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51 Francis Bacon: Essays

Introduction.

by Mary Larivee and Rithvik Saravanan

Francis Bacon (1561-1626), the English philosopher, was instrumental in the development of the Scientific Revolution in the late 18th century even though he had passed away centuries before.  The “Scientific Revolution” was an important movement that emphasized Europe’s shift toward modernized science in fields such as mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry (Grant). It was an extension of the Renaissance period, which then led to the Enlightenment which brought advances across all areas of human endeavor. Francis Bacon, in particular, is remembered today primarily for the “scientific method” as a way of establishing what is true from what is false perception (a method that still lies at the heart of modern science). Bacon’s primary focus in his writings revolved around the practice of inductive reasoning, which he believed to be a complement to practical observation (Grant). Most people before this period followed the Aristotelian methodology for scientific arguments. This idea maintained that “if sufficiently clever men discussed a subject long enough, the truth would eventually be discovered” (“History – Francis Bacon.”). However irrational this sounds, the Scientific Revolution helped replace this outdated system of thinking with Bacon’s scientific method. Bacon argued that any proper argument required “evidence from the real world” (“History – Francis Bacon.”). His revolutionary ideas about empirical information helped propel him toward political and societal importance and fame.

Literary Context

Francis Bacon had a passion for metaphors, analogies, and vivid imagery. He was a rhetorical writer and his essays highlight his wisdom and incisive mind. His first book was released in 1597 followed by later editions with added essays that were released in 1612 and 1625. Each essay that Bacon wrote reveals his knowledge of Latin and draws on ancient Roman wisdom through axioms and proverbs. Additionally, Bacon uses wit as a way of getting his point across to his audience and this indeed causes the reader to reflect on his or her own beliefs and values. A key aspect of Bacon’s literature is its “terseness and epigrammatic force” (De). By managing to pack all of his thoughts and ideas into quick, brief statements, Bacon deepens the reach and impact of his work. His writing deviated from the typical Ciceronian style of the time, which was characterized by “melodious language, clarity, and forcefulness of presentation” (“Ciceronian.”). His statements are meaningful particularly because they are straight and to the point. The brevity of his ideas also facilitates the communication of his arguments, which is significant because, at the time, a solid, meaningful education was hard to come by. As such, Bacon’s work helped spread the notions that would eventually bear fruit with the discoveries of the Scientific Revolution.

Historical Context

Francis Bacon’s Essays cover a wide variety of topics and styles, ranging from individual to societal issues and from commonplace to existential. Another important aspect of the appeal of Bacon’s essays are that they weigh the argument at hand with multiple points of view. Bacon’s essays were received at the time with great praise, adoration, and reverence (Potter). He was noted for borrowing ideas from the works of historical writers such as Aristotle (Harmon), and, as such, he represents a continuation of this philosophical school of thought. Another important impact of the Scientific Revolution and Bacon’s literature is that it allowed common people of the era to question old, traditional beliefs. They began to consider everything with reason, which led to a greater sense of self as well as moral and ethical standards. By having the opportunity to judge for themselves, the people were able to advance society a step closer to a form of democracy.

Francis Bacon Essays is a collection of eight of the famous philosopher’s many essays. Each dissertation contains words of wisdom that have proven to be enlightening for many generations that followed. From “Truth” to “Of Superstition” and “Marriage and Single Life”, Bacon covers a wide range of intriguing topics in order to challenge the human mind to think deeply; as he himself writes: “Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider” (Bacon). The philosopher not only provides a framework for the genre of the modern essay but also provides his readers a code to live by.

Works Cited

“Ciceronian.” Dictionary.com , n.d., www.dictionary.com/browse/ciceronian. 23 Oct. 2020.

De, Ardhendu. “Rhetorical Devices as Used by Francis Bacon in His Essays.” A.D.’s English Literature: Notes and Guide , 07 Apr. 2011, ardhendude.blogspot.com/2011/04/rhetorical-devices-used-by-francis.html. Accessed 23 Oct. 2020.

Grant, Edward. The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts . Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Harmon, William. The Oxford Book of American Light Verse. Oxford University Press, 1979.

“History – Francis Bacon.” History , British Broadcasting Corporation, 2014, www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/bacon_francis.shtml. Accessed 24 Oct. 2020.

