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How to Understand Your Lab Results

What is a laboratory test.

A laboratory (lab) test checks a sample of your blood , urine (pee), or other body fluid or tissue to learn about your health. The sample is sent to a lab where health care professionals test it to see if it contains certain substances and, if so, how much.

Some lab tests can clearly show whether you do or don't have a specific health condition. For example, a pregnancy test can show whether or not a person is pregnant.

Other lab tests provide more general information about your health and possible problems. Test results that aren't normal give your health care provider clues about the type of health problems you may have. The results help your provider decide whether you need more tests and which ones will be most useful for diagnosing or ruling out certain conditions.

Lab tests are an important part of your health care. But they don't provide a complete picture of your health. Even though you may get your test results in your electronic health record (EHR), it's still important to talk with your provider to find out what your results really mean for you .

To get a full picture of your health, your provider will use your test results along with information from your physical exam, health history, family health history , and sometimes imaging tests, such as x-rays . In most cases, combining that information leads to a more accurate diagnosis than the results from any one lab test.

Why do I need a lab test?

Lab tests are used in different ways, including to help:

Diagnose or rule out a specific disease or condition. Tests to diagnose health problems are done when you have signs or symptoms of a certain disease or condition. Sometimes more than one test is needed to confirm a diagnosis.

A strep A test is an example of a diagnostic test. If you're sick with a bad sore throat and other symptoms, this test can show you whether you're infected with the bacteria that causes strep throat .

• Tell you if you have a high risk for getting a specific disease. This alerts you to take steps to lower your risk. For example, a cholesterol test measures the amount of cholesterol in a sample of your blood. The results can help you understand your risk for heart disease .

Suggest whether you need more testing to check for a condition or disease. These screening tests look for signs that you may have a health problem so that you can have more testing to find out for sure. For example, one type of screening test for colon cancer looks for blood in your stool (poop). If blood is found, it could be a sign of cancer. So, your provider may order a colonoscopy to find out for sure whether you have cancer.

Monitor a disease and/or treatment. If you've already been diagnosed with a disease, you may need lab tests to see if your condition is getting better, worse, or staying the same. Tests can also show if your treatment is working.

A blood glucose test is an example of a monitoring test. It's used to monitor diabetes and diabetes treatment. It may also be used to diagnose the disease.

Plan your treatment. Certain tests can help show which treatments are likely to be most effective for a specific disease.

Tumor marker tests are an example of testing to find out which treatments are likely to work to fight certain types of cancer.

What is a reference range?

Lab test results are reported in different ways. Some results are a number. But how do you know what that number means?

To answer that question, your lab report tells you whether your test result is in a normal range called a reference range or "normal values."

A reference range is a set of numbers that are the high and low ends of the range of results that's considered to be normal. The ranges are based on the test results from large groups of healthy people. A test may have different reference ranges for different groups of people. For example, there may be separate ranges for children and adults.

Reference ranges are a general guide to "normal." If your test result is higher or lower than the range that applies to you, it may be a sign of a health problem, but not always. It's common for healthy people to sometimes have results outside the reference range. And people with health problems can have results in the normal range, too.

If your results are outside of the reference range, your provider will look at other information about your health to understand what may have affected your results. You may need more testing if your result is higher or lower than the reference range, or if you have a normal result even though you have symptoms.

When looking at your lab test results, it's helpful to know that:

• To find out how your test results compare with the normal range, you need to check the reference range listed on your lab report. You can't compare your results to references ranges that you might find elsewhere. This is why our Medical Test information cannot provide normal reference ranges for most tests.
• You can't compare test results from different labs.
• If you're looking for trends in your test results over time, it's important to try to use the same lab for testing.
• Mcg/dL = micrograms per deciliter
• Micromole/L = micromoles per liter
• Pg/mL = picograms per milliliter

What do negative, positive, and inconclusive results mean?

Some test results tell you whether a certain substance, germ, type of cell, or gene was or wasn't found in your test sample. On your test report, you may see these terms:

• Negative or normal. This means "No, the test didn't find what it was looking for." So, you're unlikely to have the health problem you were tested for. But you may need more tests.
• Positive or abnormal. This means, "Yes, the test found what it was looking for." The germ, substance, or gene being tested was in your sample. So, you may have a disease or infection. In certain cases, you may need more tests to confirm a diagnosis.
• Inconclusive or uncertain. This means "not sure." Your test wasn't clearly positive or negative. There are many reasons why this may happen. If you get an uncertain result, you will probably be tested again.

Tests for the COVID-19 virus are an example of tests that tell you whether or not a specific germ was found in your sample.

What are false positive and false negative results?

Tests results are usually accurate, but no test is perfect.

• A false positive result means your test shows you have a disease or condition, but you don't really have it.
• A false negative result means your test shows you don't have a disease or condition, but you really do.

These incorrect results don't happen often, but they are more likely with certain of types tests, or if testing wasn't done right. If your provider thinks your test result may be inaccurate, you may need to have another test.

What can affect my results?

The accuracy of certain test results may be affected by what you eat, medicines you take, and even how your feel when you provide your test sample. Common things that affect tests include:

• Eating and drinking certain foods and drinks
• Taking certain medicines or supplements
• Exercising hard before your test
• Having a menstrual period at the time of your tested

Your provider will let you know if you need to prepare for your test. Follow your provider's instructions carefully. That will help make sure your test results are as accurate as possible. Before your test, let your provider know about all the prescription and over-the-counter medicines you take as well as vitamins and other supplements.

What if I do a home test?

At-home test kits are available for many types of lab tests. The kits provide everything you need to collect a sample of body fluid or cells to send to a lab. At-home tests should never replace testing that your provider orders. Ask your provider or pharmacist to recommend a test you can trust. And talk with your provider about your results, even if they're normal.

• AARP [Internet]. Washington D.C.: AARP. Your Lab Results Decoded; [cited 2022 Jul 25]; [about 9 screens]. Available from: https://www.aarp.org/health/doctors-hospitals/info-02-2012/understanding-lab-test-results.html
• FDA: U.S. Food and Drug Administration [Internet]. Silver Spring (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Tests Used In Clinical Care; [updated 2018 Sep 27; cited 2022 Jul 25]; [about 2 screens]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/InVitroDiagnostics/LabTest/default.htm
• MyHealthfinder.gov. [Internet]. Washington D.C.: Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; National Health Information Center; Doctor Visits: Get Screened; [updated 2022 Jul 28; cited 2022 Jul 28]; [about 3 screens]. Available from: https://health.gov/myhealthfinder/doctor-visits/screening-tests/get-screened
• Middlesex Hospital [Internet]. Middletown (CT): Middlesex Hospital c2022. Common Lab Tests; [cited 2022 Jul 25]; [about 5 screens]. Available from: https://middlesexhealth.org/laboratory-services/common-lab-tests
• National Cancer Institute [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Understanding Laboratory Tests; [updated 2013 Dec 11; cited 2022 Jul 25]; [about 6 screens]. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/understanding-lab-tests-fact-sheet#q1
• National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; Blood Tests; [updated 2022 Mar 24; cited 2022 Jul 25]; [about 7 screens]. Available from: https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/blood-tests
• O'Kane MJ, Lopez B. Explaining laboratory test results to patients: what the clinician needs to know. BMJ [Internet]. 2015 Dec 3 [cited 2022 Jul 25]; 351(h):5552. Available from: https://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h5552
• Testing.com [Internet]. Seattle (WA): OneCare Media; c2022. Deciphering Your Lab Report; [modified 2021 Jan 27; cited 2022 Jul 25]; [about 7 screens]. Available from: https://www.testing.com/articles/how-to-read-your-laboratory-report/
• Testing.com [Internet]. Seattle (WA): OneCare Media; c2022. Reference Ranges and What They Mean; [modified 2021 Nov 9; cited 2022 Jul 25]; [about 13 screens]. Available from: https://www.testing.com/articles/laboratory-test-reference-ranges/
• UW Health [Internet]. Madison (WI): University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinics Authority; c2022. Health Information: Understanding Lab Test Results; [current 2021 Dec 27; cited 2022 Jul 26]; [about 5 screens]. Available from: https://patient.uwhealth.org/healthwise/article/en-us/zp3409
• UW Health [Internet]. Madison (WI): University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinics Authority; c2022. Lab Test Results: Units of Measurement [updated 2021 Dec 27; cited 2022 Jul 25]; [about 5 screens]. Available from: https://patient.uwhealth.org/healthwise/article/en-us/zd1440

The information on this site should not be used as a substitute for professional medical care or advice. Contact a health care provider if you have questions about your health.

CrelioHealth For Diagnostics

How To Write a Laboratory Report: Guide 2024

Why are lab reports important? Lab reports are essential for communicating the findings of medical diagnosis or scientific research & experiments. L ab Report Writing by researchers, clinicians, and other healthcare professionals helps them to make informed decisions about patient care, drug development, and other essential matters.

To write a laboratory report in the correct format is essential, ensuring your findings are clearly and accurately communicated. A lab report writing guide provides a comprehensive framework to help you navigate the process of creating a well-structured and informative lab report. So, this guide will provide you with a step-by-step guide on how to write a laboratory report, including tips on structure, content, and style.

I. Understanding Lab Reports

The key to decoding lab reports lies in grasping the specific terminology, understanding the significance of data, and appreciating the overall narrative that the report conveys. Further, learn how to understand lab reports under these headings:

A. What is a Lab Report?

A lab report is a written document that describes the findings of a medical diagnosis, research, or scientific experiment. Lab report writing includes information on the purpose of the investigation, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.

B. Lab Reports Types

There are many types of different lab reports. And, they can generally be classified into two categories:

• Qualitative lab reports:  These reports describe the results of diagnosis that produce non-numerical data, such as observations, descriptions, and images.
• Quantitative lab reports: These reports describe the results of studies/findings that produce numerical data, such as counts, measurements, and calculations.

C. Purpose of Lab Reports

The purpose of a lab report is to communicate the findings of a diagnosis, experimental study, or research to others. This may be done for a variety of reasons, such as:

• To share findings with other healthcare providers or scientists
• To report on the results of a clinical diagnosis or trial
• To fulfill the requirements of a course or degree
• To document the results of a quality control test

II. Preparing for Laboratory Reporting

Before you begin with the steps to writing a lab report, it is essential to:

Familiarize yourself with the diagnosis: Make sure you understand the purpose of the investigation, the approach used, and the expected results.

Gather necessary references: This includes data, charts, graphs, and other relevant information.

Consider safety considerations: Make sure to follow all safety protocols when conducting the experiment and writing the report.

III. Structure of a Lab Report

A typical structure of a lab report is as follows:

• Title: The title should be clear and concise, and it should accurately reflect the content of the report.
• Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the report, including the diagnostic’s purpose of the diagnosis, methodologies, results, and conclusions.
• Introduction: The introduction provides background information on the experiment, including the purpose of the experiment, the hypothesis, and any relevant literature review.
• Materials and Methods: This section describes the materials used and the procedures followed in conducting the diagnosis.
• Results: This section presents the results of the clinical studies in a clear and concise manner. Data may be offered in tables, charts, and graphs.
• Discussion: The discussion section interprets the medical diagnosis results and discusses their implications. It is important to compare your results to those of other studies and to discuss any limitations of the study.
• Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the experiment and states the conclusions that can be drawn.

Lab Reporting Made Simple with CrelioHealth

Iv. lab report templates.

Let’s explore and enhance your understanding of the most critical aspect of Lab Report Layout.

A. Importance of Using Templates

• Enhanced Consistency: Templates provide a structured laboratory report format that ensures consistency across all reports. This is crucial in the healthcare and medical field, where precision and standardization are essential. Consistent reports are easier to review, understand, and compare.
• Time and Effort Savings:   Ready-to-use templates significantly reduce the time and effort required to create lab reports. Instead of starting from scratch with each report, you can fill in the necessary information and focus on the content. According to a study by the University of Toronto, professionals using templates save an average of 25% of their report creation time.
• Error Reduction: Templates include predefined sections and lab reporting formatting guidelines, reducing the likelihood of errors in your lab reports. This minimizes the risk of oversight or omission, improving the overall quality of the report.

B. Sample Lab Report Template

Toxicology laboratory report template.

A toxicology template in a structured laboratory report writing format is specifically designed for reporting findings related to toxic substances and their effects on living organisms. Moreover, this template typically includes sections detailing the toxic agents, exposure levels, symptoms, and recommendations.

View an example of a simplified toxicology laboratory report template here.

Molecular Diagnostics Report Template

Molecular diagnostics reports provide information about examining tissues at the molecular level. Also, a molecular testing report template contains sections detailing patient information, gene & variant information, observations, and diagnostic conclusions.

Here’s an example of a Next Generation Sequencing report template:

Difference Between Report Templates

The key difference between report templates lies in their focus and content. While both templates share common elements like title, abstract, methods, and references, a toxicology report template is tailored to the specific needs of toxicological analysis. In contrast, a molecular test report template is designed for reporting on tissue examination. The choice of a template depends on the type of study or experiment.

C. Examples and Sample Lab Reports

Analyzing well-written lab reports :.

To understand the importance of templates, let’s analyze a well-written lab report. In a study conducted by the University of Nottingham, it was found that the structure of a lab report using templates had a 15% higher clarity score than those without templates. Furthermore, this demonstrates the immediate impact on report quality.

Extracting Key Elements :

Well-written lab reports often share common elements, such as a clear introduction, hypothesis, detailed methods, comprehensive results, and insightful discussions. Therefore, by analyzing numerous sample reports, you can learn to identify and extract these key elements to incorporate into your reports effectively.

Learning from Successful Reports :

Successful lab reports set a benchmark for quality. For instance, a published clinical trial report that adheres to industry standards can serve as a valuable reference. Also, learning from such reports can help you understand the level of detail required, ethical considerations, and the integration of statistical data.

D. Customizing Templates for Your Needs

Branding & whitelabeling:.

In healthcare institutions or research organizations, it’s essential to maintain a professional brand identity. Moreover, templates can be customized to include the organization’s logo, color scheme, and fonts. This branding not only reinforces the organization’s image but also distinguishes reports as official documents.

Personalization & Localization:

Lab report templates can be personalized for individual researchers, specific study requirements, or for engaging customers. For instance, a researcher may need to add credentials, contact information, or a personalized header. Templates can also be localized for different regions, taking into account language preferences, lab reporting formatting standards, and specific regulatory requirements.

Customizing templates for branding, personalization, and localization adds a layer of professionalism to your reports, making them more reader-friendly and aligned with the organization’s identity and the specific needs of your target audience.

V. Tips for Effective Lab Reporting

Comprehensive detailing of medical test reports helps in effective lab reporting skills. As a result, it becomes practical to produce high-quality reports that meet industry standards and ethical lab report guidelines.

A. Clarity and Precision in Writing

• Use Clear and Concise Language : When writing a lab report, it’s vital to use clear, straightforward language. Avoid jargon or overly technical terms that might confuse readers who are not experts in your field. Your goal is to ensure that anyone, regardless of their background, can understand the report. To keep it clear and simple to patients, smart reports and trend reports  have become popular today. Get an example of smart reports here .
• Define Technical Terms : While clarity is crucial, there will be instances where specialized terminology is necessary. In such cases, provide definitions or explanations for these terms, either in the text or through a glossary. This aids comprehension and ensures your patients, stakeholders, and other readers are on the same page.
• Avoid Ambiguity : Ambiguity can lead to misinterpretation. Be explicit in your descriptions and explanations. Use precise language to leave no room for doubt or multiple interpretations of your findings.

B. Data Presentation

• Choose the Right Visual Aids : When presenting data, select appropriate visual aids like tables, charts, graphs, and figures. The choice should depend on the data type and what will best illustrate your findings.
• Label and Caption Clearly : Ensure that every visual aid is properly labeled and captioned. These labels and captions should be informative, providing context for the reader. Readers should be able to understand the significance of the visual without having to reference the main text extensively.
• Consistency in Data Presentation:  Maintain a consistent style for presenting data throughout the report. Consistency in fonts, colors, and medical lab report formatting makes the information visually appealing and easier to follow.
• Avoid Data Overload : While it’s essential to present relevant data, avoid overwhelming the reader with an excessive amount of information. Select the most crucial data points and present them clearly.

By adhering to such lab report layout and these tips for effective lab reporting, you’ll create reports that are not only accurate and comprehensive but also highly readable and professional. Hence, clear writing, precise data presentation, ethical considerations, and thorough validation & approval are vital in producing reports that make a significant impact in the field of healthcare and medical research.

VI. Common Mistakes to Avoid

While lab report writing, it is crucial to avoid the following common mistakes:

• Factual errors: Carefully check your results and conclusions for factual errors.
• Inconsistent formatting:  Use a consistent lab reporting format throughout your report. This includes using the same font, font size, and margins throughout.
• Neglecting data analysis: Do not simply present your data without analyzing it. Interpret the results of your diagnosis and discuss their implications.
• Ignoring ethical considerations: Discuss any ethical considerations that apply to your methods.

VII. Lab Report Submission

Submitting a lab report is the culmination of meticulous work and precision. Additionally, ensuring that the laboratory report writing format is correct, adheres to submission protocols, and is submitted on time is essential.

A. Formatting Guidelines

Follow the Prescribed Laboratory Report Format :   Each type of lab report, whether a clinical report, research report, or analytical report, often has specific formatting guidelines. It is crucial to adhere to these lab report guidelines to maintain consistency and readability. Moreover, inconsistencies in medical lab report format can distract readers and lead to misinterpretations.

Font and Spacing: Pay attention to the prescribed font type and size. Common choices are Times New Roman or Arial, with font size typically set at 12 points. Ensure that your report has proper line spacing, often set at double spacing, to enhance readability.

Margin Requirements: Be aware of margin requirements. Standard margins are usually set at 1 inch (2.54 cm) on all sides. Also, following these margin guidelines ensures that your document looks clean and professional.

Page Numbering: Lab reports may require specific page numbering, such as placing page numbers in the upper right or lower right corner. Ensure that page numbers are consistent throughout the document.

Tables and Figures:   If your report includes tables and figures, make sure they are labeled and formatted per the lab report guidelines. Further, this includes consistent table and figure titles, numbering, and sources. Tables and figures in the structure of laboratory reports enhance the report’s visual appeal.

B. Submission Protocols

Submission Method: Different institutions and organizations may have distinct methods for submitting lab reports. Standard methods include email submissions, online portals, or physical submissions. Verify the method specified by your institution.

Cover Page: In some cases, lab reports require a cover page with essential information like your name, course or title, submission date, and any other relevant details. Ensure this cover page is included if required.

Lab Report Title: When submitting the report, ensure that the title accurately represents the content of your report. A well-chosen title helps readers and reviewers quickly understand the report’s focus.

Acknowledgment of Collaborators: If you collaborated with other researchers or medical professionals on the lab report, acknowledge their contributions. This is not only an ethical practice but also enhances the credibility of your work.

Submission Deadlines: Meeting deadlines is non-negotiable in lab report submission. Your lab’s TAT depends on it. Be aware of this submission deadline, and make sure your report is submitted well in advance to account for any unforeseen issues.

C. Deadlines and Extensions

Timely Submission: Timely submission is a hallmark of professionalism. Failing to meet deadlines can have serious repercussions. For example, the punishment for late submissions of the COVID-19 reports to the state government or the federal government was severely strict and non-negotiable.

Requesting Extensions: If you foresee that you might not be able to meet the submission deadline, it’s advisable to request an extension well in advance. Most institutions have formal procedures for extension requests. Explain your reasons for needing an extension clearly and provide a realistic new submission date.

Consequences of Missed Deadlines: Be aware that missed deadlines can lead to academic penalties, reduced credibility, and the loss of opportunities. The impact can be severe in clinical settings, where timely reporting is critical for patient care.

Remember that lab report submission is the last critical step in the lab reporting process. Proper laboratory report writing format, adherence to submission protocols, and timely submissions are essential to ensure that your hard work and research are effectively communicated and contribute to the advancement of healthcare and medical knowledge. Always verify specific requirements with your institution or organization, and make it a practice to submit your lab reports with precision and professionalism.

Lab reports are essential for communicating the findings of scientific experiments to other scientists, clinicians, and healthcare professionals. It is vital to encourage all staff and researchers to be familiar with the best practices for writing lab reports. Lab report templates can be a helpful tool for writing a well-structured and informative report. These structure of laboratory reports can also be used to personalize and brand your reports.

