scholarly papers database

What is Database Search?

Harvard Library licenses hundreds of online databases, giving you access to academic and news articles, books, journals, primary sources, streaming media, and much more.

The contents of these databases are only partially included in HOLLIS. To make sure you're really seeing everything, you need to search in multiple places. Use Database Search to identify and connect to the best databases for your topic.

In addition to digital content, you will find specialized search engines used in specific scholarly domains.

Related Services & Tools

A free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature

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Stay Connected With Semantic Scholar Sign Up What Is Semantic Scholar? Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI.

Reference management. Clean and simple.

The top list of academic search engines

1. Google Scholar

4. science.gov, 5. semantic scholar, 6. baidu scholar, get the most out of academic search engines, frequently asked questions about academic search engines, related articles.

Academic search engines have become the number one resource to turn to in order to find research papers and other scholarly sources. While classic academic databases like Web of Science and Scopus are locked behind paywalls, Google Scholar and others can be accessed free of charge. In order to help you get your research done fast, we have compiled the top list of free academic search engines.

Google Scholar is the clear number one when it comes to academic search engines. It's the power of Google searches applied to research papers and patents. It not only lets you find research papers for all academic disciplines for free but also often provides links to full-text PDF files.

• Coverage: approx. 200 million articles
• Abstracts: only a snippet of the abstract is available
• Related articles: ✔
• References: ✔
• Cited by: ✔
• Links to full text: ✔
• Export formats: APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, Vancouver, RIS, BibTeX

BASE is hosted at Bielefeld University in Germany. That is also where its name stems from (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine).

• Coverage: approx. 136 million articles (contains duplicates)
• Abstracts: ✔
• Related articles: ✘
• References: ✘
• Cited by: ✘
• Export formats: RIS, BibTeX

CORE is an academic search engine dedicated to open-access research papers. For each search result, a link to the full-text PDF or full-text web page is provided.

• Coverage: approx. 136 million articles
• Links to full text: ✔ (all articles in CORE are open access)
• Export formats: BibTeX

Science.gov is a fantastic resource as it bundles and offers free access to search results from more than 15 U.S. federal agencies. There is no need anymore to query all those resources separately!

• Coverage: approx. 200 million articles and reports
• Links to full text: ✔ (available for some databases)
• Export formats: APA, MLA, RIS, BibTeX (available for some databases)

Semantic Scholar is the new kid on the block. Its mission is to provide more relevant and impactful search results using AI-powered algorithms that find hidden connections and links between research topics.

• Coverage: approx. 40 million articles
• Export formats: APA, MLA, Chicago, BibTeX

Although Baidu Scholar's interface is in Chinese, its index contains research papers in English as well as Chinese.

• Coverage: no detailed statistics available, approx. 100 million articles
• Abstracts: only snippets of the abstract are available
• Export formats: APA, MLA, RIS, BibTeX

RefSeek searches more than one billion documents from academic and organizational websites. Its clean interface makes it especially easy to use for students and new researchers.

• Coverage: no detailed statistics available, approx. 1 billion documents
• Abstracts: only snippets of the article are available
• Export formats: not available

Consider using a reference manager like Paperpile to save, organize, and cite your references. Paperpile integrates with Google Scholar and many popular databases, so you can save references and PDFs directly to your library using the Paperpile buttons:

Google Scholar is an academic search engine, and it is the clear number one when it comes to academic search engines. It's the power of Google searches applied to research papers and patents. It not only let's you find research papers for all academic disciplines for free, but also often provides links to full text PDF file.

Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature developed at the Allen Institute for AI. Sematic Scholar was publicly released in 2015 and uses advances in natural language processing to provide summaries for scholarly papers.

BASE , as its name suggest is an academic search engine. It is hosted at Bielefeld University in Germany and that's where it name stems from (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine).

CORE is an academic search engine dedicated to open access research papers. For each search result a link to the full text PDF or full text web page is provided.

Science.gov is a fantastic resource as it bundles and offers free access to search results from more than 15 U.S. federal agencies. There is no need any more to query all those resources separately!

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PubMed Central (PMC) Home Page

PubMed Central ® (PMC) is a free full-text archive of biomedical and life sciences journal literature at the U.S. National Institutes of Health's National Library of Medicine (NIH/NLM)

Discover a digital archive of scholarly articles, spanning centuries of scientific research.

Learn how to find and read articles of interest to you.

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9.8 MILLION articles are archived in PMC.

Content provided in part by:, full participation journals.

Journals deposit the complete contents of each issue or volume.

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Journals deposit all NIH-funded articles as defined by the NIH Public Access Policy.

Selective Deposit Programs

Publisher deposits a subset of articles from a collection of journals.

March 21, 2024

Preview upcoming improvements to pmc.

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We are pleased to announce the availability of a preview of improvements planned for the PMC website. These improvements will become the default in October 2024.

🇺🇦    make metadata, not war

A comprehensive bibliographic database of the world’s scholarly literature

The world’s largest collection of open access research papers, machine access to our vast unique full text corpus, core features, indexing the world’s repositories.

We serve the global network of repositories and journals

Comprehensive data coverage

We provide both metadata and full text access to our comprehensive collection through our APIs and Datasets

Powerful services

We create powerful services for researchers, universities, and industry

Cutting-edge solutions

We research and develop innovative data-driven and AI solutions

Committed to the POSI

Cost-free PIDs for your repository

OAI identifiers are unique identifiers minted cost-free by repositories. Ensure that your repository is correctly configured, enabling the CORE OAI Resolver to redirect your identifiers to your repository landing pages.

OAI IDs provide a cost-free option for assigning Persistent Identifiers (PIDs) to your repository records. Learn more.

Who we serve?

Enabling others to create new tools and innovate using a global comprehensive collection of research papers.

“ Our partnership with CORE will provide Turnitin with vast amounts of metadata and full texts that we can ... ” Show more

Gareth Malcolm, Content Partner Manager at Turnitin

Academic institutions.

