the city, was trying to gather some confetti near the end of the parade when she heard somebody yell, “Down, down, everybody down!”

At first Money thought somebody might be joking until she saw the SWAT team jumping over the fence.

“I can’t believe it really happened. Who in their right mind would do something like this? This is supposed to be a day of celebration for everybody in the city and the surrounding area. And then you’ve got some idiot that wants to come along and do something like this,” she said.

Kevin Sanders, 53, of Lenexa, Kansas, said he heard what sounded like firecrackers and then people started running. After that initial flurry, calm returned, and he didn’t think much of it. But 10 minutes later, ambulances started showing up.

“It sucks that someone had to ruin the celebration, but we are in a big city,” Sanders said.

University Health spokeswoman Nancy Lewis said the hospital was treating eight gunshot victims. Two were in critical condition and six were in stable condition, she said. The hospital also was treating four people for other injuries resulting from the chaos after the shooting, Lewis said.

Lisa Augustine, spokesperson for Children’s Mercy Kansas City, said the hospital was treating 12 patients from the rally, including 11 children, some of whom suffered gunshot wounds.

St. Luke’s Hospital of Kansas City received one gunshot patient in critical condition and three walk-ins with injuries that were not life-threatening, spokesperson Laurel Gifford said.

“When you have this many casualties, it’s going to get spread out among a lot of hospitals so that you don’t overwhelm any single ER,” said Jill Jensen Chadwick, news director for University of Kansas Health System, which received at least one person injured in the shooting.

Chiefs trainer Rick Burkholder said that he was with coach Andy Reid and other coaches and staff members at the time of the shooting, and that the team was on buses and returning to Arrowhead Stadium.

“We are truly saddened by the senseless act of violence that occurred outside of Union Station at the conclusion of today’s parade and rally,” the team said in a statement.

Missouri’s Republican Gov. Mike Parson and first lady Teresa Parson were at the parade during the gunfire but were unhurt. “Thanks to the professionalism of our security officers and first responders, Teresa and I and our staff are safe and secure,” Parson said in a statement.

President Joe Biden said the shooting “cuts deep in the American soul” and called on people to press Congress to ban assault weapons, to limit high-capacity gun magazines and for other gun measures that have been rejected by Republicans.

“Today’s events should move us, shock us, shame us into acting. What are we waiting for?” he said.

Biden noted that Wednesday was the anniversary of the 2018 high schoool shooting in Parkland, Florida, that killed 17 people and said there have been more mass shootings in 2024 “than there have been days in the year.”

Areas that had been filled with crowds were empty after the shooting, with police and firefighters standing and talking behind an area restricted by yellow tape.

Throngs had lined the route earlier, with fans climbing trees and street poles or standing on rooftops for a better view. Players rolled through the crowd on double-decker buses, as DJs and drummers heralded their arrival. Owner Clark Hunt was on one of the buses, holding the Lombardi Trophy.

The city and the team each chipped in around $1 million for the event commemorating Travis Kelce, Patrick Mahomes and the Chiefs becoming the first team since Tom Brady and the New England Patriots two decades ago to defend their title .

Associated Press writers Scott McFetridge in Des Moines, Iowa; Jim Salter in St. Louis; Josh Funk in Omaha, Nebraska; Summer Ballentine in Columbia, Missouri; and John Hanna in Topeka, Kansas, contributed to this report.

This story has been corrected to attribute a quote about hospitals receiving patients to Jill Jensen Chadwick, not Laurel Gifford.

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Sylvester Stallone Says He’s Too Ugly to Play Ken, but Ryan Gosling Should Be the Next Rambo: ‘If I Ever Pass the Baton, I’ll Pass It on to Him’

By Zack Sharf

Digital News Director

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Sylvester Stallone appeared on a recent episode of “The Tonight Show” and gave Ryan Gosling his blessing to star as the next Rambo in a potential revival of Stallone’s iconic action franchise. Stallone played the United States Army Special Forces veteran in five movies. The first “Rambo” opened in 1982. Stallone presumably said goodbye to the franchise in 2019’s “Rambo: Last Blood.”

“I met [Ryan Gosling] at a dinner,” Stallone said when asked why Gosling is his top pick to play a new iteration of Rambo. “Obviously we are opposites. He’s good looking. I’m not. Seriously! Could you imagine me as Ken? It doesn’t work at all.”

When pressed further about Gosling taking over the iconic action role, Stallone said, “I would say yes but I don’t know if anyone would say, ‘Hey, he’s too good-looking to be Rambo.’”

Gosling, for what it’s worth, is already an outspoken “Rambo” fan. The actor appeared on “The Tonight Show” back in 2011 and told then-host Jay Leno that “First Blood,” the first movie to feature Stallone as Rambo, “put a spell on” him so much that he thought he was actually Rambo.

“I even thought my face felt like Sylvester Stallone’s and I put a bunch of steak knives in my Fisher-Price Houdini kit,” Gosling remembered at the time. “I took it to school the next day and I threw them at all the kids at recess.”

Gosling now has Stallone’s blessing to play Rambo should he want in the future. As for Stallone saying he doesn’t have the looks to pull off Gosling’s Oscar-nominated role as Ken in “Barbie,” it’s somewhat ironic considering Stallone was a big visual inspiration for the character. Gosling told Variety   that Stallone’s wardrobe during the 1980s inspired Ken’s trademark mink coat.