Additional Resources

Here are some additional resources that you may find helpful:

• Writing the Laboratory Report by Pamela J. Saltman
• A Guide to Scientific Writing by Robert A. Day
• The ACS Style Guide by the American Chemical Society
• CrelioHealth
• LabArchives
• How to Write a Lab Report by the University of Nottingham
• Lab Report Guidelines by the University of Toronto
• Writing a Lab Report by Phoenix College

Here are some Answers to Common Questions for Understanding Lab Reports better:

• What is the purpose of a lab report? The purpose of a lab report is to communicate the findings of an experiment to others. This may be done for a variety of reasons, such as to share findings with other scientists, to report on the results of a clinical trial, or to fulfill the requirements of a course or degree.
• What are the parts of a lab report? A typical lab report includes the following sections: title, abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.
• What is the format of a lab report? Lab reports should be written in a clear and concise style. The lab reporting format will vary depending on the specific requirements of your instructor or supervisor. However, most lab reports follow a standard format, as described in this lab report writing guide.
• https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/studyingeffectively/writing/writingtasks/labreports.aspx
• https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/types-of-writing/lab-report/
• https://phoenixcollege.libguides.com/LabReportWriting/labreportformat

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Lab Report Format: Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

In psychology, a lab report outlines a study’s objectives, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions, ensuring clarity and adherence to APA (or relevant) formatting guidelines.

A typical lab report would include the following sections: title, abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion.

The title page, abstract, references, and appendices are started on separate pages (subsections from the main body of the report are not). Use double-line spacing of text, font size 12, and include page numbers.

The report should have a thread of arguments linking the prediction in the introduction to the content of the discussion.

This must indicate what the study is about. It must include the variables under investigation. It should not be written as a question.

Title pages should be formatted in APA style .

The abstract provides a concise and comprehensive summary of a research report. Your style should be brief but not use note form. Look at examples in journal articles . It should aim to explain very briefly (about 150 words) the following:

• Start with a one/two sentence summary, providing the aim and rationale for the study.
• Describe participants and setting: who, when, where, how many, and what groups?
• Describe the method: what design, what experimental treatment, what questionnaires, surveys, or tests were used.
• Describe the major findings, including a mention of the statistics used and the significance levels, or simply one sentence summing up the outcome.
• The final sentence(s) outline the study’s “contribution to knowledge” within the literature. What does it all mean? Mention the implications of your findings if appropriate.

The abstract comes at the beginning of your report but is written at the end (as it summarises information from all the other sections of the report).

Introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to explain where your hypothesis comes from (i.e., it should provide a rationale for your research study).

Ideally, the introduction should have a funnel structure: Start broad and then become more specific. The aims should not appear out of thin air; the preceding review of psychological literature should lead logically into the aims and hypotheses.

• Start with general theory, briefly introducing the topic. Define the important key terms.
• Explain the theoretical framework.
• Summarise and synthesize previous studies – What was the purpose? Who were the participants? What did they do? What did they find? What do these results mean? How do the results relate to the theoretical framework?
• Rationale: How does the current study address a gap in the literature? Perhaps it overcomes a limitation of previous research.
• Aims and hypothesis. Write a paragraph explaining what you plan to investigate and make a clear and concise prediction regarding the results you expect to find.

There should be a logical progression of ideas that aids the flow of the report. This means the studies outlined should lead logically to your aims and hypotheses.

Do be concise and selective, and avoid the temptation to include anything in case it is relevant (i.e., don’t write a shopping list of studies).

USE THE FOLLOWING SUBHEADINGS:

Participants

• How many participants were recruited?
• Say how you obtained your sample (e.g., opportunity sample).
• Give relevant demographic details (e.g., gender, ethnicity, age range, mean age, and standard deviation).
• State the experimental design .
• What were the independent and dependent variables ? Make sure the independent variable is labeled and name the different conditions/levels.
• For example, if gender is the independent variable label, then male and female are the levels/conditions/groups.
• How were the IV and DV operationalized?
• Identify any controls used, e.g., counterbalancing and control of extraneous variables.
• List all the materials and measures (e.g., what was the title of the questionnaire? Was it adapted from a study?).
• You do not need to include wholesale replication of materials – instead, include a ‘sensible’ (illustrate) level of detail. For example, give examples of questionnaire items.
• Include the reliability (e.g., alpha values) for the measure(s).
• Describe the precise procedure you followed when conducting your research, i.e., exactly what you did.
• Describe in sufficient detail to allow for replication of findings.
• Be concise in your description and omit extraneous/trivial details, e.g., you don’t need to include details regarding instructions, debrief, record sheets, etc.
• Assume the reader has no knowledge of what you did and ensure that he/she can replicate (i.e., copy) your study exactly by what you write in this section.
• Write in the past tense.
• Don’t justify or explain in the Method (e.g., why you chose a particular sampling method); just report what you did.
• Only give enough detail for someone to replicate the experiment – be concise in your writing.
• The results section of a paper usually presents descriptive statistics followed by inferential statistics.
• Report the means, standard deviations, and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for each IV level. If you have four to 20 numbers to present, a well-presented table is best, APA style.
• Name the statistical test being used.
• Report appropriate statistics (e.g., t-scores, p values ).
• Report the magnitude (e.g., are the results significant or not?) as well as the direction of the results (e.g., which group performed better?).
• It is optional to report the effect size (this does not appear on the SPSS output).
• Avoid interpreting the results (save this for the discussion).
• Make sure the results are presented clearly and concisely. A table can be used to display descriptive statistics if this makes the data easier to understand.
• DO NOT include any raw data.
• Follow APA style.

Use APA Style

• Numbers reported to 2 d.p. (incl. 0 before the decimal if 1.00, e.g., “0.51”). The exceptions to this rule: Numbers which can never exceed 1.0 (e.g., p -values, r-values): report to 3 d.p. and do not include 0 before the decimal place, e.g., “.001”.
• Percentages and degrees of freedom: report as whole numbers.
• Statistical symbols that are not Greek letters should be italicized (e.g., M , SD , t , X 2 , F , p , d ).
• Include spaces on either side of the equals sign.
• When reporting 95%, CIs (confidence intervals), upper and lower limits are given inside square brackets, e.g., “95% CI [73.37, 102.23]”
• Outline your findings in plain English (avoid statistical jargon) and relate your results to your hypothesis, e.g., is it supported or rejected?
• Compare your results to background materials from the introduction section. Are your results similar or different? Discuss why/why not.
• How confident can we be in the results? Acknowledge limitations, but only if they can explain the result obtained. If the study has found a reliable effect, be very careful suggesting limitations as you are doubting your results. Unless you can think of any c onfounding variable that can explain the results instead of the IV, it would be advisable to leave the section out.
• Suggest constructive ways to improve your study if appropriate.
• What are the implications of your findings? Say what your findings mean for how people behave in the real world.
• Suggest an idea for further research triggered by your study, something in the same area but not simply an improved version of yours. Perhaps you could base this on a limitation of your study.
• Concluding paragraph – Finish with a statement of your findings and the key points of the discussion (e.g., interpretation and implications) in no more than 3 or 4 sentences.

Reference Page

The reference section lists all the sources cited in the essay (alphabetically). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms, every time you refer to a psychologist’s name (and date), you need to reference the original source of information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is to use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

Psychology Lab Report Example

Quantitative paper template.

Quantitative professional paper template: Adapted from “Fake News, Fast and Slow: Deliberation Reduces Belief in False (but Not True) News Headlines,” by B. Bago, D. G. Rand, and G. Pennycook, 2020,  Journal of Experimental Psychology: General ,  149 (8), pp. 1608–1613 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000729 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Qualitative paper template

Qualitative professional paper template: Adapted from “‘My Smartphone Is an Extension of Myself’: A Holistic Qualitative Exploration of the Impact of Using a Smartphone,” by L. J. Harkin and D. Kuss, 2020,  Psychology of Popular Media ,  10 (1), pp. 28–38 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000278 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Complete Guide to Writing a Lab Report (With Example)

Students tend to approach writing lab reports with confusion and dread. Whether in high school science classes or undergraduate laboratories, experiments are always fun and games until the times comes to submit a lab report. What if we didn’t need to spend hours agonizing over this piece of scientific writing? Our lives would be so much easier if we were told what information to include, what to do with all their data and how to use references. Well, here’s a guide to all the core components in a well-written lab report, complete with an example.

Things to Include in a Laboratory Report

The laboratory report is simply a way to show that you understand the link between theory and practice while communicating through clear and concise writing. As with all forms of writing, it’s not the report’s length that matters, but the quality of the information conveyed within. This article outlines the important bits that go into writing a lab report (title, abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, conclusion, reference). At the end is an example report of reducing sugar analysis with Benedict’s reagent.

The report’s title should be short but descriptive, indicating the qualitative or quantitative nature of the practical along with the primary goal or area of focus.

Following this should be the abstract, 2-3 sentences summarizing the practical. The abstract shows the reader the main results of the practical and helps them decide quickly whether the rest of the report is relevant to their use. Remember that the whole report should be written in a passive voice .

Introduction

The introduction provides context to the experiment in a couple of paragraphs and relevant diagrams. While a short preamble outlining the history of the techniques or materials used in the practical is appropriate, the bulk of the introduction should outline the experiment’s goals, creating a logical flow to the next section.

Some reports require you to write down the materials used, which can be combined with this section. The example below does not include a list of materials used. If unclear, it is best to check with your teacher or demonstrator before writing your lab report from scratch.

Step-by-step methods are usually provided in high school and undergraduate laboratory practicals, so it’s just a matter of paraphrasing them. This is usually the section that teachers and demonstrators care the least about. Any unexpected changes to the experimental setup or techniques can also be documented here.

The results section should include the raw data that has been collected in the experiment as well as calculations that are performed. It is usually appropriate to include diagrams; depending on the experiment, these can range from scatter plots to chromatograms.

The discussion is the most critical part of the lab report as it is a chance for you to show that you have a deep understanding of the practical and the theory behind it. Teachers and lecturers tend to give this section the most weightage when marking the report. It would help if you used the discussion section to address several points:

• Explain the results gathered. Is there a particular trend? Do the results support the theory behind the experiment?
• Highlight any unexpected results or outlying data points. What are possible sources of error?
• Address the weaknesses of the experiment. Refer to the materials and methods used to identify improvements that would yield better results (more accurate equipment, better experimental technique, etc.)  

Finally, a short paragraph to conclude the laboratory report. It should summarize the findings and provide an objective review of the experiment.

If any external sources were used in writing the lab report, they should go here. Referencing is critical in scientific writing; it’s like giving a shout out (known as a citation) to the original provider of the information. It is good practice to have at least one source referenced, either from researching the context behind the experiment, best practices for the method used or similar industry standards.

Google Scholar is a good resource for quickly gathering references of a specific style . Searching for the article in the search bar and clicking on the ‘cite’ button opens a pop-up that allows you to copy and paste from several common referencing styles.

Example: Writing a Lab Report

Title : Semi-Quantitative Analysis of Food Products using Benedict’s Reagent

Abstract : Food products (milk, chicken, bread, orange juice) were solubilized and tested for reducing sugars using Benedict’s reagent. Milk contained the highest level of reducing sugars at ~2%, while chicken contained almost no reducing sugars.

Introduction : Sugar detection has been of interest for over 100 years, with the first test for glucose using copper sulfate developed by German chemist Karl Trommer in 1841. It was used to test the urine of diabetics, where sugar was present in high amounts. However, it wasn’t until 1907 when the method was perfected by Stanley Benedict, using sodium citrate and sodium carbonate to stabilize the copper sulfate in solution. Benedict’s reagent is a bright blue because of the copper sulfate, turning green and then red as the concentration of reducing sugars increases.

Benedict’s reagent was used in this experiment to compare the amount of reducing sugars between four food items: milk, chicken solution, bread and orange juice. Following this, standardized glucose solutions (0.0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%) were tested with Benedict’s reagent to determine the color produced at those sugar levels, allowing us to perform a semi-quantitative analysis of the food items.

Method : Benedict’s reagent was prepared by mixing 1.73 g of copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate, 17.30 g of sodium citrate pentahydrate and 10.00 g of sodium carbonate anhydrous. The mixture was dissolved with stirring and made up to 100 ml using distilled water before filtration using filter paper and a funnel to remove any impurities.

4 ml of milk, chicken solution and orange juice (commercially available) were measured in test tubes, along with 4 ml of bread solution. The bread solution was prepared using 4 g of dried bread ground with mortar and pestle before diluting with distilled water up to 4 ml. Then, 4 ml of Benedict’s reagent was added to each test tube and placed in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes, then each test tube was observed.

Next, glucose solutions were prepared by dissolving 0.5 g, 1.0 g, 1.5 g and 2.0 g of glucose in 100 ml of distilled water to produce 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0% solutions, respectively. 4 ml of each solution was added to 4 ml of Benedict’s reagent in a test tube and placed in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes, then each test tube was observed.

Results : Food Solutions (4 ml) with Benedict’s Reagent (4 ml)

Glucose Solutions (4 ml) with Benedict’s Reagent (4 ml)

Semi-Quantitative Analysis from Data

Discussion : From the analysis of food solutions along with the glucose solutions of known concentrations, the semi-quantitative analysis of sugar levels in different food products was performed. Milk had the highest sugar content of 2%, with orange juice at 1.5%, bread at 0.5% and chicken with 0% sugar. These values were approximated; the standard solutions were not the exact color of the food solutions, but the closest color match was chosen.

One point of contention was using the orange juice solution, which conferred color to the starting solution, rendering it green before the reaction started. This could have led to the final color (and hence, sugar quantity) being inaccurate. Also, since comparing colors using eyesight alone is inaccurate, the experiment could be improved with a colorimeter that can accurately determine the exact wavelength of light absorbed by the solution.

Another downside of Benedict’s reagent is its inability to react with non-reducing sugars. Reducing sugars encompass all sugar types that can be oxidized from aldehydes or ketones into carboxylic acids. This means that all monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, etc.) are reducing sugars, while only select polysaccharides are. Disaccharides like sucrose and trehalose cannot be oxidized, hence are non-reducing and will not react with Benedict’s reagent. Furthermore, Benedict’s reagent cannot distinguish between different types of reducing sugars.

Conclusion : Using Benedict’s reagent, different food products were analyzed semi-quantitatively for their levels of reducing sugars. Milk contained around 2% sugar, while the chicken solution had no sugar. Overall, the experiment was a success, although the accuracy of the results could have been improved with the use of quantitative equipment and methods.

Reference :

• Raza, S. I., Raza, S. A., Kazmi, M., Khan, S., & Hussain, I. (2021). 100 Years of Glucose Monitoring in Diabetes Management.  Journal of Diabetes Mellitus ,  11 (5), 221-233.
• Benedict, Stanley R (1909). A Reagent for the Detection of Reducing Sugars.  Journal of Biological Chemistry ,  5 , 485-487.

Using this guide and example, writing a lab report should be a hassle-free, perhaps even enjoyable process!

About the Author

Sean is a consultant for clients in the pharmaceutical industry and is an associate lecturer at La Trobe University, where unfortunate undergrads are subject to his ramblings on chemistry and pharmacology.

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Writing Lab Reports

Writing lab reports follows a straightforward and structured procedure. It is important to recognize that each part of a lab report is important, so take the time to complete each carefully. A lab report is broken down into eight sections: title, abstract, introduction, methods and materials, results, discussion, conclusion, and references. 

• Ex: "Determining the Free Chlorine Content of Pool Water"
• Abstracts are a summary of the experiment as a whole and should familiarize the reader with the purpose of the research. 
• Abstracts will always be written last, even though they are the first paragraph of a lab report. 
• Not all lab reports will require an abstract. However, they are often included in upper-level lab reports and should be studied carefully. 
• Why was the research done or experiment conducted?
• What problem is being addressed?
• What results were found?
• What are the meaning of the results?
• How is the problem better understood now than before, if at all?

Introduction

• The introduction of a lab report discusses the problem being studied and other theory that is relevant to understanding the findings. 
• The hypothesis of the experiment and the motivation for the research are stated in this section. 
• Write the introduction in your own words. Try not to copy from a lab manual or other guidelines. Instead, show comprehension of the experiment by briefly explaining the problem.

Methods and Materials

• Ex: pipette, graduated cylinder, 1.13mg of Na, 0.67mg Ag
• List the steps taken as they actually happened during the experiment, not as they were supposed to happen. 
• If written correctly, another researcher should be able to duplicate the experiment and get the same or very similar results. 
• The results show the data that was collected or found during the experiment. 
• Explain in words the data that was collected.
• Tables should be labeled numerically, as "Table 1", "Table 2", etc. Other figures should be labeled numerically as "Figure 1", "Figure 2", etc. 
• Calculations to understand the data can also be presented in the results. 
• The discussion section is one of the most important parts of the lab report. It analyzes the results of the experiment and is a discussion of the data. 
• If any results are unexpected, explain why they are unexpected and how they did or did not effect the data obtained. 
• Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the design of the experiment and compare your results to other similar experiments.
• If there are any experimental errors, analyze them.
• Explain your results and discuss them using relevant terms and theories.
• What do the results indicate?
• What is the significance of the results?
• Are there any gaps in knowledge?
• Are there any new questions that have been raised?
• The conclusion is a summation of the experiment. It should clearly and concisely state what was learned and its importance.
• If there is future work that needs to be done, it can be explained in the conclusion.
• If using any outside sources to support a claim or explain background information, those sources must be cited in the references section of the lab report. 
• In the event that no outside sources are used, the references section may be left out. 

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How to Write An Effective Lab Report

Whether you are in lab for general chemistry, independent work, or senior thesis, almost all lab experiments will be followed up with a lab report or paper. Although it should be relatively easy to write about an experiment you completed, this is often the most difficult part of lab work, especially when the results are unexpected. In this post, I will outline the components of a lab report while offering tips on how to write one.

Understand Your Experiments Thoroughly

Before you begin writing your draft, it is important that you understand your experiment, as this will help you decide what to include in your paper. When I wrote my first organic chemistry lab report, I rushed to begin answering the discussion questions only to realize halfway through that I had a major conceptual error. Because of this, I had to revise most of what I had written so far, which cost me a lot of time. Know what the purpose of the lab is, formulate the hypothesis, and begin to think about the results you are expecting. At this point, it is helpful to check in with your Lab TA, mentor, or principal investigator (PI) to ensure that you thoroughly understand your project. 

The abstract of your lab report will generally consist of a short summary of your entire report, typically in the same order as your report. Although this is the first section of your lab report, this should be the last section you write. Rather than trying to follow your entire report based on your abstract, it is easier if you write your report first before trying to summarize it.

Introduction and Background

The introduction and background of your report should establish the purpose of your experiment (what principles you are examining), your hypothesis (what you expect to see and why), and relevant findings from others in the field. You have likely done extensive reading about the project from textbooks, lecture notes, or scholarly articles. But as you write, only include background information that is relevant to your specific experiments. For instance, over the summer when I was still learning about metabolic engineering and its role in yeast cells, I read several articles detailing this process. However, a lot of this information was a very broad introduction to the field and not directly related to my project, so I decided not to include most of it. 

This section of the lab report should not contain a step-by-step procedure of your experiments, but rather enough details should be included so that someone else can understand and replicate what you did. From this section, the reader should understand how you tested your hypothesis and why you chose that method. Explain the different parts of your project, the variables being tested, and controls in your experiments. This section will validate the data presented by confirming that variables are being tested in a proper way.

You cannot change the data you collect from your experiments; thus the results section will be written for you. Your job is to present these results in appropriate tables and charts. Depending on the length of your project, you may have months of data from experiments or just a three-hour lab period worth of results. For example, for in-class lab reports, there is usually only one major experiment, so I include most of the data I collect in my lab report. But for longer projects such as summer internships, there are various preliminary experiments throughout, so I select the data to include. Although you cannot change the data, you must choose what is relevant to include in your report. Determine what is included in your report based on the goals and purpose of your project.

Discussion and Conclusion

In this section, you should analyze your results and relate your data back to your hypothesis. You should mention whether the results you obtained matched what was expected and the conclusions that can be drawn from this. For this section, you should talk about your data and conclusions with your lab mentors or TAs before you begin writing. As I mentioned above, by consulting with your mentors, you will avoid making large conceptual error that may take a long time to address.

There is no correct order for how to write a report, but it is generally easier to write some sections before others. For instance, because your results cannot be changed, it is easier to write the results section first. Likewise, because you also cannot change the methods you used in your experiment, it is helpful to write this section after writing your results. Although there are multiple ways to write and format a lab report or research paper, the goals of every report are the same: to describe what you did, your results, and why they are significant. As you write, keep your audience and these goals in mind.

— Saira Reyes, Engineering Correspondent

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How to Write a Report for Chemistry Lab

Last Updated: January 20, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Meredith Juncker, PhD . Meredith Juncker is a PhD candidate in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center. Her studies are focused on proteins and neurodegenerative diseases. There are 8 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 115,840 times.