Making research more discoverable, improving metadata quality, helping to meet and monitor open access compliance.

“ CORE’s role in providing a unified search of repository content is a great tool for the researcher and ex... ” Show more

Nicola Dowson, Library Services Manager at Open University

Researchers & general public.

Tools to find, discover and explore the wealth of open access research. Free for everyone, forever.

“ With millions of research papers available across thousands of different systems, CORE provides an invalu... ” Show more

Jon Tennant, Rogue Paleontologist and Founder of the Open Science MOOC

Helping funders to analyse, audit and monitor open research and accelerate towards open science.

“ Aggregation plays an increasingly essential role in maximising the long-term benefits of open access, hel... ” Show more

Ben Johnson, Research Policy Adviser at Research England

Our services, access to raw data.

Create new and innovative solutions.

Content discovery

Find relevant research and make your research more visible.

Managing content

Manage how your research content is exposed to the world.

Companies using CORE

Gareth Malcolm

Content Partner Manager at Turnitin

Our partnership with CORE will provide Turnitin with vast amounts of metadata and full texts that we can utilise in our plagiarism detection software.

Academic institution using CORE

Kathleen Shearer

Executive Director of the Confederation of Open Access Repositories (COAR)

CORE has significantly assisted the academic institutions participating in our global network with their key mission, which is their scientific content exposure. In addition, CORE has helped our content administrators to showcase the real benefits of repositories via its added value services.

Partner projects

Ben Johnson

Research Policy Adviser

Aggregation plays an increasingly essential role in maximising the long-term benefits of open access, helping to turn the promise of a 'research commons' into a reality. The aggregation services that CORE provides therefore make a very valuable contribution to the evolving open access environment in the UK.

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Free Publicly-Accessible Databases

You are here.

The following databases were selected not only for their availablity to the general public but also because of their broad appeal and scope, and access to full-text resources.