“We found out that Stallone wore a lot of minks,” Gosling said. “As long as Ken was wearing it, he was the Ken with the mink — and that separated him from the other Kens.”

Gosling will be back in action star mode when Universal’s “The Fall Guy” kicks off the summer movie season on May 3.

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China is heading for a 'lost decade' if it doesn't reform and grow, an analyst says

  • China risks a "lost decade" of slow growth if it doesn't reform its economy, warns an economist.
  • This would mirror Japan's sluggish economic development in the 1990s as China faces property, demographic, and trade challenges.
  • Beijing's is seeking a new economic model less reliant on debt-fueled growth.

Insider Today

China faces a "lost decade" of sluggish economic growth much like Japan if it doesn't reform its economy, according to an economist.

The assessment was made amid concerns about the world's second-largest economy as it struggles to stage a convincing post-pandemic recovery.

"China could certainly have a lost decade of growth," Rory Green, the chief China economist at GlobalData.TS Lombard, wrote in a note on Thursday.

Such a development would make China susceptible to so-called "Japanification" — a phenomenon that would mirror Japan's "Lost Decade" of economic stagnation in the 1990s after the country's asset and credit bubbles burst.

China now faces multiple challenges, including a property crisis, deflationary pr essure, a demographic cri sis, and trade tensions with the West.

Despite its troubles, Beijing appears to still have reservations about stimulating the debt-laden economy — even though it knows the risks of not stimulating it enough.

After all, "part of the current economic malaise is man-made as authorities attempt to deal with past excesses — namely, property and local government debt," wrote Green.

Ideology clouds over Beijing's economic choices

The country is currently facing an ideological problem rather than a lack of resources, which China does have, wrote Green.

"Since 2016, the policy reaction function has changed. Leaders are attempting to create a new political-economic model, one less reliant on debt-fueled property-led growth," wrote Green.

In particular, Chinese leader Xi Jinping is in the camp that "China must undergo painful structural reform before authorities can stimulate or risk exacerbating existing structural imbalances."

Meanwhile, technocrats in China generally believe China needs to reform and grow — or risk a Japan-style lost decade, Green added.

However, as China's economy continues its sluggish momentum, Green thinks Xi will shift to a more pro-growth mindset due to concerns about welfare and social stability. Even so, it would take a while for China's economy to get back on track.

"The old growth model is broken and a new one is emerging, albeit slowly," Green wrote.

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Watch: Traders should be focused on the massive growth opportunities in Asia right now, says an HSBC investment chief

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  1. MCQ of Article Writing

    MCQ of Article Writing 1. What is placed on the top of an article? a) Date b) Heading/Title c) Subscription d) Salutation Answer : Heading/Title 2. What is placed just below the title of an article? a) Date b) By-Line c) Place of the writer d) Salutation Answer : By-Line 3. How many paragraphs should be there in an article? a) One b) Two

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    The following questions test your knowledge of seventh edition APA Style. The 45 questions assess APA Style paper format, in-text citations, references, numbers, lists, spelling, capitalization, and abbreviations. The numbers in parentheses after most questions indicate the sections where you can find more information about the topic in the ...

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    Heading of an Article should be: (A) catchy and appealing (B) long and descriptive (C) capital and bold (D) detailed and sparkling Answer: (A) catchy and appealing Question 3. Byline of an Article contains: (A) theme of the Article. (B) central idea of the Article, (C) extra piece of information. (D) name of the writer of the article. Answer:

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    There are five levels of heading in APA Style. Level 1 is the highest or main level of heading, Level 2 is a subheading of Level 1, Level 3 is a subheading of Level 2, and so on through Levels 4 and 5. The number of headings to use in a paper depends on the length and complexity of the work. If only one level of heading is needed, use Level 1.

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    Headings should have a length of one to five words and not exceeding a whole line, as said above. A unique tip on how to write a heading is that it looks more like a title than a subheading. Not all paragraphs need a heading. If you know how to write a heading, use headings for two or more ideas, and do not overdo them.

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    Use an arabic number and period, then a space, followed by the section title. Capitalize the first letter of important words and use lowercase for the rest. [3] X Research source. 2. Write a level one heading. Level one headings are typically used to title important sections within the paper.

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    Use headings to identify sections of the articles and help readers skim through the content. Headings also support accessibility by providing an easy way to navigate through the article with a screen reader. No more than two levels of headings, using H2 and H3 (H1 is reserved for the article title) There must be text after each heading.

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    An article is a piece of writing written for a large audience, e.g., a magazine or newspaper, on a particular topic, which is meant to be of interest to the reader. It will express a certain viewpoint or perspective — this can be positive or negative depending on the topic. The purpose of an article is often to inform and persuade the reader.

  15. 300+ TOP Article Writing MCQs and Answers Online Quiz Exam

    1. What is placed on the top of an article? A. Date B. Heading/Title C. Subscription D. Salutation Answer: Heading/Title 2. What is placed just below the title of an article? A. Date B. By-Line C. Place of the writer D. Salutation Answer: By-Line 3. How many paragraphs should be there in an article? A. One B. Two C.

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    1 Answer Sorted by: 5 I answer your question for APA. Psychological papers are very rigidly formatted, so possibly you have more leeway when following MLA, but I would suspect that the basics still apply. To answer your question, we must first understand what the purpose of the headings is.

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