Lab reports are an essential part of scientific study and knowledge. For any chemistry lab report, you will need to write down or type the entire procedure and everything observed during the lab activity. Any lab report should allow the person reading it to be able to reproduce the exact procedure (and result, hopefully) carried out in the lab. Keep in mind that each course might have slightly different requirements for the details of the report as well as whether it should be handwritten or typed -- this article gives you an overview of typical components.

Getting Ready

• Pay careful attention to the safety precautions recommended for the type of experiment you're doing. You will need to incorporate these into your lab report.

• Write in complete sentences.
• Use passive voice -- “Water was poured” rather than “I poured water.”
• Stay in the third person -- “Scientists claim X” rather than “I discovered scientists claim X.”
• Be careful of verb tenses. Most of your report should use present tense verbs, unless you are explaining what you did in the experiment, or what has been written in the past about it. For example, “One problem in conducting this experiment is X” rather than “One problem in conducting this experiment was/will be X.”

• ”At 50 degrees Celsius, when XO is combined with YO, XY and O2 will form.”

Writing Down Basics

• Experiment 7: Identification of the Results of X + Y
• Eloise Texeira ([email protected])
• Partner: Jose Marques ([email protected])
• CHEM 215-08
• July 14, 2015
• Professor Lewis

• What do we know beforehand (previous knowledge or research around the experiment)?
• Why did you choose to do this experiment?
• What was the purpose of the experiment?
• What do you believe you will discover?
• Why do you believe that your experiment will turn out in a particular way?

Getting to Specifics

• Your equation should be correctly balanced, with your stoichiometric coefficients reduced.
• For example, at 50 degrees Celsius, XO(l) + YO(l) -> XY(l) +O2(g).

• Keep in mind that other scientists will use this section of your paper to reproduce your results, so be as specific as possible.
• Here's an example: "Using a burner, we heated Liquid XO and YO to 50 degrees Celsius. We verified the temperature with a thermometer. We poured the liquids into a third tube, which we'd heated to 50 degrees Celsius. The combination of the 2 liquids formed an O2 gas and Liquid XY inside the tube.”

• Name and amount (in grams) of the final product
• Melting point of the final product with the known literature value
• Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy (GCMS) data
• Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) data

• As part of this section, write a paragraph about how your results could be used in the future, or the future direction research could go based on your findings.

Finishing Up

• This includes any relevant papers you read before conducting your experiment, even if you didn't directly cite them in your report.

Expert Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/types-of-writing/lab-report/
• ↑ http://guides.lib.purdue.edu/c.php?g=352816&p=2377936
• ↑ http://www.livescience.com/21490-what-is-a-scientific-hypothesis-definition-of-hypothesis.html
• ↑ https://guides.libraries.indiana.edu/c.php?g=992698&p=7182653
• ↑ https://d.web.umkc.edu/drewa/chem321l/Handouts/321L%20Experimental%20Section%20for%20Lab%20WriteUPs.pdf
• ↑ http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/chemistry/format.html
• ↑ https://guides.lib.purdue.edu/c.php?g=352816&p=2377940
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/subject_specific_writing/professional_technical_writing/technical_reports_and_report_abstracts/index.html

About This Article

To write a chemistry lab report, start by describing your experiment and your hypothesis, or what you think will happen. Include the Reaction Equation, which you is the chemical reaction that you are going to be conducting, including the reactants and products and their structure. As you’re writing the lab report, write in the third person, passive voice, and use present tense unless you are explaining what you did in the experiment or what has already been written about it. For tips on writing your introduction and conclusion, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Format a Biology Lab Report

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If you are taking a general biology course or AP Biology , at some point you will have to do biology lab experiments. This means that you will also have to complete biology lab reports .

The purpose of writing a lab report is to determine how well you performed your experiment, how much you understood about what happened during the experimentation process, and how well you can convey that information in an organized fashion.

Lab Report Format

A good lab report format includes six main sections:

• Introduction
• Materials and Methods

Keep in mind that individual instructors may have a specific format that they require you to follow. Please be sure to consult your teacher about the specifics of what to include in your lab report.

Title:  The title states the focus of your experiment. The title should be to the point, descriptive, accurate, and concise (ten words or less). If your instructor requires a separate title page, include the title followed by the name(s) of the project participant(s), class title, date, and instructors name. If a title page is required, consult your instructor about the specific format for the page.

Introduction:  The introduction of a lab report states the purpose of your experiment. Your hypothesis should be included in the introduction, as well as a brief statement about how you intend to test your hypothesis.

To be sure that you have a good understanding of your experiment, some educators suggest writing the introduction after you have completed the methods and materials, results, and conclusion sections of your lab report.

Methods and Materials:  This section of your lab report involves producing a written description of the materials used and the methods involved in performing your experiment. You should not just record a list of materials, but indicate when and how they were used during the process of completing your experiment.

The information you include should not be overly detailed but should include enough detail so that someone else could perform the experiment by following your instructions.

Results:  The results section should include all tabulated data from observations during your experiment. This includes charts, tables, graphs, and any other illustrations of data you have collected. You should also include a written summary of the information in your charts, tables, and/or other illustrations. Any patterns or trends observed in your experiment or indicated in your illustrations should be noted as well.

Discussion and Conclusion:  This section is where you summarize what happened in your experiment. You will want to fully discuss and interpret the information. What did you learn? What were your results? Was your hypothesis correct, why or why not? Were there any errors? If there is anything about your experiment that you think could be improved upon, provide suggestions for doing so.

Citation/References:  All references used should be included at the end of your lab report. That includes any books, articles, lab manuals, etc. that you used when writing your report.

Example APA citation formats for referencing materials from different sources are listed below.

• Book Name of author or authors (last name, first initial, middle initial) Year of publication Title of book Edition (if more than one) Place where published (city, state) followed by a colon Publisher name For example: Smith, J. B. (2005). Science of Life. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Thompson Brooks.
• Journal Name of author or authors (last name, first initial, middle initial) Year of publication Article title Journal title Volume followed by issue number (issue number is in parenthesis) Page numbers For example: Jones, R. B. & Collins, K. (2002). Creatures of the desert. National Geographic. 101(3), 235-248.

Your instructor may require that you follow a specific citation format. Be sure to consult your teacher concerning the citation format that you should follow.

What Is an Abstract?

Some instructors also require that you include an abstract in your lab report. An abstract is a concise summary of your experiment. It should include information about the purpose of the experiment, the problem being addressed, the methods used for solving the problem, overall results from the experiment, and the conclusion drawn from your experiment.

The abstract typically comes at the beginning of the lab report, after the title, but should not be composed until your written report is completed. View a sample lab report template .

Do Your Own Work

Remember that lab reports are individual assignments. You may have a lab partner, but the work that you do and report on should be your own. Since you may see this material again on an exam , it is best that you know it for yourself. Always give credit where credit is due on your report. You don't want to plagiarize the work of others. That means you should properly acknowledge the statements or ideas of others in your report.

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How to Write the Perfect Chemistry Lab Report: A Definitive Guide

February 11, 2020 By Guest Posts Leave a Comment

Students have to deal with multiple academic tasks, and writing lab reports (lots of them!) is one of them. Its main purpose is to explain what you did in your experiment, what you learned and what the results meant.

Performing experiments and reporting them properly is a cornerstone of on your way into learning chemistry .

But how do you write a chemistry lab report properly?

It’s now time to find out!

Our ultimate guide sheds light on the main parts of lab report writing. You ought to be aware of every section and understand how to complete them properly. Therefore, we have divided our guide into three major sections that are:

• Parts of the lab report;
• A step-by-step review;
• Writing your project.

General Information

It’s necessary to begin with an overview of the main sections that should be present on a laboratory report for chemistry.

Mind that sometimes these sections are called differently but have the same purpose. Some of the sections may be missing, but the general structure should be close to this. Everything depends on the educational institution.

It is important to know that usually lab reports are written after the lab session is finished . This means that you need to have everything previously recorded in your lab notebook . You are supposed to keep track of everything you do in the lab in your laboratory notebook, and then using that notebook to write down your lab report, not the other way around.

Reviewing Every Step

Now, we’d like to go through the main stages of a chemistry lab report. It’s necessary to add brief comments concerning each of them. Your laboratory report begins with a title page. You already know what it consists of. Let’s check how to compose it correctly. The information must be presented on the upper right-hand side of the page. All the points (the title, your name, collaborators, etc.) should be mentioned on the separate line.

Afterward comes the second part, which includes:

• The course title
• Title of the experiment
• Title of the parts within the experiment
• Semester, year, etc. (optional)

This data appears in the middle of the title page.

The next section is the Introduction and it begins with this word in the left upper corner of your report. It should consist of no more than a couple of paragraphs and end with at least one hypothesis.

The body of your project consists of the procedure, materials and methods employed; data; results and observations.  The section Procedure commonly consists of several steps that were followed for the proper conduction of the experiment(s). They could be divided in different parts, and those would describe your actions.

The section Data contains the numerical facts and Observations that provide the changes that took place. Afterwards, you move to the Discussions, in which you ought to plainly explain all the numbers, observations and collected data. Your conclusions provide an overall summary of the entire lab report, and the whole experimental session itself.

Writing a Chemistry Lab Report

The last lap in our “race” is to write a laboratory report . We have already mentioned the main constituents of the title page. Therefore, we can hit the text of your project. Your abstract appears soon after the title page. An abstract is a quick summary that sums up the whole thing (hypothesis to be proven, and conclusions that are reached). Nonetheless, you should leave some space and skip it until the entire project is finished. It is recommended to write the abstract last. The main point is that this section provides a brief review of what your lab report is about and what you’ve managed to achieve.

Main Sections

The introductory part tells your readers what to expect from the project. Write a couple o paragraphs and explain the purpose of your experiment. Including references here is also highly encouraged. The last sentence of your introduction is called a hypothesis or a thesis statement. It shows what you hope to achieve at the end of your research.

The main body consists of several parts and of course, each has its purpose. You should introduce the materials and methods you need to conduct the research. Explain your choice and how your choice helps to conduct a safe and accurate study.

Take instant records of everything that happens during the experiment in your lab notebook . Never rely on your memory!

Afterwards, you’ll interpret the data and explain it using plain words. Don’t draw any conclusions when you record data and don’t explain it in the section called Results. This function should be fulfilled in the sections Discussions or Analysis sections, which should come right afterwards.

Your conclusion makes a brief summary. It should consist of 3-4 sentences, not many more. Restate your hypothesis in other words. Mention whether you’ve achieved your initial goal and explain its value.

Importantly, do realize that if a hypothesis cannot be proven, or an experiment doesn’t give you the results you expected, it doesn’t mean that your experiment and lab session was a failure. It is extremely common in chemistry to find yourself on this kind of situations! You only need to be able to explain why you got the results that you got, and how would you go around to fix them!

Further Sections on Your Report

Don’t forget about the contributors (labmates, supervisiors…) to your research.

You should also obligatorily use some secondary sources to support your theory. Therefore, you have to cite and make references according to the assigned writing format. You can reference other articles all over your manuscript (especially in the introduction and discussion sections), but don’t forget to put them together (or at the bottom of each page), and cite them properly.

The final step is to proofread your lab report. You’re free to use reading aloud and in your head, reading everything again, and using special grammar and spelling checking applications.

To sum up, keep in mind all these guidelines when you’re assigned to write a lab report. Thus, you’ll never miss something important, which can cost you essential grades. Write each section properly to receive the highest grades for your experiment. Always be clear, cite the appropriate references, and be objective with your analysis and conclusions!

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Many believe that a scientist’s most difficult job is not conducting an experiment but presenting the results in an effective and coherent way. Even when your methods and technique are sound and your notes are comprehensive, writing a report can be a challenge because organizing and communicating scientific findings requires patience and a thorough grasp of certain conventions. Having a clear understanding of the typical goals and strategies for writing an effective lab report can make the process much less troubling.

General Considerations

It is useful to note that effective scientific writing serves the same purpose that your lab report should. Good scientific writing explains:

• The goal(s) of your experiment
• How you performed the experiment
• The results you obtained
• Why these results are important

While it’s unlikely that you’re going to win the Nobel Prize for your work in an undergraduate laboratory course, tailoring your writing strategies in imitation of professional journals is easier than you might think, since they all follow a consistent pattern. However, your instructor has the final say in determining how your report should be structured and what should appear in each section. Please use the following explanations only to supplement your given writing criteria, rather than thinking of them as an indication of how all lab reports must be written.

In Practice

The Structure of a Report

The traditional experimental report is structured using the acronym “IMRAD” which stands for I ntroduction, M ethods, R esults and D iscussion. The “ A ” is sometimes used to stand for A bstract. For help writing abstracts, please see Sweetland’s resource entitled “What is an abstract, and how do I write one?”

Introduction: “What am I doing here?” The introduction should accomplish what any good introduction does: draw the reader into the paper. To simplify things, follow the “inverted pyramid” structure, which involves narrowing information from the most broad (providing context for your experiment’s place in science) to the most specific (what exactly your experiment is about). Consider the example below.

Most broad: “Caffeine is a mild stimulant that is found in many common beverages, including coffee.”

Less broad: “Common reactions to caffeine use include increased heart rate and increased respiratory rate.”

Slightly more specific (moving closer to your experiment): Previous research has shown that people who consume multiple caffeinated beverages per day are also more likely to be irritable.

Most specific (your experiment): This study examines the emotional states of college students (ages 18-22) after they have consumed three cups of coffee each day.

See how that worked? Each idea became slightly more focused, ending with a brief description of your particular experiment. Here are a couple more tips to keep in mind when writing an introduction:

• Include an overview of the topic in question, including relevant literature A good example: “In 1991, Rogers and Hammerstein concluded that drinking coffee improves alertness and mental focus (citation 1991).
• Explain what your experiment might contribute to past findings A good example: “Despite these established benefits, coffee may negatively impact mood and behavior. This study aims to investigate the emotions of college coffee drinkers during finals week.”
• Keep the introduction brief There’s no real advantage to writing a long introduction. Most people reading your paper already know what coffee is, and where it comes from, so what’s the point of giving them a detailed history of the coffee bean? A good example: “Caffeine is a psychoactive stimulant, much like nicotine.” (Appropriate information, because it gives context to caffeine—the molecule of study) A bad example: “Some of the more popular coffee drinks in America include cappuccinos, lattés, and espresso.” (Inappropriate for your introduction. This information is useless for your audience, because not only is it already familiar, but it doesn’t mention anything about caffeine or its effects, which is the reason that you’re doing the experiment.)
• Avoid giving away the detailed technique and data you gathered in your experiment A good example: “A sample of coffee-drinking college students was observed during end-of-semester exams.” ( Appropriate for an introduction ) A bad example: “25 college students were studied, and each given 10oz of premium dark roast coffee (containing 175mg caffeine/serving, except for Folgers, which has significantly lower caffeine content) three times a day through a plastic straw, with intervals of two hours, for three weeks.” ( Too detailed for an intro. More in-depth information should appear in your “Methods” or “Results” sections. )

Methods: “Where am I going to get all that coffee…?”

A “methods” section should include all the information necessary for someone else to recreate your experiment. Your experimental notes will be very useful for this section of the report. More or less, this section will resemble a recipe for your experiment. Don’t concern yourself with writing clever, engaging prose. Just say what you did, as clearly as possible. Address the types of questions listed below:

• Where did you perform the experiment? (This one is especially important in field research— work done outside the laboratory.)
• How much did you use? (Be precise.)
• Did you change anything about them? (i.e. Each 5 oz of coffee was diluted with 2 oz distilled water.)
• Did you use any special method for recording data? (i.e. After drinking coffee, students’ happiness was measured using the Walter Gumdrop Rating System, on a scale of 1-10.)
• Did you use any techniques/methods that are significant for the research? (i.e. Maybe you did a double blinded experiment with X and Y as controls. Was your control a placebo? Be specific.)
• Any unusual/unique methods for collecting data? If so, why did you use them?

After you have determined the basic content for your “methods” section, consider these other tips:

• Decide between using active or passive voice

There has been much debate over the use of passive voice in scientific writing. “Passive voice” is when the subject of a sentence is the recipient of the action.

• For example: Coffee was given to the students.

“Active voice” is when the subject of a sentence performs the action.

• For example: I gave coffee to the students.

The merits of using passive voice are obvious in some cases. For instance, scientific reports are about what is being studied, and not about YOU. Using too many personal pronouns can make your writing sound more like a narrative and less like a report. For that reason, many people recommend using passive voice to create a more objective, professional tone, emphasizing what was done TO your subject. However, active voice is becoming increasingly common in scientific writing, especially in social sciences, so the ultimate decision of passive vs. active voice is up to you (and whoever is grading your report).

• Units are important When using numbers, it is important to always list units, and keep them consistent throughout the section. There is a big difference between giving someone 150 milligrams of coffee and 150 grams of coffee—the first will keep you awake for a while, and the latter will put you to sleep indefinitely. So make sure you’re consistent in this regard.
• Don’t needlessly explain common techniques If you’re working in a chemistry lab, for example, and you want to take the melting point of caffeine, there’s no point saying “I used the “Melting point-ometer 3000” to take a melting point of caffeine. First I plugged it in…then I turned it on…” Your reader can extrapolate these techniques for him or herself, so a simple “Melting point was recorded” will work just fine.
• If it isn’t important to your results, don’t include it No one cares if you bought the coffee for your experiment on “3 dollar latte day”. The price of the coffee won’t affect the outcome of your experiment, so don’t bore your reader with it. Simply record all the things that WILL affect your results (i.e. masses, volumes, numbers of trials, etc).

Results: The only thing worth reading?

The “results” section is the place to tell your reader what you observed. However, don’t do anything more than “tell.” Things like explaining and analyzing belong in your discussion section. If you find yourself using words like “because” or “which suggests” in your results section, then STOP! You’re giving too much analysis.

A good example: “In this study, 50% of subjects exhibited symptoms of increased anger and annoyance in response to hearing Celine Dion music.” ( Appropriate for a “results” section—it doesn’t get caught up in explaining WHY they were annoyed. )

In your “results” section, you should:

• Display facts and figures in tables and graphs whenever possible. Avoid listing results like “In trial one, there were 5 students out of 10 who showed irritable behavior in response to caffeine. In trial two…” Instead, make a graph or table. Just be sure to label it so you can refer to it in your writing (i.e. “As Table 1 shows, the number of swear words spoken by students increased in proportion to the amount of coffee consumed.”) Likewise, be sure to label every axis/heading on a chart or graph (a good visual representation can be understood on its own without any textual explanation). The following example clearly shows what happened during each trial of an experiment, making the trends visually apparent, and thus saving the experimenter from having to explain each trial with words.
• Identify only the most significant trends. Don’t try to include every single bit of data in this section, because much of it won’t be relevant to your hypothesis. Just pick out the biggest trends, or what is most significant to your goals.

Discussion: “What does it all mean?”

The “discussion” section is intended to explain to your reader what your data can be interpreted to mean. As with all science, the goal for your report is simply to provide evidence that something might be true or untrue—not to prove it unequivocally. The following questions should be addressed in your “discussion” section:

• Is your hypothesis supported? If you didn’t have a specific hypothesis, then were the results consistent with what previous studies have suggested? A good example: “Consistent with caffeine’s observed effects on heart rate, students’ tendency to react strongly to the popping of a balloon strongly suggests that caffeine’s ability to heighten alertness may also increase nervousness.”
• Was there any data that surprised you? Outliers are seldom significant, and mentioning them is largely useless. However, if you see another cluster of points on a graph that establish their own trend, this is worth mentioning.
• Are the results useful? If you have no significant findings, then just say that. Don’t try to make wild claims about the meanings of your work if there is no statistical/observational basis for these claims—doing so is dishonest and unhelpful to other scientists reading your work. Similarly, try to avoid using the word “proof” or “proves.” Your work is merely suggesting evidence for new ideas. Just because things worked out one way in your trials, that doesn’t mean these results will always be repeatable or true.
• What are the implications of your work? Here are some examples of the types of questions that can begin to show how your study can be significant outside of this one particular experiment: Why should anyone care about what you’re saying? How might these findings affect coffee drinkers? Do your findings suggest that drinking coffee is more harmful than previously thought? Less harmful? How might these findings affect other fields of science? What about the effects of caffeine on people with emotional disorders? Do your findings suggest that they should or should not drink coffee?
• Any shortcomings of your work? Were there any flaws in your experimental design? How should future studies in this field accommodate for these complications. Does your research raise any new questions? What other areas of science should be explored as a result of your work?

Resources: Hogg, Alan. "Tutoring Scientific Writing." Sweetland Center for Writing. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. 3/15/2011. Lecture. Swan, Judith A, and George D. Gopen. "The Science of Scientific Writing." American Scientist . 78. (1990): 550-558. Print. "Scientific Reports." The Writing Center . University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 5 May 2011. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/lab_report_complete.html

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How to Write a Lab Report: The Complete Guide for 2022

by  Antony W

February 19, 2022

This is the complete guide on how to write a lab report in 2022.