Potter, Vincent G. Readings in Epistemology: from Aquinas, Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Kant. Fordham University Press, 1993.

Discussion Questions

  • Why do you think Francis Bacon chose to enlighten and inspire his readers as opposed to other writers of his time who focused more on classic folklore tales?
  • Why do you think Francis Bacon choose the topics that he did? Who or what do you think had a major influence on his writings?
  • What are the goals and intentions behind Bacon’s use of rhetorical questioning?
  • What are some common themes and ideas from Francis Bacon’s Essays that can be applied to general situations and contemporary society?
  • From the ideas presented in this reading, how do you think Francis Bacon’s work affected government policies throughout history, including modern day governmental standards?

Further Resources

  • Detailed biography of Franics Bacon’s life
  • Analytical article of Francis Bacon’s impact on the Scientific Revolution
  • List of Francis Bacon’s most significant accomplishments
  • Compilation of Francis Bacon’s literature
  • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Francis Bacon
  • Discussion video of Francis Bacon’s “Of Studies”

Reading: From Essayes

I. of truth..

What is truth? said jesting Pilate; and would not stay for an answer. Certainly there be that delight in giddiness; and count it a bondage to fix a belief; affecting free-will in thinking, as well as in acting. And though the sects of philosophers of that kind be gone, yet there remain certain discoursive wits, which are of the same veins, though there be not so much blood in them as was in those of the ancients. But it is not only the difficulty and labour which men take in finding out of truth, nor again, that when it is found, it imposeth upon men’s thoughts, that doth bring lies in favour, but a natural though corrupt love of the lie itself. One of the later schools of the Grecians examineth the matter, and is at a stand to think what should be in it, that men should love lies; where neither they make for pleasure, as with poet; nor for advantage, as with the mer chant, but for the lie’s sake. But I cannot tell: this same truth is a naked and open daylight, that doth not show the masks, and mummeries, and triumphs of the world, half so stately and daintily as candlelights. Truth may perhaps come to the price of a pearl, that showeth best by day, but it will not rise to the price of a diamond or carbuncle, that showeth best in varied lights. A mixture of a lie doth ever add pleasure. Doth any man doubt, that if there were taken out of men’s minds, vain opinions, flattering hopes, false valuations, imaginations as one would, and the like, but it would leave the minds of a number of men, poor shrunken things, full of melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves? One of the fathers, in great severity, called poesy “vinum dæmonum,”; because it filleth the imagination, and yet it is but with the shadow of a lie. But it is not the lie that passeth through the mind, but the lie that sinketh in, and settleth in it, that doth the hurt, such as we spake of before. But howsoever these things are thus in men’s depraved judgments and affections, yet truth, which only doth judge itself, teacheth, that the inquiry of truth, which is the love-making, or wooing of it, the knowledge of truth, which is the presence of it, and the belief of truth, which is the enjoying of it, is the sovereign good of human nature. The first creature of God, in the works of the days, was the light of the sense: the last was the light of reason; and his Sabbath work ever since, is the illumination of his Spirit. First, he breathed light upon the face of the matter, or chaos; then he breathed light into the face of man; and still he breatheth and inspireth light into the face of his chosen. The poet that beautified the sect, that was otherwise inferior to the rest, saith yet excellently well: “It is a pleasure to stand upon the shore, and to see ships tossed upon the sea: a pleasure to stand in the window of a castle, and to see a battle, and the adventures thereof below: but no pleasure is comparable to the standing upon the vantage ground of truth, (a hill not to be commanded, and where the air is always clear and serene,) and to see the errors, and wanderings, and mists, and tempests in the vale below:” so always that this prospect be with pity, and not with swelling or pride. Certainly, it is heaven upon earth, to have a man’s mind move in charity, rest in providence, and turn upon the poles of truth.