• African Journals Online A service to provide access to African published research, and increase worldwide knowledge of indigenous scholarship. It's published in Africa and cover the full range of academic disciplines.  
• AGRICOLA This catalog of the U.S. National Agriculatural Library (NAL) provides citations to agricultural literature. The NAL houses one of the world's largest and most accessible agricultural information collections and advances access to global information for agriculture.  
• AIDSinfo Access to wide-ranging Federal resources on HIV/AIDS clinical research, HIV treatment and prevention, and medical practice guidelines for health care providers and consumers.  
• American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed., 2000) [UCSB call #: PE 1628 .A623 2000]
• Anatomy of the Human Body by Henry Gray (20th ed., 1918) [UCSB has later editions at: QM 23.2 .G73]
• The Boston Cooking School Cookbook by Fannie Farmer (1918)
• Cambridge History of English and American Literature (1907-1921) [various call numbers at UCSB]
• The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed., 2001) [UCSB call #: Ref AG 5 .C725 2000]
• Columbia Gazetteer of North America (2000) [UCSB call #: Ref E 35 .C65 2000]
• Familiar Quotations by John Bartlett (10th ed., 1919) [UCSB call #: Spec. Coll. PN 6081 .B29 1902; later editions at: PN 6081 .B29 and in Reference at: PN 6081 .B27]
• Robert's Rules of Order Revised (1915) [UCSB call #: Ref JF515 .W42 for latest edition]
• Roget's II: The New Thesaurus (3rd ed., 1995) [UCSB call #: Ref PE1591 .B35]
• Simpson's Contemporary Quotations (1988) "The Most Notable Quotes, 1950-1988" [UCSB call #: Ref PN 6083 .S53 1988]
• The World Factbook (2008)
• BioMed Central Publisher of 187 peer-reviewed open access journals.  
• bizjournals Features local business news from around the nation, top business stories from American City's print editions and industry-specific news from more than 40 industries with access to each of the 42 local business sites; contains 1.25 million business news articles published since 1996.  
• BPubs.com The Business Publications Search Engine Organized by various business categories, this site provides links to full text business articles on the web.  
• Chaucer Bibliography Online The Online Chaucer Bibliography includes materials from the Annotated Chaucer Bibliography published annually in Studies in the Age of Chaucer (call number: PR 1901 .S78) and is sponsored by the NCS and the library of the University of Texas at San Antonio. (Note: "Title" searching is searching for the beginning of the title, not for keywords in the title.  
• Chemistry Central Publishing peer-reviewed open access research in chemistry, from BioMed Central - the leading biomedical open access publisher. This site features chemistry-related articles published in Chemistry Central Journal, BioMed Central journals and independent journals utilizing BioMed Central's open access publishing services. All original research articles published by, or in cooperation with, Chemistry Central are made freely and permanently accessible online immediately upon publication.  
• ClinicalTrials.gov A registry of federally and privately supported clinical trials conducted in the United States and around the world. ClinicalTrials.gov gives you information about a trial's purpose, who may participate, locations, and phone numbers for more details. This information should be used in conjunction with advice from health care professionals.  
• Core Documents of U. S. Democracy To provide American citizens direct online access to the basic Federal Government documents that define our democratic society, a core group of current and historical Government publications is being made available for free, permanent, public access. In addition to full ASCII text, some documents, such as the Constitution and Declaration of Independence, are available as scanned images of the original manuscripts. Document texts range from the Articles of Confederation to the current United States Government Manual, Statistical Abstracts and Code of Federal Regulations.  
• Dictionary.com Dictionary.com provides searchable access to several dictionaries, most notably, the American Heritage Dictionary , 3rd ed. (1996,1992) (in print at PE 1628 .A623 1992), plus Roget's Thesaurus, and links to a number of other dictionary sites on the web.  
• Directory of Open Access Journals This service covers free, full text, quality controlled scientific and scholarly journals. We aim to cover all subjects and languages. Covers nearly 150,000 articles in 834 searchable journals.  
• Energy Citations Database Free access to over 2.3 million science research citations with access to over 179,000 electronic documents, primarily from 1943 forward, made publicly available by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). ECD includes scientific and technical research results in disciplines of interest to DOE such as chemistry, physics, materials, environmental science, geology, engineering, mathematics, climatology, oceanography, computer science and related disciplines. It includes bibliographic citations to report literature, conference papers, journal articles, books, dissertations, and patents.  
• English Broadside Ballad Archive Created by the Early Modern Center in the English Department at UCSB, the English Broadside Ballad Archive (formerly, Pepys Ballad Archive) offers a fully-searchable database of over 1,800 broadside ballads, mostly of the seventeenth century and mostly in black-letter print. The ballads were collected by Samuel Pepys into five albums, which are held at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The ballads in the database are accessible as facsimiles, as facsimile transcriptions, and as recorded songs. Also provided are full citations for the ballads as well as background essays about ballad culture of the period and Pepys’s categories for organizing his collection.  
• Espacenet (European Patent Office) The European Patent Office's Esp@acenet provides detailed searching of EPO and PCT patent applications for the last 24 months, and worldwide patent documents searchable by patent number as early as 1920 for some issuing nations.  
• FWS National Image Library U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service's online collection of public domain still photographs, containing still photo images of wildlife, plants, National Wildlife Refuges and other scenics, as well as wildlife management work.  
• Google Scholar Google Scholar enables you to search specifically for scholarly literature, including peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, preprints, abstracts and technical reports from all broad areas of research. Use Google Scholar to find articles from a wide variety of academic publishers, professional societies, preprint repositories and universities, as well as scholarly articles available across the web.  
• Govinfo From the U.S. Government Printing Office: provides free electronic access to a wealth of important information products produced by the Federal Government. The information provided on this site is the official, published version.  
• Hearth Hearth is a core electronic collection of books and journals in Home Economics and related disciplines. Titles published between 1850 and 1950 were selected and ranked by teams of scholars for their great historical importance. The first phase of this project focused on books published between 1850 and 1925 and a small number of journals. Future phases of the project will include books published between 1926 and 1950, as well as additional journals. The full text of these materials, as well as bibliographies and essays on the wide array of subjects relating to Home Economics, are all freely accessible on this site.  
• Encyclopedia.com Contains nearly 200,000 brief entries from the Britannica , Oxford University Press , and Columbia Encyclopedia .  
• HighWire Press Free full-text articles in science disciplines, from HighWire Press at Stanford University.  
• ibiblio One of the largest "collections of collections" on the Internet, ibiblio.org is a conservancy of freely available information, including software, music, literature, art, history, science, politics, and cultural studies. ibiblio.org is a collaboration of the School of Information and Library Science and the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at The University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill.  
• InfoPlease Search the Information Please almanac and timeline, their atlas, the Columbia Encyclopedia, a dictionary, and a thesaurus. Information Please has been providing authoritative answers to all kinds of factual questions since 1938.  
• Audio Archive The Archive contains over a hundred thousand free digital recordings ranging from alternative news programming, to Grateful Dead concerts, to Old Time Radio shows, to book and poetry readings, to original music uploaded by our users. Many of these audios and MP3s are available for free download.
• Live Music Archive The Internet Archive has teamed up with etree wiki to preserve and archive as many live concerts as possible for current and future generations to enjoy. All music in this Collection is from trade-friendly artists and is strictly noncommercial, both for access here and for any further distribution. Artists' commercial releases are off-limits. This collection is maintained by the etree.org community.
• Moving Images Collections This collection of thousands of digital movies is free and open for everyone to use. It includes the Prelinger Archive, a collection of nearly 2,000 advertising and educational films from 1927 to the present.
• Text Archive This collection is open to the community for the contribution of any type of text.  
• Library of Congress Digital Collections This Library of Congress project provides access to a large number of LoC collections, searchable and browsable by subject and title, including a large quantity of digitized primary source material.
• MagPortal "Find individual articles from many free magazines by browsing the categories or using the search engine."  
• Making of America: at Cornell University and University of Michigan Hosted at Cornell University and the University of Michigan, Making of America (MOA) is a digital library of primary sources in American social history from the antebellum period through reconstruction. The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. The Cornell collection currently contains 267 monograph volumes and over 100,000 journal articles with 19th century imprints while the Michigan collection contains approximately 10,000 books and 50,000 journal articles with 19th century imprints, estimated at over 3% of all American monographs published in the 19th century. All are in the form of searchable scanned images.  
• MedKnow Publications The largest publisher in India for academic and scientific biomedical journals, publishing high quality peer-reviewed scholarly journals. Medknow, with over 40 print + online journals, is probably the largest open access publisher of print journals in the world and provides immediate free access to the electronic editions of the journals.  
• MedlinePlus "Extensive information from the National Institutes of Health and other trusted sources on over 740 topics on conditions, diseases and wellness. There are also lists of hospitals and physicians, a medical encyclopedia and a medical dictionary, health information in Spanish, extensive information on prescription and nonprescription drugs, health information from the media, and links to thousands of clinical trials."  
• Online Exhibits Features high resolution images of a variety of manuscripts, artworks and photographs from the U.S. National Archives.
• Featured Documents
• America's Historical Documents The National Archives preserves and provides access to the records of the Federal Government. Here is a sample of these records, from our most celebrated milestones to little-known surprises.
• Educators & Students: Primary Sources and Activities A large number of collections of primary documents and images arranged for use by teachers of history, civics or use of government documents.  
• National Forest Service Library Catalog of records to Forest Service Research publications dating back to 1904. Includes almost 6,000 full-text publications.  
• National Service Center for Environmental Publications A database of over 24,000 full-text U.S. EPA documents  
• NCJRS Virtual Library (National Criminal Justice Reference Service) Access to more than 3,500 full text publications and more than 190,000 abstracts, or summaries, of publications on this site and from NCJRS partner agency websites.  
• O*NET OnLine From the U.S. Department of Labor, the Occupational Information Network is a comprehensive database of worker attributes and job characteristics. The O*NET database includes information on skills, abilities, knowledges, work activities, and interests associated with occupations. Information in O*NET is available for over 800 occupations. Each occupational title and code is based on the most current version of the Standard Occupational Classification system.O*NET replaces the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT).  
• Online Archive of California The Online Archive of California is a collaborative project to create a searchable online union database of finding aids to archival collections. This database includes the finding aids to repositories from more than 90 institutions statewide including all nine UC campuses, and is continuing to expand. Finding aids provide detailed descriptions of collections, their intellectual organization and, at varying levels of analysis, of individual items in the collections. A small but increasing number of the finding aids contain links to online digital versions of the source material.  
• The Online Books Page "Listing over 25,000 free books on the Web," by author, title, subject, and other features, such as: "A Celebration of Women Writers," "Banned Books Online," "Prize Winners Online," "Foreign Language," and "Specialty" by subject. This site also links to extensive directories which list thousands more online books.
• OSTI.gov Search the U.S. Dept. of Energy's scientific and technical research reports in the sciences including biology, environmental sciences, physics, energy, and other topics.
• Paper of Record Building the world's largest searchable archive of historical newspapers. Over 21 million images in the collection so far. Searchable newspaper image documents presented in their original published form.  
• Project Gutenberg Project Gutenberg is one of the earliest attempts to provide widespread access to public domain books via the Internet. As of 2002, it offers about 6,200 works, adding about 150 per month. Files are in plain ASCII text or in zipped ASCII text, available from a number of mirror sites around the world. The Project Gutenberg catalog is searchable by author and title. Author and title lists may be downloaded by FTP.  
• PLoS: Public Library of Science A nonprofit organization of scientists and physicians committed to making the world's scientific and medical literature a freely available public resource.  
• PubMed Central (PMC) The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) free digital archive of biomedical and life sciences journal literature.  
• Science.gov Science.gov is a gateway to over 50 million pages of authoritative selected science information provided by U.S. government agencies, including research and development results.  
• USPTO Patent Database The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO)'s Patent Databases allows searching of the bibliographic data (titles, inventors, assignees, class codes, references, etc.) or full text in US patents issued since 1976.  
• USPTO Trademark Database The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO)'s Trademark Electronic Search System (TESS) allows searching of the key data (titles, owners, relevant dates) in current Federal trademarks and inactive ones back to 1984. Results display the trademark text data and, in many cases, the images for graphic trademarks. It does not include state or foreign trademarks.