Whether you’ve written the report’s introduction but have no idea how to proceed further or you find the whole assignment too technical to start, this guide is for you.

A lab report is a significant segment of a laboratory course because it contributes quite significantly to our overall grade.

The report provides a clear record of raw data and experiments, the information you can extend or reproduce, data analysis, a presentable conclusion, and recommendations based on the experiments.

Clarity is an important aspect when it comes to writing a lab report. Your report should communicate your findings in a clear way that your readers can understand.

In addition to making sure the report reflects the process used to establish findings, you have to present it as an independent record that requires no further input from you.

How to Write a Lab Report Step-by-Step

Here’s the step-by-step guide that can help you to write a comprehensive lab report from start to finish:   

Understand the Structure of a Lab Report

The first step to writing a comprehensive lab report is to understand the structure of the assignment.

Keep in mind that the sections to include will vary depending on the course requirements and scientific field, but they should communicate the purpose, methods, and findings of the experiments.

At the very least, the lab report that you write should have the following sections: 

• Title: The first part of the lab report that should clearly express the topic of your study.
• Abstract: This section of the lab report structure summarizes the aims, methods, results, and conclusion of your lab experiment.
• Introduction: In this section, you have to establish a connection that helps your readers to understand the topic of the experiment.
• Results: This section should show all the inferential and descriptive statistical analyses of your lab experiment.
• Discussion: This is the section where you give your interpretation and evaluation of the results, as well as the limits of your experiments.
• Conclusion: You write an overall summary of the result of your lab experiment.
• References: Here you list all the sources that you cited in your lab experiment using a specific formatting style such as MLA.
• Appendices: This is where you put all the lengthy materials used in the research experiment, including tables, figures, and procedures.

Keep in mind that while this is the overall structure of a lab report, it’s possible to omit or combine some sections depending on the assignment’s instructions.

For example, your instructor may ask you write research aims instead of the introduction, not to mention that you may have to omit the separate conclusion give or take.

The title of your lab report gives the first impression of the assignment. So it should be such that it communicates the primary focus or purpose of your study.

The title of your lab report might not be creative, thought provoking, or the most interesting, and that’s completely fine.

The most important thing to understand here is that the title has to be as informative as possible to convey the findings of your study.

The purpose of an abstract in a lab report is to give a condensed version of the lab in 150 to 300 words.

By reading the summarized version of the report, a reader should clearly understand your research aims, methods and materials used, the results, and your conclusions before getting to the introduction of your lab experiment.

The abstract in this case acts as a type of a framework, which helps readers to determine whether the report would be worth reading in the first place.

We write abstracts in the past tense. So you might want to consider working on the other sections of the report first and then come back later to write this 150 to 300 words long preview of the report.

Introduction

The introduction is what sets the stage for your lab report, so it should be as comprehensive as possible.

You need to focus on giving the complete background information on your research topic. Then go a step further to explain why your lab experiment is significant to a theoretical context or to the real world.

It’s in the introduction of the lab report that you write about previous research on the study. Follow this with a clear demonstration or explanation of how your study will expand, confirm, or gill an existing gap in the respective field.

Remember to include the theoretical basis of your study and mention laws and equations you intent to use. Lastly, make sure you mention the research aims as well as the expectations of the lab.

There are no hard rules to observe when it comes to the length of the introduction. So it doesn’t have to be long or short. It just has to be lengthy enough to communicate your message clearly.

In this section, you give details of the steps you took to gather and analyze your lab’s data. It’s important to provide enough information so that others can easily follow the procedures and conduct a similar experiment if they wish to.

Written in past tense, the method section of the assignment should clearly explain the design, subjects, materials, and procedures you used to collect and analyze the data of your lab report.

• Experimental design: In addition to explaining whether your lab experiment is between or within subject design, make sure you describe how you assigned your sample units to conditions where appropriate.
• Subjects: You should explain human or plants in the terms of their genetic background. For humans, your explanations should be in terms of characteristics and demographic.
• Materials: Create a list of all the equipment used to gather date. If there are any specialized materials or equipment used for the experiment, mention its model. 
• Procedures: Here’s where you explain the steps you took to gather data for the experiment, and you should have the steps appear in a chronological order. Use the lab manual to gather data and, where appropriate, you can reference the manual and state whether you changed anything on practical considerations.

The results section must include report of the statistical analysis conducted during the experiment.

Take this a step further and explain whether your test supports the initial hypotheses made or refutes them altogether.

This is where you demonstrate to your instructor that you understand the process of the experiment and can easily demonstrate your critical thinking.

In addition to interpreting your results and comparing current findings with your initial expectations, you should explain unexpected results and suggest improvement for the study. 

This the final section of your lab report. It’s where you summarize the results of your experiment. It’s best to include a brief overview of the strengths, implications, and the limitations of the studies.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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Lab Report Writing

• Introduction
• Lab Report Style
• Lab Report Format

Introduction of Your Lab Report

Test yourself (introduction).

• Materials and Methods
• Discussion/Conclusion

The introduction of your lab report is a chance for you to "hook" the reader and preview the important details you'll be talking about in the later sections of the paper. It's kind of like the first paragraph in a short story or the first act of a play. While the abstract was a very short summary of the entire paper, the introduction will be a longer section with more detail. It could be anywhere from three or four paragraphs to a couple pages long, depending on the complexity of the topic and, of course, the requirements of your instructor. Here are some tips for organizing your introduction :

• Start off with a very broad introduction to the topic. For instance, let's say you are writing a lab report about an experiment where you tested the effect of temperature on the enzyme catalase. You should start the introduction by talking about what enzymes are and how they work.
• Next, narrow down the introduction to talk more specifically about the topic you are investigating, and why the study you did was so important. In the catalase example, you should now talk specifically about what the catalase enzyme does, where it is found, how it works, and why it is important enzyme to study how temperature affects this enzyme.
• The introduction should also include a literature review t hat discusses what is already known about the topic. This where you will summarize the research you have done about your topic. Make sure you properly cite all of the sources you used in your research.
• Finally, state the purpose of the study, the hypothesis you tested in your study, and/or the question(s) you were trying to answer.

The introduction should not include details about the procedures you used in your study. Save these for the Materials and Methods section. You should also leave out the results, which will go in the Results section.

Introduction Osteoporotic fractures , particularly hip fractures, constitute a large and growing problem worldwide, in both women and men, with a profound impact on quality of life [1] and mortality [2]. The fracture risk is influenced both by the genetic constitution and by environmental factors, with lifestyle becoming more important with increasing age [3]. Physical activity, one conceivable and modifiable risk factor, can prevent fractures by improving muscle mass and balance, and by increasing skeletal strength, and thus reducing the risk of injurious falls [4,5]. However, the clinical relevance regarding exercise for maintaining or improving bone mineral density in adult men cannot be determined from existing studies [6,7]. The investigation of the effects of physical activity on the most important outcome—fracture risk—should ideally be evaluated in a randomized study , but this design is unlikely to ever be well performed owing to methodological issues, e.g., study size, compliance, drop-outs, blinding and long-term follow-up. Therefore, it is not surprising that there are no randomized trials in this area. Although moderate levels of leisure physical activity, such as walking, are associated with a substantially lower risk of hip fracture in postmenopausa l women [8], data from prospective observational fracture studies in men are inconsistent. Whereas some studies in men report significant reductions in risk with a high physical activity [9–12], others do not [13–17]. Lack of validation and the absence of regular assessment of physical activity during follow-up may be factors that explain these contradictory results. The analyses in the positive reports have involved few osteoporotic fractures, and no consistent dose-response pattern has been detected. In addition, only a few studies have taken possible confounding by poor health into account, and in none of the studies has it been considered that changes in physical activity and other lifestyle habits might have occurred during follow-up. Thus, it is uncertain whether, to what extent, and at what level physical activity influences the risk of osteoporotic fractures in men. This study therefore investigated the impact of physical activity on the risk of fracture in a population-based cohort of men followed over a 35-y period. EXPLANATION OF EXAMPLE In the first paragraph of this introduction we learned some general information about bone fractures. The second paragraph narrowed the discussion down to talk specifically about how exercise is related to bone fractures. The third paragraph tells us why the current study is so important. The final paragraph starts off with a literature review telling us what sorts of previous studies have been performed on this topic. The last sentence then gives us the purpose of the current study.  The numbers in brackets are citations for papers that would be listed at the end of the paper, in the References or Works Cited section. Hover your cursor over highlighted terms for the definition.

What information should be included in the Introduction of a lab report?  Which of these answers are correct?

a. The purpose of the study b. General information about the topic being investigated c. Specific details about how the study was done d. The conclusions you have made based on the results of your study e. A literature review that summarizes what is already known about the topic.

A, B, E The introduction should not include details about procedures, results, or conclusions. These will be included in later sections of the paper

Click on the question, to see the answer.

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• Last Updated: Jan 13, 2022 10:50 AM
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How to Write an Abstract for a Lab Report: A Step-by-Step Guide

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When writing a lab report, the abstract is a section that can't be overlooked. It's a brief summary of the entire report, highlighting the most important points of your research. Crafting a strong abstract that accurately reflects all key aspects of the lab report can be challenging, especially for beginners. In this step-by-step guide, we'll explain how to write an abstract that's precise, informative, and compelling.

Understanding the Purpose of an Abstract

Before you start writing your abstract, it's important to understand its purpose. Essentially, an abstract summarizes the key points of your entire lab report. It's a way to give readers an idea of what to expect from your report, without having to read the entire thing. It should include a brief explanation of your objectives, methods, results, and conclusions.

Importance of an Abstract in a Lab Report

The abstract is the first thing that readers will see when they open your lab report. As such, it plays a crucial role in determining whether or not readers will continue reading your report. A well-written abstract can hook readers and make them want to learn more about your research. Therefore, it's important to invest time and effort into crafting a compelling abstract.

Key Components of an Abstract

The key components that should be included in your abstract are:

• Objective of the study: This describes why you carried out the research.
• Methods used: This describes how you conducted your research, including the materials and methods you used.
• Results obtained: This describes the most important findings of your research.
• Conclusions drawn: This describes what you learned from your research and the larger implications of your findings.

It is important to note that the abstract is typically limited to a certain number of words. This means that you will need to be concise in your writing, while still conveying all of the important information about your research. It can be helpful to write the abstract after you have completed your lab report, as this will allow you to more easily summarize the key points.

Another important aspect of writing an abstract is to use clear and concise language. Avoid using jargon or technical terms that may be difficult for readers to understand. Instead, focus on using plain language that will be accessible to a wide range of readers.

Finally, it's important to remember that the abstract is not a conclusion. While you should include a brief summary of your conclusions in the abstract, you should not go into detail about your findings. Instead, save this for the main body of your lab report.

In summary, the abstract is a key component of any lab report. It provides readers with a brief overview of your research, and can help to hook them and encourage them to read more. By focusing on the key components of the abstract, using clear and concise language, and avoiding technical jargon, you can craft a compelling abstract that accurately summarizes your research.

Preparing to Write Your Abstract

Now that you understand what an abstract is and what it should include, it's time to start preparing to write your own. Writing an abstract can be a daunting task, but with the right preparation, you can create a concise and informative summary of your lab report.

Reviewing Your Lab Report

Before you start writing, it's important to review your lab report thoroughly. This will help you to identify the key points and data that should be included in your abstract. Take the time to read through your report carefully, making note of any important findings or conclusions.

As you review your report, consider the following questions:

• What was the purpose of the experiment?
• What methods were used to conduct the experiment?
• What were the main findings or results?
• What conclusions can be drawn from the results?

By answering these questions, you can begin to identify the most important information to include in your abstract.

Identifying the Main Points

Once you have reviewed your lab report, it's time to identify the main points that should be included in your abstract. These points should be clear, concise, and accurately reflect the content of your report.

One way to identify the main points is to highlight the key findings or conclusions in your report. You can also create a list of the most important information that should be included in your abstract. This will help you to stay focused and ensure that your abstract is well-organized.

Gathering Relevant Data and Results

In order to create an accurate and informative abstract, it's important to gather all of the relevant data and results from your lab report. This includes any tables, graphs, or charts that were used to present the data.

Make sure that you have all of this information handy when you start writing your abstract. This will save you time and ensure that your abstract is complete and accurate.

Remember, your abstract should provide a clear and concise summary of your lab report. By following these steps and taking the time to prepare, you can create an abstract that effectively communicates the key findings and conclusions of your experiment.

Structuring Your Abstract

Your abstract should be structured into four main parts: Background and Objectives, Methods and Materials, Results and Findings, and Conclusions and Implications. Here's what each of these sections should include:

Background and Objectives

This section should provide the background context of the study and the reason why the research was conducted. Here, you should also explain the main objectives of the study.

Methods and Materials

This section should describe the research methodology and materials used, including the research design, sample size, data collection and analysis methods, and any limitations of the study.

Results and Findings

This section should present the key findings of your research, including any statistical analyses or major trends that emerged. Be sure to create a clear and logical flow of ideas.

Conclusions and Implications

This final section should provide a summary of the most important conclusions and implications of the study. You should highlight the main theoretical, practical, or policy implications of your research.

Writing Your Abstract

Now that you have a clear structure for your abstract, it's time to start writing. Here are some tips to keep in mind:

Using Clear and Concise Language

Remember, your abstract is meant to be brief and concise. Use clear and simple language to convey your key points. Avoid using jargon or technical terms that readers may not be familiar with.

Focusing on the Most Important Information

Be sure to include only the most important information in your abstract. Avoid including unnecessary details or results that are not relevant to your main objectives.

Ensuring Logical Flow and Coherence

Make sure your abstract has a logical flow and is coherent from start to finish. Use transition sentences to link different sections of your abstract.

By following these steps, you should be able to craft a strong and effective abstract for your lab report. Remember to revise and proofread your abstract before submitting it to ensure it accurately reflects your research and is free of errors. With practice, you'll be able to write high-quality abstracts with ease.

ChatGPT Prompt for Writing an Abstract for a Lab Report

Use the following prompt in an AI chatbot . Below each prompt, be sure to provide additional details about your situation. These could be scratch notes, what you'd like to say or anything else that guides the AI model to write a certain way.

Please write a concise and comprehensive summary of a laboratory experiment in the form of an abstract, highlighting the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. Ensure that the abstract accurately reflects the main findings and implications of the experiment and is written in a clear and concise manner that is appropriate for scientific communication.

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Complete Normal Lab Values Reference Guide & Cheat Sheet

Knowing the different normal lab values is an important step in making an informed clinical decision as a nurse . Diagnostic and laboratory tests are tools that provide invaluable insights and information about the patient. Lab tests are used to help confirm a diagnosis, monitor an illness, and the patient’s response to treatment.

Please note that laboratory values may vary from agency to agency.

Table of Contents

Download free normal lab values cheat sheet, before the procedure, during the procedure, after the procedure, red blood cells (rbc) normal lab values, hemoglobin (hgb), hematocrit (hct), red blood cell indices, serum iron (fe), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (esr), platelets (pt), mean platelet volume (mpv), fibrinogen, bleeding time normal lab values, d-dimer test, prothrombin time, international normalized ratio (pt/inr), activated partial thromboplastin time (aptt), white blood cells (wbc), serum sodium (na+) normal lab values, serum potassium (k+), serum chloride (cl-), magnesium (mg), serum osmolality, serum bicarbonate (hco3-), phosphorus (p), total calcium (ca+), ionized calcium, serum creatinine (cr), creatinine (urine), and creatinine clearance (crcl), blood urea nitrogen (bun), alanine aminotransferase (alt), aspartate aminotransferase (ast), serum protein, fasting blood glucose, glucose tolerance test (gtt), glycosylated hemoglobin (hba1c), diabetes mellitus autoantibody panel, lipoprotein profile (lipid profile) normal lab values, creatine kinase (ck), troponin i and troponin t, natriuretic peptides, cd4+ t-cell counts, thyroid studies normal lab values, arterial blood gas (abg) normal lab values, hepatitis testing, therapeutic drug monitoring normal lab values, how to obtain a blood sample, references and sources.

You can download a summary or cheat sheet of this normal laboratory values guide below. Simply click on the images above to get the full resolution format that you can use for printing or sharing. Feel free to share these cheat sheets for normal lab values!

Phases of Diagnostic Testing

Diagnostic testing involves three phases: pretest, intratest, and post-test. Nurses have responsibilities for each phase of diagnostic testing.

In the pretest , the main focus is on preparing the client for the diagnostic procedure . Responsibilities during pretest include:

• Assessment of the patient to assist in determining precautions.
• Preparation of the equipment and supplies needed.
• Preparation of a consent form, if required.
• Providing information and answering client questions about the procedure.

During intratest , the main focus is specimen collection and performing or assisting with certain diagnostic procedures. Additional responsibilities during intratest are:

• Use of standard precautions or sterile technique if necessary.
• Providing emotional support to the patient and monitoring the patient’s response during the procedure.
• Ensuring the correct labeling, storage, and transportation of the specimen.

During the last part of diagnostic testing, the nursing care revolves around observations and follow-up activities for the patient. For example, if a contrast media was injected during a CT scan , the nurse should encourage the patient to increase fluid intake to promote excretion of the dye. Additional responsibilities during post-test include:

• Compare the previous and current test results
• Reporting of the results to the appropriate members of the healthcare team.

Erythrocyte Studies Normal Lab Values

Here are the normal lab values related to erythrocyte studies which include hemoglobin, hematocrit, red blood cell count, serum iron, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Venous blood is used as a specimen for complete blood count (CBC) which is a basic screening test that is frequently ordered to give an idea about the health of a patient.

A blood culture is a fairly routine test that identifies a disease-causing organism in the blood, especially in patients who have temperatures that is higher than normal, for an unknown reason. The test is relatively simple for the patient and involves a simple blood draw.

A blood culture is being done to determine which specific organism or bacteria is causing the problem and how best to combat it.

Supplies and Equipment

Supplies and equipment required for a blood culture are:

• Sterile syringe (20 cc) and three needles (usually 20 gauge)
• Two blood culture bottles (one for anaerobic and one for aerobic specimens)
• Betadine solution or alcohol swab
• Sterile cotton balls or gauze pads
• Chux (to protect the bed)
• Laboratory request form

Preparation

The test requires little preparation for the patient. The patient will be asked what kind of medications he is taking, including prescriptions and nutritional supplements. The patient may be asked to stop taking certain medications that may alter the blood culture results.

• Discuss the procedure and the reason for doing it to the patient.
• Bring together all supplies and equipment needed to patient’s bedside.
• Assist the patient to comfortable position. Ask for someone within the team to assist if the patient is uncooperative.
• Observe proper hand hygiene .
• Clean the top of both culture bottles with betadine solution or alcohol swab.
• Place the needle on the syringe.
• Apply the tourniquet to allow the veins to fill with blood and become more visible.
• Put on gloves and clean the drawing site with betadine solution or alcohol swab.
• Draw at least 10 cc of blood from the patient (5 cc is needed for each bottle).
• Unbind the tourniquet.
• Remove the syringe and needle while applying pressure to the venipuncture site with the cotton ball or gauze pad. Have the patient apply pressure to the site.
• Replace the needle on the syringe with another sterile needle.
• Inject 5 cc of blood into the anaerobic bottle, not allowing air to enter the bottle.
• Inject the remaining 5 cc of blood into the aerobic bottle and while the needle is still in the bottle, disconnect it from the syringe so that air enters the aerobic bottle.
• Gently mix the blood with the solution in both bottles.
• Label both bottles with the patient’s identifying information and the type of culture that is, aerobic or anaerobic.
• Fill out the laboratory request form completely and send the specimens to the laboratory immediately.
• Secure a band-aid or some gauze over the puncture site.

Red blood cells or erythrocytes transport oxygen from the lungs to the bodily tissues. RBCs are produced in the red bone marrow, can survive in the peripheral blood for 120 days, and are removed from the blood through the bone marrow, liver, and spleen.

Indications of RBC count:

• Helps in diagnosing anemia and blood dyscrasia.

Normal values for red blood cell count :

Hemoglobin is the protein component of red blood cells that serves as a vehicle for oxygen and carbon dioxide transport. It is composed of a pigment (heme) which carries iron, and a protein (globin). The hemoglobin test is a measure of the total amount of hemoglobin in the blood.

Indications of hemoglobin count: 

• Hemoglobin count is indicated to help measure the severity of anemia (low hemoglobin) or polycythemia (high hemoglobin).
• Monitor the effectiveness of a therapeutic regimen .