To pass from theological and philosophical truth, to the truth of civil business; it will be acknowledged even by those that practise it not, that clean and round dealing is the honour of man’s nature, and that mixture of falsehood is like alloy in coin of gold and silver, which may make the metal work the better, but it embaseth it. For these winding and crooked courses are the goings of the serpent; which goeth basely upon the belly, and not upon the feet. There is no vice that doth so cover a man with shame as to be found false and perfidious; and therefore Montaigne saith prettily, when he inquired the reason, why the word of the lie should be such a disgrace, and such an odious charge, saith he, “If it be well weighed, to say that a man lieth, is as much as to say, that he is brave towards God, and a coward towards men. For a lie faces God, and shrinks from man.” Surely the wickedness of falsehood and breach of faith cannot possibly be so highly expressed, as in that it shall be the last peal to call the judgments of God upon the generations of men: it being foretold, that when “Christ cometh,” he shall not “find faith upon the earth.”

VIII. OF MARRIAGE AND SINGLE LIFE.

He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune; for they are impediments to great enterprises, either of virtue or mischief. Certainly the best works, and of greatest merit for the public, have proceeded from the unmarried or childless men; which, both in affection and means, have married and endowed the public. Yet it were great reason that those that have children should have greatest care of future times, unto which they know they must transmit their dearest pledges. Some there are, who, though they lead a single life, yet their thoughts do end with themselves, and account future times impertinences; nay, there are some other that account wife and children but as bills of charges; nay more, there are some foolish rich covetous men, that take a pride in having no children, because they may be thought so much the richer; for, perhaps, they have heard some talk, “Such an one’s a great rich man” and another except to it. “Yea, but he hath a great charge of children;” as if it were an abatement to his riches: but the most ordinary cause of a single life is liberty, especially in certain self-pleasing and humorous minds, which are so sensible of every restraint, as they will go near to think heir girdles and garters to be bonds and shackles. Unmarried men are best friends, best masters, best servants; but not always best subjects; for they are light to run away; and almost all fugitives are of that condition. A single life doth well with churchmen, for charity will hardly water the ground where it must first fill a pool. It is indifferent for judges and magistrates; for if they be facile and corrupt, you shall have a servant five times worse than a wife. For soldiers, I find the generals commonly, in their hortatives, put men in mind of their wives and children; and I think the despising of marriage among the Turks maketh the vulgar soldier more base. Certainly wife and children are a kind of discipline of humanity; and single men, though they may be many times more charitable, because their means are less exhaust, yet, on the other side, they are more cruel and hardhearted, (good to make severe inquisitors,) because their tenderness is not so oft called upon. Grave natures, led by custom, and therefore constant, are commonly loving husbands, as was said of Ulysses, “vetulam suam prætulit immortalitati.” Chaste women are often proud and froward, as presuming upon the merit of their chastity. It is one of the best bonds, both of chastity and obedience, in the wife, if she think her husband wise; which she will never do if she find him jealous. Wives are young men’s mistresses, companions for middle age, and old men’s nurses; so as a man may have a quarrel to marry when he will: but yet he was reputed one of the wise men, that made answer to the question when a man should marry:—”A young man not yet, an elder man not at all.” It is often seen, that bad husbands have very good wives; whether it be that it raiseth the price of their husband’s kindness when it comes, or that the wives take a pride in their patience; but this never fails, if the bad husbands were of their own choosing, against their friends consent, for then they will be sure to make good their own folly.