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Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: jamba: a hybrid transformer-mamba language model.

Abstract: We present Jamba, a new base large language model based on a novel hybrid Transformer-Mamba mixture-of-experts (MoE) architecture. Specifically, Jamba interleaves blocks of Transformer and Mamba layers, enjoying the benefits of both model families. MoE is added in some of these layers to increase model capacity while keeping active parameter usage manageable. This flexible architecture allows resource- and objective-specific configurations. In the particular configuration we have implemented, we end up with a powerful model that fits in a single 80GB GPU. Built at large scale, Jamba provides high throughput and small memory footprint compared to vanilla Transformers, and at the same time state-of-the-art performance on standard language model benchmarks and long-context evaluations. Remarkably, the model presents strong results for up to 256K tokens context length. We study various architectural decisions, such as how to combine Transformer and Mamba layers, and how to mix experts, and show that some of them are crucial in large scale modeling. We also describe several interesting properties of these architectures which the training and evaluation of Jamba have revealed, and plan to release checkpoints from various ablation runs, to encourage further exploration of this novel architecture. We make the weights of our implementation of Jamba publicly available under a permissive license.

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Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs .

The use and impact of surveillance-based technology initiatives in inpatient and acute mental health settings: A systematic review

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Background: The use of surveillance technologies is becoming increasingly common in inpatient mental health settings, commonly justified as efforts to improve safety and cost-effectiveness. However, the use of these technologies has been questioned in light of limited research conducted and the sensitivities, ethical concerns and potential harms of surveillance. This systematic review aims to: 1) map how surveillance technologies have been employed in inpatient mental health settings, 2) identify any best practice guidance, 3) explore how they are experienced by patients, staff and carers, and 4) examine evidence regarding their impact. Methods: We searched five academic databases (Embase, MEDLINE, PsycInfo, PubMed and Scopus), one grey literature database (HMIC) and two pre-print servers (medRxiv and PsyArXiv) to identify relevant papers published up to 18/09/2023. We also conducted backwards and forwards citation tracking and contacted experts to identify relevant literature. Quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Data were synthesised using a narrative approach. Results: A total of 27 studies were identified as meeting the inclusion criteria. Included studies reported on CCTV/video monitoring (n = 13), Vision-Based Patient Monitoring and Management (VBPMM) (n = 6), Body Worn Cameras (BWCs) (n = 4), GPS electronic monitoring (n = 2) and wearable sensors (n = 2). Twelve papers (44.4%) were rated as low quality, five (18.5%) medium quality, and ten (37.0%) high quality. Five studies (18.5%) declared a conflict of interest. We identified minimal best practice guidance. Qualitative findings indicate that patient, staff and carer perceptions and experiences of surveillance technologies are mixed and complex. Quantitative findings regarding the impact of surveillance on outcomes such as self-harm, violence, aggression, care quality and cost-effectiveness were inconsistent or weak. Discussion: There is currently insufficient evidence to suggest that surveillance technologies in inpatient mental health settings are achieving the outcomes they are employed to achieve, such as improving safety and reducing costs. The studies were generally of low methodological quality, lacked lived experience involvement, and a substantial proportion (18.5%) declared conflicts of interest. Further independent coproduced research is needed to more comprehensively evaluate the impact of surveillance technologies in inpatient settings, including harms and benefits. If surveillance technologies are to be implemented, it will be important to engage all key stakeholders in the development of policies, procedures and best practice guidance to regulate their use, with a particular emphasis on prioritising the perspectives of patients.

Competing Interest Statement

AS and UF have undertaken and published research on BWCs. We have received no financial support from BWC or any other surveillance technology companies. All other authors declare no competing interests.