Normal and critical values chart for hemoglobin count:

🔺Increased hemoglobin levels may indicate:

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
• Congenital heart disease
• Congestive heart disease
• Dehydration
• Hemoconcentration of the blood
• High altitudes
• Polycythemia vera
• Severe  burns

🔻 Decreased hemoglobin levels may indicate:

• Chronic hemorrhage
• Kidney disease
• Nutritional deficiency
• Sarcoidosis
• Severe hemorrhage
• Sickle cell anemia
• Splenomegaly
• Systemic lupus erythematosus

Hematocrit or packed cell volume (Hct, PCV, or crit) represents the percentage of the total blood volume that is made up of the red blood cell (RBC).

Normal and critical values for hematocrit count:

Increased hematocrit levels may indicate:

• Erythrocytosis
• Polycythemia Vera
• Severe dehydration

Decreased hematocrit levels may indicate:

• Bone marrow failure
• Hemoglobinopathy
• Hemolytic reaction
• Hyperthyroidism
• Liver cirrhosis
• Malnutrition
• Multiple myelomas
• Normal pregnancy
• Rheumatoid arthritis

Red blood cell indicates (RBC Indices) determine the characteristics of an RBC. It is useful in diagnosing pernicious and iron deficiency anemias and other liver diseases.

• Mean corpuscular volume (MCV): The average size of the individual RBC.
• Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH): The amount of Hgb present in one cell.
• Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC): The proportion of each cell occupied by the Hgb.

Normal Lab Values for RBC Indices are:

Iron is essential for the production of blood helps transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

Normal lab values for serum iron:

Indication of serum iron: 

• Helps in diagnosing anemia and hemolytic disorder.

Increased serum iron levels may indicate:

• Hemochromatosis
• Hemosiderosis
• Hemolytic anemia
• Hepatic necrosis
• Iron poisoning
• Lead toxicity
• Massive transfusion

Decreased serum iron levels:

• Chronic blood loss
• Chronic gastrointestinal blood loss
• Chronic hematuria
• Chronic pathologic menstruation
• Inadequate absorption of iron
• Iron deficiency anemia
• Lack of iron in the diet
• Pregnancy (late stages)

Nursing considerations for serum iron: 

• Recent intake of a meal containing high iron content may affect the results.
• Drugs that may cause decreased iron levels include adrenocorticotropic hormone, cholestyramine, colchicine, deferoxamine, and testosterone .
• Drugs that may cause increased iron levels include dextrans, ethanol, estrogens, iron preparations, methyldopa, and oral contraceptives .

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a measurement of the rate at which erythrocytes settle in a blood sample within one hour.

Normal lab values for erythrocyte sedimentation rate:

Indication for Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate: 

• Assist in the diagnosis of conditions related to acute and chronic infection, inflammation, and tissue necrosis or infarction.

Increased ESR levels may indicate:

• Bacterial infection
• Chronic renal failure
• Hyperfibrinogenemia
• Inflammatory disease
• Macroglobulinemia
• Malignant diseases
• Severe anemias such as vitamin B12 deficiency or iron deficiency

Decreased ESR levels may indicate:

• Hypofibrinogenemia
• Spherocytosis

Nursing consideration

• Fasting is not required
• Fatty meal prior extraction may cause plasma alterations

Coagulation Studies Normal Lab Values

Physicians order coagulation studies such as platelet count, activated partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time, international normalized ratio, bleeding time, and D-dimer to evaluate the clotting function of an individual. In this section, we’ll discuss the indications and nursing implications of each lab test.

Platelets are produced in the bone marrow and play a role in hemostasis. Platelets function in hemostatic plug formation, clot retraction, and coagulation factor activation.

Normal and critical values for platelet count and mean platelet volume:

Normal and critical values for fibrinogen:

Increased platelet count (Thrombocytosis) may indicate:

• Malignant disorder
• Postsplenectomy syndrome

Decreased platelet count (Thrombocytopenia) may indicate:

• Chemotherapy
• Disseminated intravascular coagulation
• Hypersplenism
• Immune thrombocytopenia
• Inherited thrombocytopenia disorders such as Bernard-Soulier, Wiskott-Aldrich, or Zieve syndromes
• Leukemia and other myelofibrosis disorders
• Pernicious anemia
• Thrombotic thrombocytopenia

Nursing considerations for platelet count: 

• High altitudes, persistent cold temperature, and strenuous exercise increase platelet counts.
• Assess the venipuncture site for bleeding in clients with known thrombocytopenia.
• Bleeding precautions should be instituted in clients with a low platelet count.

Bleeding time assess the overall hemostatic function (platelet response to injury and vasoconstrictive ability).

Indication for Bleeding Time

• Useful in detecting disorders of platelet function.

Prolonged bleeding time or increased levels may indicate: 

• Bernard-Soulier syndrome
• Capillary fragility
• Clotting factor deficiency
• Collagen vascular disease
• Connective tissue disorder
• Cushing’s syndrome
• Glanzmann’s thrombasthenia
• Henoch-Schonlein syndrome
• Hereditary telangiectasia
• Primary or metastatic tumor infiltration of bone marrow
• Severe liver disease
• Thrombocytopenia
• Von Willebrand’s disease

Nursing Considerations for Bleeding Time

• Assess and validate that the client has not been receiving anticoagulants , aspirin , or aspirin -containing products for 3 days prior to the test.
• Inform the client that punctures are made to measure the time it takes for bleeding to stop.
• Apply pressure dressing to clients with bleeding tendencies after the procedure.

Normal Values for Bleeding Time

D-Dimer is a blood test that measures clot formation and lysis that results from the degradation of fibrin.

Indication of D-Dimer Test

• Helps to diagnose the presence of thrombus in conditions such as deep vein thrombosis , pulmonary embolism , or stroke .
• Used to diagnose disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).
• Monitor the effectiveness of treatment.

Normal Lab Value for D-Dimer :

Prothrombin is a vitamin K-dependent glycoprotein produced by the liver that is essential for fibrin clot formation. Each laboratory establishes a normal or control value based on the method used to perform the PT test. The PT measures the amount of time it takes in seconds for clot formation, the international normalized ratio (INR) is calculated from a PT result to monitor the effectiveness of warfarin.

Indication for PT and INR

• Monitor response to warfarin sodium (Coumadin) therapy.
• Screen for dysfunction of the extrinsic clotting system resulting from vitamin K deficiency disseminated intravascular coagulation or liver disease.

Normal and Critical Lab Values for Prothrombin Time (PT) :

Normal and Critical Lab Value for International Normalized Ratio (INR)

The INR standardizes the PT ratio and is calculated in the laboratory setting by raising the observed PT ratio to the power of the international sensitivity index specific to the thromboplastin reagent used.

Increased prothrombin time may indicate:

• Bile duct obstruction
• Coumarin ingestion
• Hereditary factor deficiency
• Massive blood transfusion
• Salicylate intoxication
• Vitamin K deficiency

Decreased prothrombin time may indicate:

• Supplements containing vitamin K
• High intake of foods that contain vitamin K, such as liver, broccoli, kale, turnip greens and soybeans

Nursing Care for Prothrombin Time

• If a PT is prescribed, the baseline specimen should be drawn before anticoagulation therapy is started; note the time of collection on the laboratory form.
• Provide direct pressure to the venipuncture site for 3 to 5 minutes.
• Concurrent warfarin therapy with heparin therapy can lengthen the PT for up to 5 hours after dosing.
• Diets high in green leafy vegetables can increase the absorption of vitamin K, which shortens the PT.
• Orally administered anticoagulation therapy usually maintains the PT at 1.5 to 2 times the laboratory control value.
• Initiate bleeding precautions, if the PT value is longer than 30 seconds in a client receiving warfarin therapy.

Activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) evaluates the function of the contact activation pathway and coagulation sequence by measuring the amount of time it requires for recalcified citrated plasma to clot after partial thromboplastin is added to it. The test screens for deficiencies and inhibitors of all factors, except factors VII and XIII.

Normal and critical lab values for activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) and partial thromboplastin time (PTT) :

Indication for APTT: 

• Monitors the effectiveness of heparin therapy.
• Detect coagulation disorders in clotting factors such as hemophilia A (factor VIII) and hemophilia B (factor IX).
• Determine individuals who may be prone to bleeding during invasive procedures.

Increased APTT levels may indicate:

• Congenital clotting factor deficiencies
• Heparin administration
• Hypofibrinogenemia von Willebrand’s disease

Decreased APTT levels may indicate:

• Early stages of disseminated intravascular coagulation
• Extensive cancer

Nursing consideration for APTT: 

• Do not draw samples from an arm into which heparin is infusing.
• If the client is receiving intermittent heparin by intermittent injection, plan to draw the blood sample 1 hour before the next dose of heparin.
• Apply direct pressure to the venipuncture site.
• Blood specimen should be transported to the laboratory immediately.
• The aPTT should be between 1.5 and 2.5 times normal when the client is receiving heparin therapy.
• Monitor for signs of bleeding if the aPTT value is longer than 90 seconds in a patient receiving heparin therapy.

White Blood Cells and Differential

The normal laboratory value for WBC count has two components: the total number of white blood cells and differential count.

White blood cells act as the body’s first line of defense against foreign bodies, tissues, and other substances. WBC count assesses the total number of WBC in a cubic millimeter of blood. White blood cell differential provides specific information on white blood cell types:

• Neutrophils are the most common type of WBC and serve as the primary defense against infection.
• Lymphocytes play a big role in response to inflammation or infection.
• Monocytes are cells that respond to infection, inflammation, and foreign bodies by killing and digesting the foreign organism (phagocytosis).
• Eosinophils respond during an allergic reaction and parasitic infections.
• Basophils are involved during an allergic reaction, inflammation, and autoimmune diseases.
• Bands are immature WBCs that are first released from the bone marrow into the blood.

Normal and critical lab values for white blood cell count:

Normal lab values for WBC differential: 

I ncreased WBC count (Leukocytosis) may indicate:

• Inflammation
• Leukemic neoplasia
• Tissue necrosis

Decreased WBC count (Leukopenia) may indicate:

• Autoimmune disease
• Bone marrow infiltration (e.g., myelofibrosis)
• Congenital marrow aplasia
• Drug toxicity (e.g., chloramphenicol)
• Severe infection

Nursing consideration for WBC count: 

• A high total WBC count with a left shift means that the bone marrow will release an increased amount of neutrophils in response to inflammation or infection.
• A “shift to the right” which is usually seen in liver disease, megaloblastic and pernicious anemia, and Down syndrome , indicates that cells have more than the usual number of nuclear segments.
• A “shift to the left” indicates an increased number of immature neutrophils is found in the blood.
• A low total WBC count with a left shift means a recovery from bone marrow depression or an infection of such intensity that the demand for neutrophils in the tissue is greater than the capacity of the bone marrow to release them into the circulation.

Serum Electrolytes Normal Lab Values

Electrolytes are minerals that are involved in some of the important functions in our body. Serum electrolytes are routinely ordered for a patient admitted to a hospital as a screening test for electrolyte and acid-base imbalances. Here we discuss the normal lab values of the commonly ordered serum tests: potassium , serum sodium, serum chloride, and serum bicarbonate. Serum electrolytes may be ordered as a “Chem 7” or as a “basic metabolic panel (BMP)”.

Sodium is a major cation of extracellular fluid that maintains osmotic pressure and acid-base balance, and assists in the transmission of nerve impulses. Sodium is absorbed from the small intestine and excreted in the urine in amounts dependent on dietary intake.

Normal and critical values for serum Sodium (Na+) :

Indications for Serum Sodium

• Determine whole-body stores of sodium, because the ion is predominantly extracellular
• Monitor the effectiveness of drug, especially diuretics , on serum sodium levels.

Increased sodium levels (Hypernatremia) may indicate:

• Cushing’s syndrome
• Diabetes insipidus
• Excessive dietary intake
• Excessive IV sodium administration
• Excessive sweating
• Extensive thermal burns
• Hyperaldosteronism
• Osmotic diuresis

Decreased sodium levels (Hyponatremia) may indicate:

• Addison’s disease
• Congestive heart failure
• Chronic renal insufficiency
• Deficient dietary intake
• Deficient sodium in IV fluids
• Diuretic administration
• Excessive oral water intake
• Excessive IV water intake
• Intraluminal bowel loss (e.g., ileus or mechanical obstruction)
• Osmotic dilution
• Peripheral edema
• Pleural effusion
• Syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH) secretion
• Vomiting or nasogastric aspiration

Nursing consideration for Serum Sodium

• Drawing blood samples from an extremity in which an intravenous (IV) solution of sodium chloride is infusing increases the level, producing inaccurate results.

Potassium is the most abundant intracellular cation that serves important functions such as regulate acid-base equilibrium , control cellular water balance, and transmit electrical impulses in skeletal and cardiac muscles.

Normal and critical values for Potassium (K+) :

Indications for Serum Potassium

• Evaluates cardiac function, renal function, gastrointestinal function, and the need for IV replacement therapy.

Increased potassium levels (Hyperkalemia) may indicate:

• Acute or chronic renal failure
• Aldosterone-inhibiting diuretics
• Crush injuries to tissues
• Excessive IV intake
• Hemolyzed blood transfusion
• Hypoaldosteronism

Decreased potassium levels (Hypokalemia) may indicate:

• Cystic fibrosis
• Deficient IV intake
• Gastrointestinal disorders such as nausea and vomiting
• Glucose administration
• Insulin administration
• Licorice administration
• Renal artery stenosis
• Renal tubular acidosis

Nursing Considerations for Serum Potassium

• Note on the laboratory form if the client is receiving potassium supplementation.
• Clients with elevated white blood cell counts and platelet counts may have falsely elevated potassium levels.

Chloride is a  hydrochloric acid salt that is the most abundant body anion in the extracellular fluid. Functions to counterbalance cations, such as sodium, and acts as a buffer during oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in red blood cells (RBCs). Aids in digestion and maintaining osmotic pressure and water balance.

Normal and critical values for Chloride (Cl-) :

Increased chloride levels (Hyperchloremia) may indicate:

• Excessive infusion of normal saline
• Hyperparathyroidism
• Hyperventilation
• Kidney dysfunction
• Metabolic acidosis
• Respiratory alkalosis

Decreased chloride levels (Hypochloremia) may indicate:

• Aldosteronism
• Chronic gastric suction
• Chronic respiratory acidosis
• Diuretic therapy
• Hypokalemia
• Metabolic alkalosis
• Overhydration
• Salt-losing nephritis
• Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)

Nursing Considerations for Serum Chloride

• Any condition accompanied by prolonged vomiting, diarrhea , or both will alter chloride levels.

Magnesium is used as an index to determine metabolic activity and renal function. Magnesium is needed in the blood-clotting mechanisms, regulates neuromuscular activity, acts as a cofactor that modifies the activity of many enzymes, and has an effect on the metabolism of calcium .

Normal and critical values for Magnesium (Mg) :

Increased magnesium levels (Hypermagnesemia) may indicate:

• Hypothyroidism
• Ingestion of magnesium-containing antacids or salt
• Renal insufficiency
• Uncontrolled diabetes

Decreased magnesium levels (Hypomagnesemia) may indicate:

• Chronic renal disease
• Diabetic acidosis
• Hypoparathyroidism
• Malabsorption

Nursing Considerations

• Prolonged use of magnesium products causes increased serum levels.
• Long-term parenteral nutrition therapy or excessive loss of body fluids may decrease serum levels.

Serum osmolality is a measure of the solute concentration of the blood. Particles include sodium ions, glucose, and urea. Serum osmolality is usually estimated by doubling the serum sodium because sodium is a major determinant of serum osmolality.

Normal and critical values for Serum Osmolality :

Part of the bicarbonate-carbonic acid buffering system and mainly responsible for regulating the pH of body fluids.

Normal and critical values for Serum Bicarbonate (HCO3-) :

Nursing consideration for Serum Bicarbonate

• Ingestion of acidic or alkaline solutions may cause increased or decreased results, respectively.

Phosphorus (Phosphate) is important in bone formation, energy storage and release, urinary acid-base buffering, and carbohydrate metabolism. Phosphorus is absorbed from food and is excreted by the kidneys. High concentrations of phosphorus are stored in bone and skeletal muscle .

Normal and critical values for Phosphorus (P) :

Increased phosphorus levels (Hyperphosphatemia) may indicate:

• Advanced myeloma or lymphoma
• Bone metastasis
• Hypocalcemia
• Increased dietary or IV intake of phosphorus
• Liver disease
• Renal failure
• Rhabdomyolysis

Decreased phosphorus levels (Hypophosphatemia) may indicate:

• Chronic alcoholism
• Chronic antacid ingestion
• Hypercalcemia
• Hyperinsulinism
• Inadequate dietary ingestion of phosphorus
• Osteomalacia (adult)
• Rickets (child)
• Vitamin D deficiency

Nursing Consideration

• Instruct the client to fast before the test.

Calcium (Ca+) is a cation absorbed into the bloodstream from dietary sources and functions in bone formation, nerve impulse transmission, and contraction of myocardial and skeletal muscles. Calcium aids in blood clotting by converting prothrombin to thrombin.

Normal and critical values for Total Calcium (Ca):

Normal and critical values for Ionized Calcium :

Increased calcium levels (Hypercalcemia) may indicate:

• Granulomatous infections such as tuberculosis and sarcoidosis
• Metastatic tumor to the bone
• Milk-alkali syndrome
• Nonparathyroid PTH-producing tumor such as renal or lung carcinoma
• Paget’s disease of bone
• Prolonged immobilization
• Vitamin D intoxication

Decreased calcium levels (Hypocalcemia) may indicate:

• Fat embolism
• Hyperphosphatemia secondary to renal failure
• Osteomalacia
• Pancreatitis
• Instruct the client to eat a diet with a normal calcium level (800 mg/day) for 3 days before the exam.
• Instruct the client that fasting may be required for 8 hours before the test.
• Note that calcium levels can be affected by decreased protein levels and the use of anticonvulsant medications

Renal Function Studies Normal Lab Values

In this section, we’ll be discussing the normal laboratory values of serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen, including their indications and nursing considerations. These laboratory tests are helpful in determining the kidney function of an individual.

A urinalysis (UA), also known as routine and microscopy (R&M), is the physical, chemical, and microscopic examination of urine. It involves a number of tests to detect and measure various compounds that pass through the urine. It has been a useful tool of diagnosis since the earliest days of medicine. The color, density, and odor of urine can reveal much about the state of health of an individual.

Urine is assessed first for its physical appearance:

Normal urine color ranges from pale yellow to deep amber in color, depending on the concentration of the urine. The amount and kinds of waste in the urine make it lighter or darker. Pigments and other compounds in certain foods and medications may change the color of urine. Blood in the urine colors it; if the amount of blood in the urine is great, the urine will be red. During a flare-up of chronic nephritis, the small number of red blood cells present in the urine give it a smoky appearance.

Urine normally doesn’t have a very strong  smell . When urine stands, decomposition from bacterial activity gives it an ammonia-like odor. Consumption of certain foods, such as beets or asparagus can impart a characteristic odor to urine. UTI may also take on a foul-smelling odor. Refrigerate the urine sample if it is not to be examined at once.

Random Urine Sample

A sample of urine collected at any time of the day. This type of specimen is most convenient to obtain.

This type of sample may be used to detect the presence of various substances in the urine at one particular point in the day. Often, no special handling is required with these samples.

• Clean, dry container with lid
• Cotton ball or towelette
• Instruct the patient to use the cotton ball or towelette to clean urethral area thoroughly to prevent external bacteria from entering the specimen.
• Let the patient void into the container.
• Label the specimen container with patient identifying information, and send to the lab immediately. A delay in examining the specimen may cause a false result when bacterial determinations are to be made.
• Wash your hands and instruct the patient to do it as well.
• Note that the sample was collected.

Midstream “Clean-Catch” Urine Specimen

Midstream “clean-catch” urine collection is the most common method of obtaining urine specimens from adults, particularly men. This method allows a specimen, which is not contaminated from external sources to be obtained without  catheterization . It is important to follow the “clean-catch” protocol in order to have accurate results from an uncontaminated sample.

The clean-catch urine method is used to prevent germs from the penis or vagina from getting into a urine sample. It is a method of collecting a urine sample for various tests, including urinalysis, cytology, and urine culture.

• Sterile specimen cup
• Zephiran, a soap solution, or three antiseptic towelettes
• Three cotton balls (to use with zephiran or soap solution)

Explain to the patient that this kind of urine collection involves first voiding approximately one half of the urine into the toilet, urinal, or bedpan, then collecting a portion of midstream urine in a sterile container, and allowing the rest to be pass into the toilet. Discuss that this is done to detect the presence or absence of infecting organisms and, therefore, must be free from contaminating matter that may be present on the external genital areas.

For female patients:

• Wash hands with soap and water.
• Instruct the patient to clean perineal area with towelettes or cotton balls.
• Tell the patient to separate folds of urinary opening with thumb and forefinger and clean inside with towelettes or cotton balls, using downward strokes only; keep labia separated during urination.
• Instruct the patient to void a small amount of urine into the toilet to rinse out the urethra, void the midstream urine into the specimen cup, and the last of the stream into the toilet. The midstream urine is considered to be  bladder  and  kidney  washings; the portion that the physician wants tested.
• Fill out the laboratory request form completely, label the specimen container with patient identifying information, and send to the lab immediately. A delay in examining the specimen may cause a false result when bacterial determinations are to be made.
• Note that the specimen was collected. Record any difficulties the patient had or if the urine had an abnormal appearance.

For male patients:

• Instruct the patient to completely retract foreskin and cleanse penis with towelettes or cotton balls.
• Instruct the patient to void a small amount of urine into the toilet to rinse out the urethra, void the midstream urine into the specimen cup, and the last of the stream into the toilet. The midstream urine is considered to be bladder and kidney washings; the portion that the physician wants tested.

Note: If the urine sample is being taken from an infant, the clean-catch kit consists of a plastic bag with a sticky strip on one end that fits over the baby’s genital area, as well as a sterile container. Use the same cleaning methods and the plastic bags for collecting the urine. Pour the urine into the sterile container.

Timed Urine Specimens (2-Hour, 4-Hour, 24-Hour)

For many urine chemistry procedures the specimen of choice is 24-hour urine. A 24-hour urine collection is performed by collecting a person’s urine in a special container over a 24-hour period. It always begins with an empty bladder so that the urine collected is not “left over” from previous hours. This specimen shows the total amounts of wastes the kidneys are eliminating and the amount of each.

A 24-hour urine collection is noninvasive (the skin is not pierced). It is used to assess kidney (renal) function and detects disease.

• Large, clean bottle with cap or stopper
• Measuring graduate
• Bedpan or urinal
• Refrigerated storage area

The test does not require anything other than normal urination. There are no risks involved. Generally, the patient will be given one or more containers to collect and store urine over a 24-hour time period.

• Label the bottle with patient identifying information, the date, and time the collection begins and ends.
• Instruct the patient to urinate, flush down the urine down the toilet when he gets up in the morning.
• Afterward, tell the patient to collect the rest of his urine in the special bottle for the next 24 hours, storing it in a cool environment. It can be kept cool in the refrigerator or on ice in a cooler.
• Instruct the patient to drink adequate fluids during the collection period.
• Emphasize proper  hand hygiene  before and after each collection. Record each amount on the  intake and output  (I&O) sheet.
• Exactly 24-hours after beginning the collection, ask the patient to void. This will complete the specimen collection.
• Instruct the patient to continue to keep the collection container refrigerated until transfer to laboratory.
• Send the bottle and laboratory request form to the lab.

Example:  Begin collecting the 24-hour urine specimen by voiding at 7:00 am and discarding the urine. Collect all urine voided during the next 24 hours. At 7:00 am the next morning, void and add the urine to the collection container. Keep the collection container refrigerated until delivery to the laboratory.

Pregnancy Urine Test

A pregnancy test measures a hormone in the body called human  chorionic gonadotropin  (HCG), a hormone produced during pregnancy. This hormone can be detected in small amounts in both the urine and the blood of a pregnant woman as early as 10 days after conception.

Urine HCG tests are a common method of determining if a woman is pregnant. The best time to test for pregnancy is after the woman miss her period.

• Only a urine specimen cup is required.

Allow patient to wait one to two weeks after her first missed period to get the most accurate results. Note: Irregular periods or miscalculations of when a period is due can affect the test. According to the FDA, 10 to 20 percent of pregnant women may not detect their pregnancy by testing on what they believe to be the first day of their first missed period.

• Advise the patient to use the test the first time she urinate after waking up. As this urine is the most concentrated, it will contain the highest hCG levels of the day. Urine will become more diluted as the patient drink liquids, so hCG levels may be harder to measure later in the day.
• Label the specimen cup with the patient’s identifying information, complete a laboratory request form requesting an HCG test and send both to the lab.
• Only the physician or a  registered nurse  should tell the patient the results of the test.

Creatinine is a specific indicator of renal function. Increased levels of creatinine indicate a slowing of the glomerular filtration rate.

Normal and critical values for Creatinine (Serum):

Normal values for Creatinine (Urine):

Normal lab values for Creatinine Clearance (CrCl):

Increased creatinine levels may indicate:

• Acute tubular necrosis
• Diabetic nephropathy
• Glomerulonephritis
• Pyelonephritis
• Urinary tract obstruction

Decreased creatinine levels may indicate:

• Debilitation
• Myasthenia gravis
• Muscular dystrophy
• Instruct the client to avoid excessive exercise for 8 hours and excessive red meat intake for 24 hours before the test.

Urea nitrogen is the nitrogen portion of urea, a substance formed in the liver through an enzymatic protein breakdown process. Urea is normally freely filtered through the renal glomeruli, with a small amount reabsorbed in the tubules and the remainder excreted in the urine. Elevated levels indicate a slowing of the glomerular filtration rate.

Normal lab values and critical values for Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN):

Normal value for Estimate Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR):

Increased blood urea nitrogen levels may indicate:

• Alimentary tube feeding
• Bladder outlet obstructions
• Excessive protein catabolism
• Excessive protein ingestion
• Gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding
• Hypovolemia
• Myocardial infarction
• Nephrotoxic drugs
• Ureteral obstruction

Decreased blood urea nitrogen levels may indicate:

• Liver failure
• Malnutrition or malabsorption
• Nephrotic syndrome
• Overhydration due to fluid overload or syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)
• BUN and creatinine ratios should be analyzed when renal function is evaluated.

Liver Function Studies Normal Lab Values

Conditions affecting the gastrointestinal tract can be easily evaluated by studying the normal laboratory values of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, albumin, ammonia, amylase, lipase, protein, and lipids.

Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) test is used to identify hepatocellular injury and inflammation of the liver and to monitor improvement or worsening of the disease. ALT was formerly known as serum pyretic transaminase (SGPT).

Normal values for Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT, SGPT):

Increased Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) Levels may indicate:

• Cholestasis
• Hepatic ischemia
• Hepatic tumor
• Hepatotoxic drugs
• Infectious mononucleosis
• Obstructive jaundice
• Severe burns
• Trauma to striated muscle

Decreased Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT) levels :

• Is expected and is normal
• No fasting is required.
• Previous intramuscular injections may cause elevated levels.

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) test is used to evaluate a client with a suspected hepatocellular disease, injury, or inflammation (may also be used along with cardiac markers to evaluate coronary artery occlusive disease). AST was formerly known as serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT).

Normal values for Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST, SGOT):

Increased Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) levels may indicate:

• Cardiac operations
• Cardiac catheterization and angioplasty
• Myocardial infarctions
• Drug-induced liver injury
• Hepatic cirrhosis
• Hepatic infiltrative process
• Hepatic metastasis
• Hepatic surgery
• Infectious mononucleosis with hepatitis
• Heat stroke
• Multiple traumas
• Primary muscle diseases
• Progressive muscular dystrophy
• Recent convulsions
• Recent noncardiac surgery
• Severe, deep burns
• Skeletal muscle trauma
• Acute hemolytic anemia
• Acute pancreatitis

Decreased Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) levels may indicate:

• Acute renal disease
• Chronic renal dialysis
• Diabetic ketoacidosis

Bilirubin is produced by the liver, spleen, and bone marrow and is also a by-product of hemoglobin breakdown. Total bilirubin levels can be broken into direct bilirubin, which is excreted primarily via the intestinal tract, and indirect bilirubin, which circulates primarily in the bloodstream. Total bilirubin levels increase with any type of jaundice; direct and indirect bilirubin levels help differentiate the cause of jaundice.

Normal values and critical values for total, direct, and indirect bilirubin:

Increased conjugated (direct) bilirubin levels may indicate:

• Cholestasis from drugs
• Dubin-Johnson syndrome
• Extensive liver metastasis
• Extrahepatic duct obstruction (gallstone, inflammation, scarring, surgical trauma, or tumor)
• Rotor’s syndrome

Increased unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin levels may indicate:

• Crigler-Najjar syndrome
• Erythroblastosis fetalis
• Gilbert’s syndrome
• Hemolytic jaundice
• Large-volume blood transfusion
• Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia
• Resolution of a large hematoma
• Transfusion reaction
• Instruct the client to eat a diet low in yellow foods, avoiding foods such as carrots, yams, yellow beans, and pumpkin, for 3 to 4 days before the blood is drawn.
• Instruct the client to fast for 4 hours before the blood is drawn.
• Note that results will be elevated with the ingestion of alcohol or the administration of morphine sulfate, theophylline, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), or acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin).
• Note that results are invalidated if the client has received a radioactive scan within 24 hours before the test.

Albumin is the main plasma protein of blood that maintains oncotic pressure and transports bilirubin, fatty acids, medications, hormones, and other substances that are insoluble in water. Albumin is increased in conditions such as dehydration , diarrhea , and metastatic carcinoma; decreased in conditions such as acute infection, ascites, and alcoholism. Presence of detectable albumin, or protein, in the urine is indicative of abnormal renal function.

Normal lab values for Albumin:

Increased albumin levels (Hyperalbuminemia) may indicate:

• Severe diarrhea
• Severe vomiting

Decreased albumin levels (Hypoalbuminemia) may indicate:

• Acute liver failure
• Familial idiopathic dysproteinemia
• Increased capillary permeability
• Protein-losing enteropathies
• Protein-losing nephropathies
• Severe malnutrition
• Ulcerative colitis
• Fasting is not required.

Ammonia is a by-product of protein catabolism; most of it is created by bacteria acting on proteins present in the gut. Ammonia is metabolized by the liver and excreted by the kidneys as urea. Elevated levels resulting from hepatic dysfunction may lead to encephalopathy. Venous ammonia levels are not a reliable indicator of hepatic coma.

Normal values for Ammonia:

• Instruct the client to fast, except for water, and to refrain from smoking for 8 to 10 hours before the test; smoking increases ammonia levels.
• Place the specimen on ice and transport to the laboratory immediately.

Amylase is an enzyme, produced by the pancreas and salivary glands, aids in the digestion of complex carbohydrates and is excreted by the kidneys. In acute pancreatitis, the amylase level may exceed five times the normal value; the level starts rising 6 hours after the onset of pain , peaks at about 24 hours, and returns to normal in 2 to 3 days after the onset of pain. In chronic pancreatitis, the rise in serum amylase usually does not normally exceed three times the normal value.

Normal values for amylase:

Increased amylase levels may indicate:

• Acute cholecystitis
• Duodenal obstruction
• Ectopic pregnancy
• Necrotic bowel
• Parotiditis
• Penetrating peptic ulcer
• Perforated peptic ulcer
• Perforated bowel
• Pulmonary infarction

Decreased amylase levels may indicate:

• Chronic pancreatitis
• Preeclampsia
• On the laboratory form, list the medications that the client has taken during the previous 24 hours before the test.
• Note that many medications may cause false-positive or false-negative results.
• Results are invalidated if the specimen was obtained less than 72 hours after cholecystography with radiopaque dyes.

Lipase is a pancreatic enzyme converts fats and triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol. Elevated lipase levels occur in pancreatic disorders; elevations may not occur until 24 to 36 hours after the onset of illness and may remain elevated for up to 14 days.

Normal values for Lipase:

Increased lipase levels may indicate:

• Bowel obstruction or infarction
• Cholangitis
• Chronic relapsing pancreatitis
• Extrahepatic duct obstruction
• Pancreatic cancer
• Pancreatic pseudocyst
• Peptic ulcer disease
• Salivary gland inflammation or tumor

Decreased lipase levels may indicate:

• Chronic conditions such as cystic fibrosis
• Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) may increase lipase activity.

Serum protein reflects the total amount of albumin and globulins in the plasma. Protein regulates osmotic pressure and is necessary for the formation of many hormones, enzymes, and antibodies; it is a major source of building material for blood, skin, hair , nails, and internal organs. Increased in conditions such as Addison’s disease, autoimmune collagen disorders, chronic infection, and Crohn’s disease. Decreased in conditions such as burns, cirrhosis, edema, and severe hepatic disease.

Normal values for Total Protein (Serum):

Increased protein levels may indicate:

• Amyloidosis
• Hepatitis B
• Hepatitis C
• Human immunodeficiency virus
• Multiple myeloma

Decreased protein levels may indicate:

• Agammaglobulinemia
• Celiac disease
• Extensive burns
• Inflammatory bowel disease
• Kidney disorder

Glucose Studies Normal Lab Values

Understanding the normal laboratory values of blood glucose is an essential key in managing diabetes mellitus . Included in this section are the lab values and nursing considerations for glycosylated hemoglobin, fasting blood sugar, glucose tolerance test, and diabetes mellitus antibody panel.

Fasting blood glucose or fasting blood sugar (FBS) levels are used to help diagnose diabetes mellitus and hypoglycemia. Glucose is a monosaccharide found in fruits and is formed from the digestion of carbohydrates and the conversion of glycogen by the liver. Glucose is the main source of cellular energy for the body and is essential for brain and erythrocyte function.

Normal values for Glucose Studies:

Increased glucose levels (Hyperglycemia) may indicate:

• Acute stress response
• Corticosteroid therapy
• Diabetes mellitus
• Glucagonoma
• Pheochromocytoma

Increased postprandial glucose levels ( Postprandial hyperglycemia) may indicate:

• Extensive liver disease
• Gestational diabetes mellitus

Decreased glucose levels (Hypoglycemia) may indicate:

• Hypopituitarism
• Insulin overdose

Decreased postprandial glucose levels ( Postprandial hypoglycemia) may indicate:

• Malabsorption or maldigestion

Nursing consideration:

• Instruct the client to fast for 8 to 12 hours before the test.
• Instruct a client with diabetes mellitus to withhold morning insulin or oral hypoglycemic medication until after the blood is drawn.

The glucose tolerance test (GTT) aids in the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. If the glucose levels peak at higher than normal at 1 and 2 hours after injection or ingestion of glucose and are slower than normal to return to fasting levels, then diabetes mellitus is confirmed.

Normal values for Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT):

Abnormal Glucose tolerance test may indicate:

• Post-gastrectomy
• Somogyi response to hypoglycemia
• Instruct the client to eat a high-carbohydrate (200 to 300 g) diet for 3 days before the test.
• Instruct the client to avoid alcohol, coffee, and smoking for 36 hours before the test.
• Instruct the client to avoid strenuous exercise for 8 hours before and after the test.
• Instruct the client to fast for 10 to 16 hours before the test.
• Instruct the client with diabetes mellitus to withhold morning insulin or oral hypoglycemic medication.
• Instruct the client that the test may take 3 to 5 hours, requires IV or oral administration of glucose, and the taking of multiple blood samples.

Glycosylated hemoglobin is blood glucose bound to hemoglobin. Hemoglobin A₁C (glycosylated hemoglobin A; HbA1c) is a reflection of how well blood glucose levels have been controlled for the past 3 to 4 months. Hyperglycemia in clients with diabetes is usually a cause of an increase in the HbA1c.

Reference values for Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c):

Increased Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA 1c ) levels may indicate:

• Newly diagnosed diabetic patient
• Non-diabetic hyperglycemia
• Poorly controlled diabetic patient
• Splenectomized patients

Decreased Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA 1c ) levels may indicate:

• Fasting is not required before the test.

Used to evaluate insulin resistance and to identify type 1 diabetes and clients with a suspected allergy to insulin.

Normal Lab Value for DM Autoantibody Panel: 

• Less than 1:4 titer with no antibody detected

Increased levels may indicate:

• Allergies to insulin
• Factitious hypoglycemia
• Insulin resistance
• Type I diabetes mellitus/ Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

Lipid assessment or lipid profile includes total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglycerides.

• Cholesterol is present in all body tissues and is a major component of LDL, brain, and nerve cells, cell membranes, and some gallbladder stones.
• Triglycerides constitute a major part of very-low-density lipoproteins and a small part of LDLs. Increased cholesterol levels, LDL levels, and triglyceride levels place the client at risk for coronary artery disease . HDL helps protect against the risk of coronary artery disease.

Normal and critical lab values for Lipid Profile:

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) 

Increased HDL levels may indicate:

• Extensive exercise
• Familial HDL lipoproteinemia

Decreased HDL levels may indicate:

• Familial low HDL
• Hepatocellular disease (e.g., cirrhosis or hepatitis)
• Hypoproteinemia (e.g.,malnutrition or nephrotic syndrome )
• Metabolic syndrome

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and Very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)

Increased LDL and VLDL levels may indicate:

• Alcohol consumption
• Apoprotein CII deficiency
• Chronic liver disease
• Familial hypercholesterolemia type IIa
• Familial LDL lipoproteinemia
• Gammopathies (e.g., multiple myeloma)
• Glycogen storage disease (e.g., von Gierke’s disease)

Decreased LDL and VLDL Levels may indicate:

• Familial hypolipoproteinemia
• Hypoproteinemia (e.g., severe burns, malnutrition, or malabsorption)
• Oral contraceptives may increase the lipid level.
• Instruct the client to abstain from foods and fluid, except for water, for 12 to 14 hours and from alcohol for 24 hours before the test.
• Instruct the client to avoid consuming high-cholesterol foods with the evening meal before the test.

Cardiac Markers and Serum Enzymes

Serum enzymes and cardiac markers are released into the circulation normally following a myocardial injury as seen in acute myocardial infarction (MI) or other conditions such as heart failure.

Creatine kinase (CK) is an enzyme found in muscle and brain tissue that reflects tissue catabolism resulting from cell trauma. The CK level begins to rise within 6 hours of muscle damage, peaks at 18 hours, and returns to normal in 2 to 3 days. The test for CK is performed to detect myocardial or skeletal muscle damage or central nervous system damage. Isoenzymes include CK-MB (cardiac), CK-BB (brain), and CK-MM (muscles):

• CK-MM is found mainly in skeletal muscle.
• CK-MB is found mainly in cardiac muscle
• CK-BB is found mainly in brain tissue

Normal values for total creatine kinase (CK):

Normal values for total CK isoenzymes:

Increased levels of total creatine phosphokinase (CPK):

• Disease or injury affecting the brain, heart muscle, and skeletal muscle

Increased levels of CPK-BB isoenzyme:

• Adenocarcinoma (breast and lungs)
• Disease involving the central nervous system

Increased levels of CPK-MB isoenzyme:

• Acute myocardial infarction
• Cardiac aneurysm surgery
• Cardiac defibrillation
• Cardiac ischemia
• Myocarditis
• Ventricular arrhythmias

Increased levels of CPK-MM isoenzyme:

• Crush injuries
• Delirium tremens
• Electroconvulsive therapy
• Electromyography
• IM injections
• Malignant hyperthermia
• Recent surgery
• If the test is to evaluate skeletal muscle, instruct the client to avoid strenuous physical activity for 24 hours before the test.
• Instruct the client to avoid ingestion of alcohol for 24 hours before the test.
• Invasive procedures and intramuscular injections may falsely elevate CK levels.

Myoglobin, an oxygen-binding protein that is found in striated (cardiac and skeletal) muscle, releases oxygen at very low tensions. Any injury to skeletal muscle will cause a release of myoglobin into the blood. Myoglobin rise in 2-4 hours after an MI making it an early marker for determining cardiac damage.

Normal Lab Values for Myoglobin

Increased myoglobin levels:

• Skeletal muscle ischemia
• The level can rise as early as 2 hours after a myocardial infarction, with a rapid decline in the level after 7 hours.
• Because the myoglobin level is not cardiac specific and rises and falls so rapidly, its use in diagnosing myocardial infarction may be limited.

Troponin is a regulatory protein found in striated muscle (myocardial and skeletal). Increased amounts of troponin are released into the bloodstream when an infarction causes damage to the myocardium . Troponin levels are elevated as early as 3 hours after MI. Troponin T and Troponin I start to rise after 4-6 hours and peaks at 10-24 hours. Troponin T returns to normal values after 10 days. Troponin I returns—normal values after 4 days. Serial measurements are important to compare with a baseline test; elevations are clinically significant in the diagnosis of cardiac pathology.

Normal values for Troponins:

Increased troponin levels may indicate:

• Myocardial injury
• Rotate venipuncture sites.
• Testing is repeated in 12 hours or as prescribed, followed by daily testing for 3 to 5 days.

Natriuretic peptides are neuroendocrine peptides that are used to identify clients with heart failure. There are three major peptides:

• atrial natriuretic peptides (ANP) synthesized in cardiac ventricle muscle,
• brain natriuretic peptides (BNP)  synthesized in the cardiac ventricle muscle
• C-type natriuretic peptides (CNP) synthesized by endothelial cells.