Clinical Protocols

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=463993

Funding Statement

This study is funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Policy Research Programme (grant no. PR-PRU-0916-22003). The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. ARG was supported by the Ramon y Cajal programme (RYC2022-038556-I), funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities.

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I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

The template data extraction form is available in Supplementary 1. MMAT quality appraisal ratings for each included study are available in Supplementary 2. All data used is publicly available in the published papers included in this review.

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• Other Affiliation: Johns Hopkins Medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
• Other Affiliation: Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology, Baltimore, MD, United States
• Other Affiliation: World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
• Affiliation: Gillings School of Global Public Health, Department of Epidemiology
• Cholera has long been viewed as a serious threat for refugee populations. In the 1980s and 90s, refugee camps proliferated in Africa and Asia as a result of large civil wars and environmental disasters. These camps experienced large-scale cholera outbreaks with regularity because of overcrowding, scarce clean water, and poor sanitation and hygiene practices. Death rates were often high because of preexisting malnutrition, comorbidities, and limited access to medical care. With appropriate clinical management, cholera mortality can be well below 1%, but it can be as high as 50%–60% without proper care. During this time, humanitarian organizations developed a variety of guidelines and standards to reduce morbidity and mortality during cholera outbreaks in these populations. Mobilization around these issues was greatly accelerated in 1994, when a particularly massive outbreak occurred among Rwandan refugees in the Lake Kivu region of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), and approximately 42,000 people died. In response to this unprecedented tragedy, the humanitarian community developed and adopted the Sphere standards for the minimumacceptable living conditions and availability of health services in refugee camps and other humanitarian responses.
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Conflict of interest, data availability statement, where is the ghost in the shell.

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Veith Weilnhammer, Where is the ghost in the shell?, Neuroscience of Consciousness , Volume 2024, Issue 1, 2024, niae015, https://doi.org/10.1093/nc/niae015

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The neurobiology of conscious experience is one of the fundamental mysteries in science. New evidence suggests that transcranial magnetic stimulation of the parietal cortex does not modulate bistable perception. What does this mean for the neural correlates of consciousness, and how should we search for them?

The 1995 animated film Ghost in the Shell follows a cyborg named Major Motoko Kusanagi in a futuristic world, where technology is seamlessly integrated with human biology ( Oshi 1995 ). Kusanagi ponders if her artificial brain generates true consciousness, questioning whether there is a ghost within her cybernetic shell . This provokes existential questions about the nature of consciousness: How do physical brains produce subjective experience? What are the essential features of biological or artificial systems that give rise to awareness? Can we upgrade consciousness?

Causal interventions on the artificial brains of the future may reveal how subjective experience emerges from the interacting components of a conscious machine. But progress can already be made in the biological brains of the present: in an elegant and rigorous study published in this issue of Neuroscience of Consciousness , Schauer and colleagues report that non-invasive brain stimulation of the parietal cortex does not modulate bistable perception. To understand their contribution in context, I will outline what bistable perception can teach us about conscious experience, and how causal interventions will bring us closer to identifying the neurocomputational correlates of consciousness.

During bistable perception, observers experience spontaneous transitions between two mutually exclusive interpretations of an ambiguous sensory input ( Blake and Logothetis 2002 ). This happens, for example, when 2D stimuli cause us to perceive 3D objects ( Fig. 1a ), when static stimuli create apparent motion, or when conflicting images are presented to each eye ( Blake and Logothetis 2002 ). In all these cases, conscious experience changes over time while the physical input remains constant. The phenomenon of bistable perception thus reveals that the correlates of consciousness go beyond a fixed mapping from sensory information to neural responses ( Brascamp et al. 2018 ). This has sparked more than three decades of experiments on how the neural representation of the conscious or dominant interpretation differs from the unconscious or suppressed alternative, and what drives transitions between the two ( Brascamp et al. 2018 ).

Concept. (a) Bistable perception happens when an ambiguous input is compatible with two mutually exclusive interpretations. In the example of the Necker cube, a 2D lattice (left) induces that experience of one of two cubes that differ with respect to spatial orientation (right). Bistable stimuli create a dissociation between the input (lower panel), which remains constant, and conscious experience, which changes over time. (b) Predictive processing posits that the dominant interpretation of a bistable stimulus (upper panel) reflects a prediction about the most likely cause of the physical input. Balanced stimulus evidence for the dominant and suppressed alternatives (lower panel) generates a prediction error that destabilizes perception, ultimately leading to a transition in conscious experience. (c) fMRI reveals a widespread representation of prediction errors during bistable perception (shown here for an individual participant from an experiment on the neural correlates of ambiguous structure-from-motion Weilnhammer et al. 2021 ), ranging from feature-selective regions in visual cortex to parietal and frontal cortex. From the perspective of model-based imaging, much less is known about the representation of the corresponding predictions (computed here as the negative prediction error response). Based on the behavioral effects of non-invasive brain stimulation, previous research has proposed that parietal cortex is divided into a posterior subregion in the SPL that encodes prediction errors, and an anterior subregion in the IPS that represents predictions during bistable perception. According to this model, inhibitory non-invasive brain stimulation of the SPL should therefore reduce the frequency of spontaneous transitions in conscious experience. In contrast, disrupting neural activity in the IPS should increase the frequency of spontaneous transitions in conscious experience

What we know so far is that sensory ambiguity elicits activity far beyond sensory cortices: while neurons in parietal and frontal cortex tend to follow the contents of conscious experience more closely, neural responses to the suppressed alternative can be found even at the latest stages of cortical processing ( Kapoor et al. 2022 ). Compared to perceptual events induced by changes in visual stimulation, spontaneous transitions in conscious experience go along with increased brain activity in the frontoparietal network ( Brascamp et al. 2018 ). Moreover, non-invasive brain stimulation of the frontoparietal network alters the dynamics of bistable perception ( Brascamp et al. 2018 ), consistent with the hypothesis that regions in parietal and frontal cortex interact with sensory brain regions to gate access to consciousness ( Weilnhammer et al. 2021 , Dwarakanath et al. 2023 ).

Bistable perception is therefore not just an illusion that dissociates subjective experience from sensory information, but exposes a fundamental computational aspect of conscious experience. The stream of consciousness is informative : even though the data registered by our senses are inherently ambiguous, we are consciously aware of only one interpretation of the world, while competing alternatives are suppressed ( Hohwy 2012 ). Conscious contents can thus be thought of as predictions about the sensory environment that are updated in response to prediction errors induced by conflicting information ( Hohwy 2012 ) ( Fig. 1b ). This predictive processing view suggests a functional division within the neural correlates of consciousness, with predictive neurons that stabilize experience against random fluctuations in the input, and error neurons that support sensitivity to change. Their interaction is exposed during bistable perception, where neural responses to the suppressed alternative can be understood as prediction errors. Such prediction errors accumulate over time, destabilize the dominant interpretation of the input, and cause transitions in conscious experience ( Hohwy et al. 2008 , Weilnhammer et al. 2021 ).

Computational models are able to quantify dynamic prediction errors from the sequence of conscious experiences that participants report during bistable perception ( Weilnhammer et al. 2017 ). These prediction errors successfully predict functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) responses throughout the frontoparietal network ( Weilnhammer et al. 2021 ) ( Fig. 1c ). Inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the inferior frontal cortex, the most reliable neural correlate of prediction errors during bistable perception ( Brascamp et al. 2018 ), reduces the frequency of spontaneous transitions in conscious experience ( Weilnhammer et al. 2021 ). Distinct representations of predictions and prediction errors may also explain why TMS of parietal cortex has opposing effects on conscious experience ( Brascamp et al. 2018 ), depending on whether neural activity is disrupted in a posterior subregion that represents destabilizing prediction errors ( Kanai et al. 2010 ) (superior parietal lobe, pSPL), or in an anterior subregion that is associated with predictions that stabilize perception ( Carmel et al. 2010 , Kanai et al. 2011 ) (inferior parietal sulcus, IPS).

Despite these advances, the functional significance of the frontoparietal network for bistable perception is far from understood. Its causal role has been disputed by studies that associate parietal and frontal brain activity with introspection and reporting behavior—cognitive processes that occur not as a cause of, but in response to transitions in conscious experience ( Brascamp et al. 2018 ). Moreover, non-invasive brain stimulation of the frontoparietal network has produced inconsistent results ( Carmel et al. 2010 , Kanai et al. 2010 , 2011 , Zaretskaya et al. 2010 , de Graaf et al. 2011 ), which may be explained by limited sample size, variability in the response to TMS ( Ozdemir et al. 2021 ), ongoing changes in dynamic brain state ( Watanabe 2021 ), the bistable paradigm used, or differences in the protocol and target of TMS.

Schauer and colleagues address this issue in an impressive systematic investigation on how parietal continuous theta-burst stimulation (cTBS), an inhibitory TMS protocol ( Huang et al. 2005 ), modulates bistable perception. They present data from three highly powered experiments in which they used (f)MRI-guided neuronavigation to ensure correct target localization, measured motor evoked potentials (MEPs) to assess cTBS response variability, controlled for unspecific effects via counter-balanced control stimulation at the vertex, and generalized across three bistable displays.

The data presented by Schauer and colleagues warrant the conclusion that ‘cTBS applied to parietal cortex is ineffective in modulating bistable perception’. In contradiction with the predictive processing hypothesis, Schauer and colleagues found no evidence for a functional division of parietal cortex into a posterior subregion in SPL that encodes destabilizing prediction errors ( Kanai et al. 2010 ), and an anterior subregion in IPS that represents stabilizing predictions. In an elegant set of control analyses, the authors confirm that this null result cannot be explained by inter-individual differences in the susceptibility to cTBS, which they measured by comparing MEP amplitudes before and after cTBS to motor cortex. Moreover, while the frequency of transitions in conscious experience was correlated across three bistable displays, suggesting a common neural substrate, parietal cTBS effects were not. These results are important and surprising, since there is robust correlational evidence for a functional fractionation of parietal cortex ( Megumi et al. 2015 , Sandberg et al. 2016 ). Moreover, parietal cortex encodes prediction error signals that can also be found in inferior frontal cortex, where they predict the degree to which cTBS slows down bistable perception ( Weilnhammer et al. 2021 ).

Given the large sample size reported by Schauer and colleagues, who did not find a significant cTBS effect even when pooling across experiments, it seems unlikely that interventions with even more power will reveal parietal subregions that have opposing causal roles during bistable perception. Instead, one avenue for future research may be to further increase the precision of non-invasive brain stimulation by computational modeling, which may help localize the neural correlates of predictions and predictions errors for fMRI-guided TMS in individual observers ( Weilnhammer et al. 2021 ) ( Fig. 1c ). Another promising direction may be to test whether the impact of parietal cortex on bistable perception depends on dynamic brain states in these regions ( Watanabe 2021 , Weilnhammer et al. 2023 ). Finally, causal experiments based on alternative non-invasive stimulation protocols ( Zaretskaya et al. 2010 ), invasive brain stimulation during neurosurgery or in non-human primates, as well as case–control studies in patients with structural lesions in the frontoparietal network (e.g. after ischemic stroke) may further disambiguate the role of frontoparietal cortex in bistable perception.

The impressive contribution by Schauer and colleagues indicates that the makers of Ghost in the Shell, which is set in the year 2029, were optimistic with respect to how quickly a mechanistic understanding of subjective experience would develop. At this time, it seems that we are still far away from dissecting the brain into individual subregions with distinct computational functions for consciousness. Systematic investigations like the study by Schauer and colleagues are therefore vital to inform our search for the neural correlates of conscious experience, and will pave the way toward non-invasive brain stimulation as an individualized treatment for people who suffer from altered states of consciousness such as hallucinations.

None declared.