BNP is the primary marker for identifying heart failure as the cause of dyspnea . The higher the BNP level, the more severe the heart failure. If the BNP level is elevated, dyspnea is due to heart failure; if it is normal, the dyspnea is due to a pulmonary problem.

Normal values for Natriuretic Peptides:

Natriuretic peptides

Increased natriuretic peptides levels:

• Cor pulmonale
• Heart transplant rejection
• Systemic hypertension

HIV and AIDS Testing

The following laboratory tests are used to diagnose human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is the cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Common tests used to determine the presence of antibodies to HIV include ELISA, Western blot, and Immunofluorescence assay (IFA).

• A single reactive ELISA test by itself cannot be used to diagnose HIV and should be repeated in duplicate with the same blood sample; if the result is repeatedly reactive, follow-up tests using Western blot or IFA should be performed.
• A positive Western blot or IFA results is considered confirmatory for HIV.
• A positive ELISA result that fails to be confirmed by Western blot or IFA should not be considered negative, and repeat testing should take place in 3 to 6 months.

CD4+ T-cell counts help Monitors the progression of HIV. As the condition progresses, usually the number of CD4+ T-cells decreases, with a resultant decrease in immunity. In general, the immune system remains healthy with CD4+ T-cell counts higher than 500 cells/L. Immune system problems occur when the CD4+ T-cell count is between 200 and 499 cells/L. Severe immune system problems occur when the CD4+ T-cell count is lower than 200 cells/L.

Normal values for HIV and AIDS Testing:

Increased CD4+ T-cell counts may indicate:

• B-cell lymphoma
• T-cell lymphoma
• Chronic lymphatic leukemia

Decreased CD4+ T-cell counts may indicate:

• Congenital immunodeficiency
• HIV-positive patients
• Organ transplants

Thyroid studies are performed if a thyroid disorder is suspected. Common laboratory blood tests such as thyroxine, TSH, T4, and T3 are done to evaluate thyroid function. Thyroid studies help differentiate primary thyroid disease from secondary causes and from abnormalities in thyroxine-binding globulin levels. Thyroid peroxidase antibodies test may be done to identify the presence of autoimmune conditions involving the thyroid gland.

Normal values for thyroid function tests:

Triiodothyronine (T₃)

Increased triiodothyronine levels may indicate:

• Acute thyroiditis
• Congenital hyperproteinemia
• Factitious hyperthyroidism
• Grave’s disease
• Plummer’s disease
• Struma ovarii
• Toxic thyroid adenoma

Decreased triiodothyronine levels may indicate:

• Hypothalamic failure
• Iodine insufficiency
• Pituitary insufficiency
• Protein malnutrition and other protein-depleted states
• Thyroid surgical ablation

Thyroxine (T₄)

Increased thyroxine levels may indicate:

• Familial dysalbuminemic hyperthyroxinemia

Decreased thyroxine levels may indicate:

• Protein-depleted states
• Surgical ablation

Thyroxine, free (FT₄)

Increased Thyroxine, free (FT₄) levels may indicate:

Decreased Thyroxine Levels may indicate:

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)

Abnormal findings:

• Acute starvation
• Psychiatric primary depression
• Results of the test may be invalid if the client has undergone a radionuclide scan within 7 days before the test.

Arterial Blood Gases ( ABGs ) are measured in a laboratory test to determine the extent of compensation by the buffer system. It measures the acidity (pH) and the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in arterial blood. Blood for an ABG test is taken from an artery whereas most other blood tests are done on a sample of blood taken from a vein. To help you interpret ABG results, check out our 8-Step Guide to ABG Analysis Tic-Tac-Toe Method .

Normal values for arterial blood gasses (ABG):

Increased pH levels (Alkalosis)

Metabolic alkalosis may indicate:

• Chronic vomiting
• Chronic and high-volume gastric suction
• Hypochloremia
• Mercurial diuretics

Respiratory alkalosis may indicate:

• Acute and severe pulmonary disease
• Anxiety neuroses
• Carbon monoxide poisoning
• Chronic heart failure
• Pulmonary emboli

Decreased pH (Acidosis)

Metabolic acidosis may indicate:

• Ketoacidosis
• Lactic acidosis

Respiratory acidosis may indicate:

• Respiratory failure

Increased Pco 2 levels may indicate:

• Head trauma
• Overoxygenation in a patient with COPD
• Oversedation
• Pickwickian syndrome

Decreased Pco 2 levels may indicate:

Po 2 and O 2 content

Increased Po 2,  increased O 2 content may indicate:

• Increased inspired O 2

Decreased Po 2,  increased O 2 content may indicate:

• Adult respiratory distress syndrome
• Atelectasis
• Atrial or ventricular cardiac septal defects
• Bronchospasm
• Inadequate oxygen in inspired air (suffocation)Mucus plug
• Pneumothorax
• Pulmonary edema
• Restrictive lung disease
• Severe hypoventilation (e.g., neurologic somnolence, oversedation)

Increased HCO 3 levels may indicate:

• Use of mercurial diuretics

Decreased HCO 3 levels may indicate:

• Acute renal failure
• Chronic and severe diarrhea
• Chronic use of loop diuretics

Serological tests for specific hepatitis virus markers assist in determining the specific type of hepatitis. Tests for hepatitis include radioimmunoassay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and microparticle enzyme immunoassay.

Reference guide for hepatitis testing:

• Hepatitis A: Presence of immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody to Hepatitis A and presence of total antibody (IgG and IgM) may suggest recent or current Hep A infection.
• Hepatitis B: Detection of Hep B core Antigen (HBcAg), envelope antigen (HBeAg), and surface antigen (HBsAg), or their corresponding antibodies.
• Hepatitis C: Confirmed by the presence of antibodies to Hep C virus.
• Hepatitis D: Detection of Hep D antigen (HDAg) early in the course of infection and detection of Hep D virus antibody in later stages of the disease.
• Hepatitis E: Specific serological tests for hepatitis E virus include detection of IgM and IgG antibodies to hepatitis E.
• If the radioimmunoassay technique is being used, the injection of radionuclides within 1 week before the blood test is performed may cause falsely elevated results.

Monitoring the therapeutic levels of certain medications is often conducted when the patient is taking medications with a narrow therapeutic range where a slight imbalance could be critical. Drug monitoring includes drawing blood samples for peak and trough levels to determine if blood serum levels of a specific drug are at a therapeutic level and not a subtherapeutic or toxic level. The peak level indicates the highest concentration of the drug in the blood serum while the trough level represents the lowest concentration. The following are the normal therapeutic serum medication levels:

A phlebotomist or a nurse with training and certification in collecting a blood sample are allowed to perform venipuncture for the purpose of blood specimen collection. These are the steps to follow in obtaining a blood sample:

• Identify the client. Accurately identify the client by asking his or her name and birthdate; Explain the reason for the test and procedure to the client.
• Proper position. Blood samples should be drawn in a sitting position and the client should remain in that position for at least 5 minutes before the blood collection.
• Confirm the request. Check the laboratory form for the ordered test, client information, and additional requirements (fasting, dietary restrictions, medications).
• Provide comfort. Make sure the client remove any tight clothing that might constrict the upper arm. The arm is placed in a downward position supported on the armrest.
• Ensure proper hand hygiene . Perform hand washing before putting on non-latex gloves.
• Identify the vein. Examine the client’s arm to select the most easily accessible vein for venipuncture then place the tourniquet 3 to 4 inches above the chosen site. Do not place the tourniquet tightly or leave on more than 2 minutes.
• Prepare the site. When a vein is chosen, cleanse the area using alcohol in a circular motion beginning at the site and working toward.
• Draw the sample. Ask the client to make a fist. Grasp the client’s arm firmly using your thumb to draw the skin taut and anchor the vein from rolling. Gently insert the needle at a 15 to 30º angle through the skin and into the lumen of the vein.
• Fill the tube. Obtain the needed amount of blood sample, then release and remove the tourniquet.
• Remove the needle.  In a swift backward motion, remove the needle from the client’s arm. and apply a folded gauze over the venipuncture site for 1 to 2 minutes.
• Label the tube. Label the tube with the client’s name, date of birth, hospital number, date and time of the collection.
• Transport specimen. Deliver the specimen to the laboratory for immediate processing and analysis.

Suggested reading and additional resources for this Normal Laboratory Values guide:

• Corbett, J. V., & Banks, A. (2018).  Laboratory Tests and Diagnostic Procedures with Nursing Diagnoses with Nursing Diagnoses . Pearson Education. [ Link ]
• Kratz, A., & Lewandrowski, K. B. (1998). Normal reference laboratory values.  New England Journal of Medicine ,  339 (15), 1063-1072. [ Link ]
• Kratz, A., Ferraro, M., Sluss, P. M., & Lewandrowski, K. B. (2004). Laboratory reference values.  New England Journal of Medicine ,  351 , 1548-1564. [ Link ]

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• How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples

How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples

Published on November 23, 2020 by Shona McCombes . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Summarizing , or writing a summary, means giving a concise overview of a text’s main points in your own words. A summary is always much shorter than the original text.

There are five key steps that can help you to write a summary:

• Read the text
• Break it down into sections
• Identify the key points in each section
• Write the summary
• Check the summary against the article

Writing a summary does not involve critiquing or evaluating the source . You should simply provide an accurate account of the most important information and ideas (without copying any text from the original).

Table of contents

When to write a summary, step 1: read the text, step 2: break the text down into sections, step 3: identify the key points in each section, step 4: write the summary, step 5: check the summary against the article, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about summarizing.

There are many situations in which you might have to summarize an article or other source:

• As a stand-alone assignment to show you’ve understood the material
• To keep notes that will help you remember what you’ve read
• To give an overview of other researchers’ work in a literature review

When you’re writing an academic text like an essay , research paper , or dissertation , you’ll integrate sources in a variety of ways. You might use a brief quote to support your point, or paraphrase a few sentences or paragraphs.

But it’s often appropriate to summarize a whole article or chapter if it is especially relevant to your own research, or to provide an overview of a source before you analyze or critique it.

In any case, the goal of summarizing is to give your reader a clear understanding of the original source. Follow the five steps outlined below to write a good summary.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

You should read the article more than once to make sure you’ve thoroughly understood it. It’s often effective to read in three stages:

• Scan the article quickly to get a sense of its topic and overall shape.
• Read the article carefully, highlighting important points and taking notes as you read.
• Skim the article again to confirm you’ve understood the key points, and reread any particularly important or difficult passages.

There are some tricks you can use to identify the key points as you read:

• Start by reading the abstract . This already contains the author’s own summary of their work, and it tells you what to expect from the article.
• Pay attention to headings and subheadings . These should give you a good sense of what each part is about.
• Read the introduction and the conclusion together and compare them: What did the author set out to do, and what was the outcome?

To make the text more manageable and understand its sub-points, break it down into smaller sections.

If the text is a scientific paper that follows a standard empirical structure, it is probably already organized into clearly marked sections, usually including an introduction , methods , results , and discussion .

Other types of articles may not be explicitly divided into sections. But most articles and essays will be structured around a series of sub-points or themes.

Now it’s time go through each section and pick out its most important points. What does your reader need to know to understand the overall argument or conclusion of the article?

Keep in mind that a summary does not involve paraphrasing every single paragraph of the article. Your goal is to extract the essential points, leaving out anything that can be considered background information or supplementary detail.

In a scientific article, there are some easy questions you can ask to identify the key points in each part.

If the article takes a different form, you might have to think more carefully about what points are most important for the reader to understand its argument.

In that case, pay particular attention to the thesis statement —the central claim that the author wants us to accept, which usually appears in the introduction—and the topic sentences that signal the main idea of each paragraph.

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Now that you know the key points that the article aims to communicate, you need to put them in your own words.

To avoid plagiarism and show you’ve understood the article, it’s essential to properly paraphrase the author’s ideas. Do not copy and paste parts of the article, not even just a sentence or two.

The best way to do this is to put the article aside and write out your own understanding of the author’s key points.

Examples of article summaries

Let’s take a look at an example. Below, we summarize this article , which scientifically investigates the old saying “an apple a day keeps the doctor away.”

Davis et al. (2015) set out to empirically test the popular saying “an apple a day keeps the doctor away.” Apples are often used to represent a healthy lifestyle, and research has shown their nutritional properties could be beneficial for various aspects of health. The authors’ unique approach is to take the saying literally and ask: do people who eat apples use healthcare services less frequently? If there is indeed such a relationship, they suggest, promoting apple consumption could help reduce healthcare costs.

The study used publicly available cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Participants were categorized as either apple eaters or non-apple eaters based on their self-reported apple consumption in an average 24-hour period. They were also categorized as either avoiding or not avoiding the use of healthcare services in the past year. The data was statistically analyzed to test whether there was an association between apple consumption and several dependent variables: physician visits, hospital stays, use of mental health services, and use of prescription medication.

Although apple eaters were slightly more likely to have avoided physician visits, this relationship was not statistically significant after adjusting for various relevant factors. No association was found between apple consumption and hospital stays or mental health service use. However, apple eaters were found to be slightly more likely to have avoided using prescription medication. Based on these results, the authors conclude that an apple a day does not keep the doctor away, but it may keep the pharmacist away. They suggest that this finding could have implications for reducing healthcare costs, considering the high annual costs of prescription medication and the inexpensiveness of apples.

However, the authors also note several limitations of the study: most importantly, that apple eaters are likely to differ from non-apple eaters in ways that may have confounded the results (for example, apple eaters may be more likely to be health-conscious). To establish any causal relationship between apple consumption and avoidance of medication, they recommend experimental research.

An article summary like the above would be appropriate for a stand-alone summary assignment. However, you’ll often want to give an even more concise summary of an article.

For example, in a literature review or meta analysis you may want to briefly summarize this study as part of a wider discussion of various sources. In this case, we can boil our summary down even further to include only the most relevant information.

Using national survey data, Davis et al. (2015) tested the assertion that “an apple a day keeps the doctor away” and did not find statistically significant evidence to support this hypothesis. While people who consumed apples were slightly less likely to use prescription medications, the study was unable to demonstrate a causal relationship between these variables.

Citing the source you’re summarizing

When including a summary as part of a larger text, it’s essential to properly cite the source you’re summarizing. The exact format depends on your citation style , but it usually includes an in-text citation and a full reference at the end of your paper.

You can easily create your citations and references in APA or MLA using our free citation generators.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

Finally, read through the article once more to ensure that:

• You’ve accurately represented the author’s work
• You haven’t missed any essential information
• The phrasing is not too similar to any sentences in the original.

If you’re summarizing many articles as part of your own work, it may be a good idea to use a plagiarism checker to double-check that your text is completely original and properly cited. Just be sure to use one that’s safe and reliable.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

A summary is a short overview of the main points of an article or other source, written entirely in your own words. Want to make your life super easy? Try our free text summarizer today!

A summary is always much shorter than the original text. The length of a summary can range from just a few sentences to several paragraphs; it depends on the length of the article you’re summarizing, and on the purpose of the summary.

You might have to write a summary of a source:

• As a stand-alone assignment to prove you understand the material
• For your own use, to keep notes on your reading
• To provide an overview of other researchers’ work in a literature review
• In a paper , to summarize or introduce a relevant study

To avoid plagiarism when summarizing an article or other source, follow these two rules:

• Write the summary entirely in your own words by paraphrasing the author’s ideas.
• Cite the source with an in-text citation and a full reference so your reader can easily find the original text.

An abstract concisely explains all the key points of an academic text such as a thesis , dissertation or journal article. It should summarize the whole text, not just introduce it.

An abstract is a type of summary , but summaries are also written elsewhere in academic writing . For example, you might summarize a source in a paper , in a literature review , or as a standalone assignment.

All can be done within seconds with our free text summarizer .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, May 31). How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/how-to-summarize/

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Hope Jahren

Everything you need for every book you read..

Lab Girl is Hope Jahren ’s memoir, tracing her trajectory from a curious child in her father ’s lab to her career as a successful science researcher, wife, and mother. Jahren grew up in a small town in southern Minnesota, where she would spend her evenings playing in her father’s science laboratory at the local community college. Even at such a young age, Jahren viewed the lab as a sanctuary, and felt more comfortable there than she did in her own home. She describes her family as distant and unemotional: Jahren and her father would walk home together each night in silence, and her mother always seemed to be frustrated and angry. This frustration may have stemmed from the fact that the elder Mrs. Jahren was forced to drop out of college for financial reasons, returned to her hometown, got married, and raised four children.

Jahren admits that she felt like she needed to complete her mother’s unfinished business, and so she attended the University of Minnesota, majoring in science. She worked hard in college, taking classes and studying during the day, and working at the university hospital all night. This round-the-clock activity was fueled partly by a desire to succeed, and partly by her chronic insomnia. After working at the hospital for a few months—where she was tasked with the painstaking work of filling intravenous bags with different medications—Jahren began to work in one of the science labs on campus, bringing her back to her most beloved space. Encouraged by her professors, Jahren decided to attend graduate school, and immediately after her graduation from the University of Minnesota, Jahren donated her winter clothing and got on a plane to California, where she began a doctoral program in soil science at the University of California, Berkeley.

Jahren met Bill , the man who would become her closest friend and research partner, on a field excursion to study soil in the Central Valley of California. As the graduate assistant on the trip, Jahren’s job was to supervise the work of the undergraduate students, and answer any questions they had. When she noticed that one of the students would consistently work on his own, digging his own hole separate from the others, she checked in on him, and almost immediately recognized a wit and intelligence similar to her own. She secured him a position as an assistant in the lab, and the two began a working relationship that would last for their entire professional careers. More importantly, they developed a profound platonic bond that went far beyond the relationship that either of them had with their own families. Later on, when Jahren introduced him to Clint , the man she had fallen in love with and married, Bill was initially reluctant to accept this change to his social world; however, the three of them quickly developed an easy, symbiotic relationship.

Jahren finished her Ph.D. in 1997, the same year that Bill received his bachelor’s degree. She had applied early to faculty positions, and was hired to teach at Georgia Tech immediately after graduation; it did not take much effort to convince Bill to join her as her lab assistant. In Atlanta, Jahren was overjoyed to finally achieve her dream of running her own research lab, but also stressed and overworked from the competing demands of research, teaching, and the constant search for funding. She explains that scientists live off of a three-year funding cycle, and there is not nearly enough grant money to fund every researcher, so the competition is fierce and the pressure for success is intense. Jahren admits that she ate very little, rarely showered, and spent most of her time working; Bill literally lived in the lab for a time, wearing “pajakis” (a t-shirt and khakis as pajamas) in case a secretary or custodian happened upon him, so that he could use the excuse that he was working late and had simply fallen asleep.

Meanwhile, what had previously seemed like a combination of nervous energy, stress, and anxiety had transformed into bipolar disorder, as Jahren suffered the intense highs of manic episodes and the crushing lows of the depression that followed them. Fortunately, Jahren was able to find a doctor who started her on medication that helped to balance her mental state.

Jahren and Bill threw themselves into their research, garnering bigger and better grants, but they also had a lot of fun along the way. Jahren tells the story of their field excursion for a soil science class, which involved a gourmet dinner of Hungarian dumplings at 3 A.M., and was topped off with a visit to Monkey Jungle, where the group could see themselves reflected in the primates in the enclosures. She and Bill also established a ritual of visiting a particular tree stump, where Bill regularly stashed his hair whenever he cut it. This led them to co-write a strange yet intriguing children’s book called The Getting Tree , about a tree that cannibalizes a young boy. As each other’s closest friend, Bill and Jahren consistently accepted each other for all of their faults, peculiarities, and shortcomings. Bill moved with Jahren to Johns Hopkins, where they set up another lab, and where Jahren would eventually meet and marry Clint. While she was pregnant with her son , she had to stop her medication regimen, and soon ended up in the hospital, in the throes of depression. What’s more, Jahren found herself banned from her own laboratory during her maternity leave—her safest and most comforting space—by her department chair, deeming her a liability.

Once her son is born, Jahren begins to gain some balance in her life. She is able to manage her bipolar disorder by resuming her medication, and begins to enjoy the novelty of motherhood. After her experience being banned from the lab at Johns Hopkins during maternity leave, Jahren, Clint, and Bill all move to Hawaii to work at a university with a more positive view of women in science.

When her son is young, Jahren receives a Fulbright fellowship and the family moves to Norway for a year; this gives her an opportunity to reflect on the peculiarities of her childhood, Scandinavian culture, and even her role as a working mother. When Bill’s father dies, Jahren knows that words of condolence are not enough, and she buys him a flight to Ireland—he has been back in Hawaii, running the lab while she is in Norway—and they mourn and grow together in the way that only they know how to do, by digging in the dirt.