VW was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship by the Leopoldina - German National Academy of Sciences, Grant Number: LPDS 2022-16.

The data underlying this article will be shared on reasonable request to the corresponding author.

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Echoing the conference theme of “unlocking our potentials,” this track invites papers that address all issues and activities relevant to international marketing that broadens our horizon and makes a global impact. Topics addressing international marketing strategy or its individual elements, cross-cultural/national aspects of marketing or buyer behavior, global branding, and international marketing in the post-pandemic world are particularly welcome. Other topics of interest include AI-technology and its application in international marketing, global retailing, counterfeiting and its influence on global brands, global supply chain challenges, brand activism in the global marketplace, and innovation in emerging markets. Both conceptual and empirical works, as well as qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method research approaches are welcome. • Brand origin/ Country-of-origin • Culture • Emerging markets • Exporting, global distribution • Global branding • Global consumer culture • International advertising • International pricing • International digital marketing • International services • International relationship marketing • Technology and international marketing

Hui (Sophia) Feng, Iowa State University Amalesh Sharma, Texas A&M University

The Marketing Strategy track invites papers that generate strategic insights into how marketing (in terms of strategies, practices, tactics, investments, assets, human capital, etc.) enables organizations to consider a 360-degree overview of organizational actions that create value, allow interaction across multiple stakeholders, ensure excellent customer services, and enhance societal contributions. Consistent with the conference theme, we encourage submissions that examine marketing strategy that can unlock a firm’s potential to create values across various stakeholders, considering changes in the global economy and uncertainty around implementing conventional strategies. In addition, we welcome conceptual and empirical submissions with diverse approaches that offer new perspectives and insights into the marketing strategy. Special consideration will be given to research that touches on issues related to societal impact of marketing, sustainability and responsible strategies, innovations in services catering to low income and resource poor organizations, impact of technology and innovation on the buyer’s journey, or customer engagement.

SP Raj, Syracuse University Gerard Athaide, Loyola University Maryland

This track welcomes papers centered on all aspects of product and brand management. Given the emphasis of the conference on “unlocking our potential,” special consideration will be given to papers that develop new conceptual frameworks or utilize novel methodological approaches to extend current understanding on any aspect of product and brand management (e.g., product development, brand building, brand communication). Of particular import in today’s “digital economy” is the role of newer digital technologies in creating differentiation opportunities related to product and brand management. These technologies can facilitate product innovation (e.g., crowdsourcing ideas online) and foster brand engagement (e.g., digital media). Further, technology enabled product and brand strategies have played a key role in helping firms unlock value in emerging economies and are also very relevant.

Aditya Gupta, Texas State University Ashley Goreczny, Iowa State University Carlos Bauer, University of Alabama

The Sales Management and Organizational Frontline Research track focuses on boundary spanners at the point-of-contact between an organization and its customers that promote, facilitate, or enable value creation and exchange. Interactions at the boundary interface are often mediated by salespeople or other frontline employees, and technology (or a combination of those). The track welcomes research on any aspects of sales, sales management, services, and frontline search, including strategy, incentive and compensation, sales leadership, sales operations, personal selling, sales force motivation and effectiveness, buyer-seller relationships, technology, etc. covering B2C, B2B, and B2G relationships. All sales and frontline research topics and methodologies are welcomed. Additionally, research that follows the conference theme of “unlocking our potential” is particularly encouraged.

Some potential topic areas follow.

Unlocking the potential of…

• The use of technology and AI (social media, CRM, sales enablement, etc.).
• Sales enablement and the role of sales technologies.
• Relationship marketing/relational selling.
• Sales manager leadership (behaviors, styles, mentoring, etc.).
• Salesforce organization/structure.
• Salesperson motivation (including compensation, supervisors’ behaviors, etc.).
• Intra-organizational relationships and functional interfaces at the intra-organizational level (e.g., sales-service interface, sales-marketing interface, frontline interactions)
• Methodological advances in sales force, and frontline research.
• Psychological issues in selling, sales management, and frontline interactions.
• Issues at the intersection of frontline interactions.
• Impact of technological advances on frontline interactions.
• Ethical issues in sales.
• Incentive and compensation design.
• Salespersons’ health and wealth being.

Chen Zhou, University of South Carolina Huanhuan Shi, Texas A&M University

The Services, Retailing, and Sports track welcomes academics and practitioners interested in the developments, trends, and latest insights in the fields of services, retailing, sports and/or their intersections. This track covers a wide range of topics related to these areas. Topics of interest for this track include, but are not limited to: • Emerging challenges and opportunities in services management, retailing, and sports management. • Challenges and opportunities of digital transformation in services, retailing, and sports. • Innovations in services, retailing, or sports to better understand customers’ needs, preferences, and behaviors, and to better satisfy customers. • The use of artificial intelligence, chatbots, and other digital technologies to enhance customer experience and customer engagement • Services design, co-creation, and innovation • Evolution of service ecosystem • Personalized and/or interactive shopping experience • Integration of multiple channels and omnichannel selling • Applications of new technologies including mobile payments, livestreaming, augmented reality, and other technologies in services, retailing, or sports. • Sports fan engagement and the emergence of electronic sports Participants in this track will have the opportunity to present their research findings, share their practical experiences, and network with other academics and practitioners with shared interests. We welcome submissions of original research papers, proposals, and posters related to the theme of this track.

Gergana Nenkov, Boston College Lez Trujillo-Torres, University of Illinois, Chicago Justin Huang, University of Michigan

With environmental and social issues becoming an increasing priority among consumers, managers, regulators, and investors, implementing business practices that promote sustainability and social justice is not only a moral imperative, but also a strategic necessity for firms. This track invites research on how firms’ environmental, social, and governance (ESG) initiatives impact and are impacted by firm stakeholders including consumers, employees, investors, and society at large. Potential topics include, but are not limited to: regulation, sustainable development; circular economy, green consumption, promotion of positive business practices in developing economies, impacts of ESG policy changes such as carbon taxes or reporting requirements, degrowth, algorithmic bias in firm decision making, impact of social, racial, and environmental justice on society, education, health, and economic development. We welcome research using a wide range of methods and techniques from a variety of fields.

Submission Types

Submission Template – Competitive Papers

Manuscripts addressing substantive or theoretical topics are sought for competitive paper sessions.

It is  mandatory  that at least one author of all accepted papers register for, and present the paper at, the conference. Submission of the same (or substantially overlapping) manuscript(s) to multiple themes is not permitted. As a reminder, papers are reviewed following a double-anonymized process; reviewers will not know who authored the papers, nor will authors know the names of their reviewers.

Format and Style for Competitive Papers:

Prepare and submit electronic documents in PDF format.  Please include 1) Title, 2) Extended Abstract (175 word limit), 3) Key Contributions to academe and practitioners (300 words) 4) Main text (up to 3,600 words), 5) Table or Figure (optional) and 6) Selected references. Authors have the option of including one table summarizing results and/or one figure (these do not count against the word limit). References also do not count against the word limit.

[Please note that submissions with text longer than 4,100 words will not be reviewed].

To assure an anonymous review, authors must avoid revealing their identities in the body or reference section of the paper. Authors should do the following:

• Do not save the file with author-identifying information in the file name.
• Do not include a front page with author-identifying information.
• Remove the author identifying information from the document’s file properties.

Confirmation that your paper was submitted successfully will be sent via email to the submitter.

Authors of accepted competitive papers have the option of publishing either an extended abstract or a full paper in the conference proceedings.  Choosing to publish an Extended Abstract gives authors the option to submit the paper elsewhere for publication after the conference.

Submission Template – Poster Presentation

Poster sessions provide an opportunity to share research in the working stage, i.e., with at least part of the data having been collected and analyzed, but not necessarily ready for submission to a journal. They are presented as part of poster sessions. Poster sessions can be particularly useful for getting input at intermediate stages of a research project. All poster abstract submissions must be directed to only one track.

By submitting a poster abstract, the author affirms that he/she will register for and appear at the conference to participate in the poster session.

Format and Submission Process for Posters:

Prepare and submit electronic documents in PDF format. Please include 1) Title, 2) Key Contributions to academe and practitioners (300 words), 3) Extended Abstract (1,000 word limit), 4) Table or Figure (optional) and 5) Selected references. Authors have the option of including one table summarizing results and/or one figure (these do not count against the word limit). References also do not count against the word limit.

Please note that submissions with text longer than 1,300 words will not be reviewed].

• Remove the author identifying information from the document’s file properties

Confirmation that your abstract was submitted successfully will be sent via email to the submitter.

Accepted poster authors must agree to prepare a poster for display during the session and be available to discuss your research and answer questions at the invited poster session.

Submission Template – Special Session

Anyone may organize and propose a special session, although those who are unfamiliar with AMA conference special sessions are encouraged to discuss their ideas with the conference co-chairs or track chairs for developmental feedback before submitting a proposal. Special sessions provide a good vehicle to acquaint marketing academics with new perspectives, theories, and provocative ideas, to bring diverse participants together around a common theme, or to integrate academically-minded practitioners into the conference. Sessions involving participants from multiple countries, focusing on theory development or cutting-edge research directions, and offering insights regarding academic-business partnerships for teaching or research are particularly encouraged.

Special sessions should feature three or four presentations on a related theme. Another possibility is an interactive panel discussion among 4-6 panelists and a moderator. Other creative special session formats are encouraged, particularly those that generate attendee interaction.

All special session proposal submissions must be directed to only one track. Proposals for special sessions should describe the topic and its importance to marketing, summarize the issues to be covered, and identify all individuals (with their qualifications) who will formally participate. Special session proposals should provide specificity regarding the purpose, format, participants, and roles in the session. AMA Academic Special Interest Groups (SIGs) may propose special sessions to the SIG Programming track.

Selection criteria include the general quality of the proposal, the level of interest the session is likely to generate at the conference, and the session’s relevance to the conference theme.

By submitting a special session proposal, the organizer and listed participants affirm that, if accepted, all will register for and appear at the Conference as described in the proposal. 

Format and Submission Process for Special Sessions:

Prepare and submit an extended abstract in Microsoft Word format.  Special session proposals must include the title of the session and an extended abstract of 3,600 words maximum. The proposal should describe the objective of the session, its structure and general orientation, likely audience, key issues, and topics to be covered, as well as a description of why the session is likely to make an important contribution to the discipline. Also, include a brief description of each paper in the session.

The text of the special session proposal must not exceed 3,600 words and should be submitted in the double-spaced format, prepared in 12-point font.

Due to the unique nature of special sessions, presenter names and information should be included in the proposal and will be noted as a part of the review process.

Confirmation that your proposal was submitted successfully will be sent via email to the submitter. Special session participants are all expected to register for the conference.

How Do I Submit My Paper?

All submissions should be made electronically via the AMA’s online submission management system (Ex Ordo). If you have submitted to an AMA academic conference in the last year, you should be able to use the same username and password. The deadline for submission was August 25, 2023.

Important Dates

• Call for Papers Due: Friday, August 25, 2023
• Accept/Reject Notifications Sent: Late November
• Event Early-Bird Registration: January 23, 2024

Code of Ethics

Authors submitting papers to American Marketing Association academic conferences must adhere to the following code of ethics:

• Submission of the same (or substantially overlapping) manuscript, special session proposal, or working paper abstract to multiple themes is not permitted.
• Submitting authors should specify who will present papers being considered for Special Sessions or Competitive Paper presentations. An author can be listed as a presenter for no more than two submissions but can be listed as the co-author of multiple submissions. This restriction is to encourage authors to submit their best work and to allow a wider range of presenters.
• Submissions should not already be published in any journal or publication (including online journals, books, and book chapters). Submitting authors should monitor this issue carefully.
• Competitive Paper and Poster submissions should not include content that has been presented at earlier AMA conferences.

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