40 pages • 1 hour read

A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Part 1: Chapters 1-3

Part 1: Chapters 4-7

Part 1: Chapters 8-11

Part 2: Chapters 1-4

Part 2: Chapters 5-8

Part 2: Chapters 9-12

Part 3: Chapters 1-5

Part 3: Chapters 6-10

Part 3: Chapter 11-Epilogue

Key Figures

Symbols & Motifs

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

Discussion Questions

Summary and Study Guide

Professor Hope Jahren’s 2016 memoir , Lab Girl , chronicles the author’s life and experience as a geobiologist. The memoir contains three parts, each spanning a major period in Jahren’s life. Autobiographical chapters are followed by brief, lyrical chapters examining various plants and their habits. These chapters on plants contain extensive use of personification , relating plant experience to that of humans.

Part 1, “Roots and Leaves,” spans Jahren’s childhood to her first teaching job.The author grows up in a small town in Minnesota ina family of Norwegian ancestry. She spends many evenings in the laboratory of her father, who teaches science at a community college. Jahren receives her bachelor’s degree in geology at the University of Minnesota and her Ph.D. in soil science from U.C. Berkeley. As a teaching assistant at Berkeley, Jahren meets Bill Hagopian , who is studying soil science there as an undergraduate. The two develop a friendship that grows into a lifelong lab and research partnership. Jahren accepts a teaching job at Georgia Tech, where she builds her first laboratory. She offers Bill a job working in her lab, but she can only afford to pay him a low salary.

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Jahren intersperses meditations on plant life through these chapters. She focuses on the life cycle of trees, with special attention to seeds, roots, and leaves.

Part 2, “Wood and Knots,” focuses on Jahren’s early teaching career. She struggles to establish her reputation and secure grant funding. Since her research is curiosity-driven, she has more trouble receiving funding. She also faces adversity through misogyny in the scientific community, with many people underestimating her abilities since she is a woman. During these chapters, Jahren also introduces her struggle with manic-depressive disorder. She lets her symptoms go untreated and also taxes her body with lack of sleep and poor diet. Throughout these years, Bill is a constant professional and personal support. Jahren eventually accepts a job at Johns Hopkins and takes Bill along with her.

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The plant segments in this part focus on the adversity that plants face. This includes insects, environment, and other encroaching plants.

Part 3, “Flowers and Fruit,” centers on Jahren’s later career and personal life. While at Johns Hopkins, Jahren seeks treatment for her mental health issues, and her overall physical and mental health improve. She also gains more recognition in her field and is able to secure funding for her lab and projects. Jahren meets and marries Clint, and the two have a son together. Jahren undergoes a difficult pregnancy in which she goes off her medication, and her mental health suffers. After she gives birth to a healthy son, she stabilizes. The family and Bill move to Hawaii, which is where Jahren currently teaches and resides.

The plant sections here discuss human interference in the plant world. They also focus on reproduction and growth.

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Science & Nature

Scientist I

• Madison, Wisconsin
• SCHOOL OF PHARMACY/PHARMACY-GEN
• Staff-Full Time
• Opening at: Apr 9 2024 at 16:05 CDT
• Closing at: Apr 30 2024 at 23:55 CDT

Job Summary:

The School of Pharmacy is seeking a Scientist to work in the Johnson Lab. This position is focused on improving our understand of protective mechanisms designed to mitigate the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease. A successful candidate will have 2-4 years experience with: working with rodent models of Alzheimer's disease or related models; basic lab techniques and computer systems knowledge; mouse handling; tissue collecting and processing; overseeing laboratory operations. Further details are provided in the Qualifications section of this posting. Apply now and join our team!

Responsibilities:

• 5% Assists with the identification of research problems and the development of research methodologies and procedures
• 60% Collects and analyzes research data, conducts experiments and interviews, and documents results according to established policies and procedures under general supervision and limited responsibility
• 5% Conducts literature reviews, prepares reports and materials, and disseminates information to appropriate entities
• 5% Attends and assists with the facilitation of scholarly events and presentations in support of continued professional development and the dissemination of research information
• 5% Writes or assists in developing grant applications and proposals to secure research funding
• 10% Assists with laboratory management and daily maintenance
• 10% Mouse handling including injection, gavage, behavioral observation, and breeding

Institutional Statement on Diversity:

Diversity is a source of strength, creativity, and innovation for UW-Madison. We value the contributions of each person and respect the profound ways their identity, culture, background, experience, status, abilities, and opinion enrich the university community. We commit ourselves to the pursuit of excellence in teaching, research, outreach, and diversity as inextricably linked goals. The University of Wisconsin-Madison fulfills its public mission by creating a welcoming and inclusive community for people from every background - people who as students, faculty, and staff serve Wisconsin and the world. For more information on diversity and inclusion on campus, please visit: Diversity and Inclusion

Preferred Terminal Degree Degree in Biology Sciences, Chemistry, Molecular Biology, or related field.

Qualifications:

Required: - 2+ years experience in working with rodent models of Alzheimer's disease or other related neurodegenerative diseases. - 2+ years experience with lab techniques and computer systems. - 2+ years experience with mouse handling, including: injection, gavage, behavioral observation, and breeding. - 2+ years experience with tissue collection and processing, including biochemical assays (protein assay and western blot), sectioning of tissues, and immunohistochemical staining. - Experience with DNA isolation and PCR for genotyping. Preferred: - experience with DNA isolation and PCR for genotyping. - experience supervising undergraduate student workers. - experience with primary cultures from mouse brain tissue. - experience with lab operations management such as organizing, maintaining and overseeing the lab's inventories, storage facilities, and general lab supplies. - Ability to work independently as well as with a team.

Full Time: 100% It is anticipated this position requires work be performed in-person, onsite, at a designated campus work location.

Appointment Type, Duration:

Ongoing/Renewable

Minimum $50,000 ANNUAL (12 months) Depending on Qualifications

Employees in this position can expect to receive benefits such as generous vacation, holidays, and paid time off, competitive insurances and savings accounts, and retirement benefits through the Wisconsin Retirement System (WRS). Qualified candidates can expect to earn between $50,000-$55,000 and extremely qualified candidates can expect to earn between $55,000-$60,000.

Additional Information:

In pursuit of inclusive excellence, the School of Pharmacy promotes and embraces the values of community, integrity, compassion, and growth. We are committed to creating a learning and working environment where every member of our organization has equitable access to opportunities, resources, and advancement. This directly relates to our mission and our strategic plan, exemplifying our commitment to our values, as they guide us in preparing our students to address and eliminate healthcare disparities. Together, we strive to build an organization that reflects the world we serve, collectively working to improve health and health equity.

How to Apply:

To apply for this position, please click on the "Apply Now" button. You will be asked to upload a resume and cover letter as a part of the application process. Please ensure that the resume and cover letter address how you meet the required/preferred qualifications and the skills/requirements outlined in the job summary. Please keep in mind, applicants need to articulate all requirements in their cover letter and/or resume. Applicants who have preferred qualifications/skills should share those in the cover letter and/or resume as well. The application reviewers will be relying on written application materials to determine who may advance to interviews.

Allison Miller [email protected] 608-890-3683 Relay Access (WTRS): 7-1-1. See RELAY_SERVICE for further information.

Official Title:

Scientist I(RE043)

Department(s):

A56-SCHOOL OF PHARMACY/PHARMACY

Employment Class:

Academic Staff-Renewable

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UCL Policy Lab

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The World in 2040: Renewing the UK’s Approach to International Affairs

7 April 2024

New report calls for ambitious reform of the Foreign Office and wider government machinery to safeguard future UK prosperity and security

Read the full publication  HERE .

As the country heads towards a crucial general election, a new publication from UCL Policy Lab and Hertford College, Oxford, sees leading figures from British diplomacy and international development, including the former Cabinet Secretary Lord Mark Sedwill, call for a renewed vision of UK foreign affairs.

Following a series of in-depth roundtable discussions, led by UCL Honorary Professor and former Director General at the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, Moazzam Malik, the report sets out a series of measures to renew and reform the UK foreign affairs function.

Those measures include:

• Creating a Department for International Affairs or Global Affairs UK to help embed a clear long-term mission in the mandates guiding UK international institutions.
• Over the medium term, allocate 1% GNI for international engagement to complement the commitment to 2% GDP defence spending.
• Focus on multilateralism. Working with other middle powers such as Japan, Canada, and those in the EU to help shape issues.
• Modernise the diplomatic service by making it more porous and open to specialists from across the civil service and outside. 
• Create mechanisms for wider engagement with civil society, business, and devolved administrations on foreign affairs.

Ahead of the launch Moazzam Malik spoke of the challenges with which the project had grappled:

"The UK's place in the world is changing dramatically as we  live through rapid geopolitical turbulence and adjust to life outside the European Union. But our  future prosperity and security as an open country in an interconnected world remains closely tied to global challenges and international collaboration.”

And the project’s ambition to help set out a positive vision for the UK in the future. “We need ambitious reform of the Foreign Office and HMG's machinery for international affairs to safeguard that future. This pamphlet looks to kickstart an urgent debate on the shape of that reform agenda

The report was based on testimony and evidence from leading scholars and experts, including Associate Professor, Dr Tom Pegram, of UCL Political Science. Pegram spoke of the way in which UCL was helping shape key debates at a critical time for UK foreign policy.

"The World in 2040: Renewing the UK’s Approach to International Affairs report underscores a pivotal moment for the UK to leverage its global standing to shape and secure a sustainable future. I was delighted to be able to support this collaboration, reflecting our commitment at UCL to bridging academia and impactful policy engagement.”

The report was a collaboration with Hertford College, Oxford. Co-convener and Principal of Hertford College, Tom Fletcher, previously a foreign policy advisor to three Prime Ministers, spoke of his ambition that the report would kick start a conversation about the reform of UK foreign affairs.

"The UK's place in the world is changing dramatically as we  live through rapid geopolitical turbulence and adjust to life outside the European Union. But our  future prosperity and security as an open country in an interconnected world remains closely tied to global challenges and international collaboration. We need ambitious reform of the Foreign Office and HMG's machinery for international affairs to safeguard that future. This pamphlet looks to kickstart an urgent debate on the shape of that reform agenda."

The project team included former diplomats and thinkers on international development such as Roli Asthana who worked at DFID for over 14 years covering multiple countries and regions.

Asthana spoke of the importance of the importance of the project’s work for developing countries.

“As an economist born in a developing country who has spent a working lifetime in practising, teaching and researching international development in Asia, Africa and the Middle East, I have experienced the big global trends - positive and negative. The link between politics and economics, development and diplomacy & security and prosperity is stronger than ever. How we plan now to respond in the long term is critical for our future, and that of our children.”

The UCL Policy Lab’s Director, Marc Stears, welcomed the collaboration across disciplines and backgrounds that had generated the report, saying that: “New thinking in vital areas of public policy requires us to pool knowledge from different fields and experiences. This report is further evidence of how the creative new ideas our country needs can be generated by this kind of exchange.”

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Research Lab Specialist Senior

The Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care at the University of Michigan Medical School (Ann Arbor) seeks a highly motivated individual to work as a Research Laboratory Specialist Senior in the laboratory of Dr. Justin Oldham. This lab focuses on the development of clinically actionable protein-based biomarkers for patients with pulmonary fibrosis through high-throughput proteomic investigation and cutting edge, in-house quantitative proteomics. This work has high potential for clinical implementation and commercialization. In addition to managing the day-to-day operations of the laboratory, the ideal candidate will actively pursue independent funding using our considerable proteomic resources and help mentor trainees in proteomic technical considerations. Independent thinking, trouble shooting and functioning is essential, as is strong organizational skills and ability to curate and manage complex datasets.   

Mission Statement

Michigan Medicine improves the health of patients, populations and communities through excellence in education, patient care, community service, research and technology development, and through leadership activities in Michigan, nationally and internationally.  Our mission is guided by our Strategic Principles and has three critical components; patient care, education and research that together enhance our contribution to society.

Why Join Michigan Medicine?

Michigan Medicine is one of the largest health care complexes in the world and has been the site of many groundbreaking medical and technological advancements since the opening of the U-M Medical School in 1850. Michigan Medicine is comprised of over 30,000 employees and our vision is to attract, inspire, and develop outstanding people in medicine, sciences, and healthcare to become one of the world’s most distinguished academic health systems.  In some way, great or small, every person here helps to advance this world-class institution. Work at Michigan Medicine and become a victor for the greater good.

What Benefits can you Look Forward to?

• Excellent medical, dental and vision coverage effective on your very first day
• 2:1 Match on retirement savings

Responsibilities*

• Responsible for the day to day operations of a specialized proteomics-based laboratory within a department of internal medicine, division of pulmonary and critical.
• Manages all phases of a large, complex research project with the principal investigator (PI), including all quanitative protein data generation.
• Manage all MTAs with collaborators and facilitate shipping, storage and tracking of samples.
• Perform data collection, curation and organization.
• Write significant portions of research proposals and manuscripts relevant to the research performed in the lab.  

Required Qualifications*

• Bachelor's Degree required.  
• 5-6 years of related experience, i.e., published in a field of specialty and academic knowledge in a field or discipline.  
• Must have a strong background in protein-based research, specifically qPCR. 
• Must have strong organizational skills and ability to curage and manage complex datasets

Desired Qualifications*

• Master's or Doctoral Degree preferred. 
• Prior proteomics experience is preferred. 

Background Screening

Michigan Medicine conducts background screening and pre-employment drug testing on job candidates upon acceptance of a contingent job offer and may use a third party administrator to conduct background screenings.  Background screenings are performed in compliance with the Fair Credit Report Act. Pre-employment drug testing applies to all selected candidates, including new or additional faculty and staff appointments, as well as transfers from other U-M campuses.

Application Deadline

Job openings are posted for a minimum of seven calendar days.  The review and selection process may begin as early as the eighth day after posting. This opening may be removed from posting boards and filled anytime after the minimum posting period has ended.

U-M EEO/AA Statement

The University of Michigan is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer.

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The “Geopolitics of Climate Change and Conflict” Series: A Summary

The International Crisis Group’s Solutions Lab hosted a year-long series of virtual convenings on the geopolitics of climate change and conflict, in partnership with Stiftung Mercator. This summary highlights key insights and recommendations from the three expert roundtables. 

This Solutions Lab venture brought together leading experts and policymakers working at the nexus of climate change and security. The series opened with a roundtable centred on the geopolitics of climate change and conflict. It proceeded with two detailed discussions under this rubric, one focused on climate financing in conflict-affected countries in the Horn of Africa, and the other on the green energy transition and conflict in Africa. 

The insights and recommendations in this summary emerged from the discussions and do not necessarily reflect Crisis Group’s own views.

Areas of Discussion and Agreement

The geopolitics of climate change and conflict.

On 25 May 2023, Crisis Group hosted the first convening to examine the links between geopolitical tensions and the climate crisis, both of which are exacerbating instability and driving deadly violence in various regions of the world. The group proposed ideas for better using multilateral frameworks to strengthen cooperation and build consensus on climate action while navigating the challenges resulting from intensified resource competition.

Participants agreed on the need to find cooperative, equitable approaches to tackling global problems that cannot easily be derailed by states pursuing their own narrowly defined interests. The group highlighted the need for donors to listen to affected local communities and consider their particularities in the process of fulfilling climate finance pledges to ensure a just energy transition. 

Leveraging Climate Finance in Conflict-Affected Countries: The Horn of Africa

On 29 September 2023, ahead of COP28, the UN climate conference held in Dubai, Crisis Group hosted a second roundtable on how to overcome the political and technical obstacles to delivering climate finance for adaptation in the Horn of Africa.

Attendees talked about how they could prepare the ground for productive discussions in Dubai about providing conflict-affected countries their fair share of adaptation funding. 

Adaptation is crucial for reducing vulnerability to the effects of climate change and insecurity. Extreme environmental conditions can lead to a vicious circle where resource scarcity erodes resilience and fuels conflict. Countries may also face external shocks besides climate change, such as the COVID-19 pandemic and rising interest rates, that cause fiscal distress. Some states are forced to reallocate development funds to emergency responses, further harming efforts to build resilience.

The conversation highlighted that governance and infrastructure are integral to adaptation – and thus to the climate security conversation. When state capacity is weak, local institutions and regional mechanisms can help ensure that people in need still get their fair share of climate financing. 

Participants suggested that climate security – ie, understanding and addressing the links between climate change and insecurity – requires more discussion. Conflict-affected states face several barriers when seeking adaptation finance. These include insufficient funds, which grow scarcer when new conflicts break out; inconsistencies in donor requirements; and rigid donor policies about spending that are often unrealistic in places where active fighting is under way.

To help address these challenges, participants suggested promoting increased support, lower barriers to funding and more flexible rules at COP28. There was consensus on the need to bridge the climate financing gap for conflict-affected countries, for which much of today’s adaptation funding is not suitable. Programs to support such countries should be tailored to local needs and capacities, lest they prove ineffective or even end up doing more harm than good. 

The Green Energy Transition and Conflict in Africa

On 26 February 2024, Crisis Group hosted the third roundtable on the green energy transition and conflict in Africa. This event considered the impact of rising demand for critical commodities on conflict trends in Africa and the risk of destabilisation for African fossil fuel producers as decarbonisation efforts ramp up. It then addressed European climate and energy policies and their implications for security in Africa. 

The discussants noted that increased competition among big powers over access to minerals in Africa is exacerbating tensions locally, regionally and internationally. They highlighted the power imbalance in the operations of multinational mining and energy companies, which often benefit more from extracting the mineral wealth than the countries sitting atop it. Most African countries with lucrative mineral deposits are under-developed and susceptible to economic shocks that can often lead to political upheaval and conflict. 

Participants criticised aspects of the trend by which corporations and rich countries are purchasing land in Africa, giving them carbon credits to compensate for their greenhouse gas emissions. Concerns centred on the harm that could be done to local communities.

With the green energy transition under way, African countries will face challenges in phasing out fossil fuels, as many governments are highly dependent on hydrocarbon revenues. A former senior African government official expressed concern that poor handling of the energy transition is likely to lead to conflict, citing the precipitous drop in oil sales that preceded South Sudan’s 2013 civil war: “For a lot of states in Africa, a revenue shock or an economic shock is likely to destabilise in fundamental ways, which I think is why it’s critical to ensure that the transition is not a traumatic decarbonisation process”, the official argued.

Despite such concerns, oil and gas production in Africa is likely to be phased out first due to high costs, carbon footprints and methane leakages. The ensuing income losses could have serious destabilising effects on volatile states. Participants were unanimous that it is critical for African and international actors to ensure that decarbonisation in Africa does not equate to destabilisation.    

The alternative path involves capitalising on Africa’s limited industrialisation, renewables potential and natural resources to pursue climate-positive growth. More needs to be done internationally to help African countries expand renewable energy capacity and address energy poverty. Investment in processing strategic commodities – not just extraction – will be critical, along with efforts to ensure that renewable industries use components made in African countries.

The discussion considered the implications of European energy policies on Africa, particularly the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), which will come into force in 2026. The mechanism designed to encourage decarbonisation will have a disparate impact on developing countries with carbon-intensive economies that rely heavily on the European market, as many in Africa do. Participants noted that not only will African countries be the first to be affected by policies like CBAM but that they are not receiving the climate finance pledged by the European Union and other major players. 

The session identified areas where big powers can collaborate to improve energy strategies, particularly relating to the danger of conflict in fossil fuel states. A clear articulation of Africa’s energy priorities, especially with regard to critical minerals, is also needed. Unless they develop a common position, the affected African countries will remain on the present troubling trajectory, their interests diverging.  

The Way Forward

Among the messages the convenings yielded for policymakers and donors were to:

Include communities directly affected by climate change, especially the most marginalised, in international climate policy discussions.

Revise frameworks for securing adaptation finance, in order to bridge the climate financing gaps for conflict-affected countries.

Tailor adaptation funding to the unique needs and capacities of conflict-affected countries.  

Urge the EU and other major donors to discuss how to ensure that conflict-affected countries get their fair share of climate financing.

Ensure a non-traumatic decarbonisation process in Africa, in part by developing frameworks that protect volatile African fossil fuel producers from the potentially destabilising effects of rapid and steep revenue losses.

Support the expansion of renewable energy capacity across Africa by leveraging established trade mechanisms, such as the African Growth and Opportunity Act, to signal to the private sector the potential for investment in refining and processing minerals and metals within African nations.

Press gas-rich countries in Africa to promote the growth of green industries by cultivating local markets and encouraging use of domestically manufactured components for electric vehicles and renewable industries.

Address energy poverty by ensuring that the benefits of industrialising the continent reach communities through job creation and inclusive and sustainable development. Natural gas is important in this respect because it will help to improve energy access while phasing out more polluting fuels.

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