XI. OF GREAT PLACE.

Men in great place are thrice servants; servants of the sovereign or state, servants of fame, and servants of business; so as they have no freedom, neither in their persons, nor in their actions, nor in their times. It is a strange desire to seek power and to lose liberty; or to seek power over others, and to lose power over a man’s self. The rising unto place is laborious, and by pains men come to greater pains; and it is sometimes base, and by indignities men come to dignities. The standing is slippery, and the regress is either a downfall, or at least an eclipse, which is a melancholy thing: “Cum non sis qui fueris, non esse cur velis vivere.” Nay, retire men cannot when they would, neither will they when it were reason; but are impatient of privateness even in age and sickness, which require the shadow: like old townsmen, that will be still sitting at their street door, though thereby they offer age to scorn. Certainly great persons had need to borrow other men’s opinions to think themselves happy; for if they judge by their own feeling, they cannot find it: but if they think with themselves what other men think of them, and that other men would fain be as they are, then they are happy as it were by report, when, perhaps, they find the contrary within; for they are the first that find their own griefs, though they be the last that find their own faults. Certainly men in great fortunes are strangers to themselves, and while they are in the puzzle of business they have no time to tend their health either of body or mind: “Illi mors gravis incubat, qui notus nimis omnibus, ignotus moritur sibi.” In place there is license to do good and evil; whereof the latter is a curse: for in evil the best condition is not to will; the second not to can. But power to do good is the true and lawful end of aspiring; for good thoughts (though God accept them,) yet towards men are little better than good dreams, except they be put in act; and that cannot be without power and place, as the vantage and commanding ground. Merit and good works is the end of man’s motion; and conscience of the same is the accomplishment of man’s rest; for if a man can be partaker of God’s theatre, he shall likewise be partaker of God’s rest: “Et conversus Deus, ut aspiceret opera, quaæ fecerunt manus suæ, vidit quod omnia essent bona nimis;” and then the sabbath. In the discharge of the place set before thee the best examples; for imitation is a globe of precepts; and after a time set before thine own example; and examine thyself strictly whether thou didst not best at first. Neglect not also the examples of those that have carried themselves ill in the same place; not to set off thyself by taxing their memory, but to direct thyself what to avoid. Reform, therefore, without bravery or scandal of former times and persons; but yet set it down to thyself, as well to create good precedents as to follow them. Reduce things to the first institution, and observe wherein and how they have degenerated; but yet ask counsel of both times; of the ancienter time what is best; and of the latter time what is fittest. Seek to make thy course regular, that men may know be forehand what they may expect; but be not too positive and peremptory; and express thyself well when thou digressest from thy lure. Preserve the right of thy place, but stir not questions of jurisdiction; and rather assume thy right in silence, and “de facto,” than voice it with claims and challenges. Preserve likewise the rights of inferior places; and think it more honour to direct in chief than to be busy in all. Embrace and invite helps and advices touching the execution of thy place; and do not drive away such as bring thee information as meddlers, but accept of them in good part. The vices of authority are chiefly four; delays, corruption, roughness, and facility. For delays give easy access: keep times appointed; go through with that which is in hand, and interlace not business but of necessity. For corruption, do not only bind thine own hands or thy servant’s hands from taking, but bind the hands of suitors also from offering; for integrity used doth the one; but integrity professed, and with a manifest detestation of bribery, doth the other; and avoid not only the fault, but the suspicion. Whosoever is found variable, and changeth manifestly without manifest cause, giveth suspicion of corruption; therefore, always when thou changest thine opinion or course, profess it plainly, and declare it, together with the reasons that move thee to change, and do not think to steal it. A servant or a favourite, if he be inward, and no other apparent cause of esteem, is commonly thought but a by-way to close corruption. For roughness, it is a needless cause of discontent; severity breedeth fear, but roughness breedeth hate. Even reproofs from authority ought to be grave, and not taunting. As for facility, it is worse than bribery; for bribes come but now and then; but if importunity or idle respects lead a man, he shall never be without; as Solomon saith, “To respect persons is not good, for such a man will transgress for a piece of bread.” It is most true that was anciently spoken, “A place showeth the man; and it showeth some to the better and some to the worse;” “omnium consensu capax imperii, nisi imperasset,” saith Tacitus of Galba; but of Vespasian he saith, “solus imperantium, Vespasianus mutatus in melius;” though the one was meant of sufficiency, the other of manners and affection. It is an assured sign of a worthy and generous spirit, whom honour amends; for honour is, or should be, the place of virtue; and as in nature things move violently to their place and calmly in their place, so virtue in ambition is violent, in authority settled and calm. All rising to great place is by a winding stair; and if there be factions, it is good to side a man’s self whilst he is in the rising, and to balance himself when he is placed. Use the memory of thy predecessor fairly and tenderly; for if thou dost not, it is a debt will sure be paid when thou art gone. If thou have colleagues, respect them; and rather call them when they looked not for it, than exclude them when they have reason to look to be called. Be not too sensible or too remembering of thy place in conversation and private answers to suitors; but let it rather be said, “When he sits in place he is another man.”

XVII. OF SUPERSTITION.

It were better to have no opinion of God at all than such an opinion as is unworthy of him; for the one is unbelief, the other is contumely; and certainly superstition is the reproach of the Deity. Plutarch saith well to that purpose: “Surely,” saith he, “I had rather a great deal men should say there was no such man at all as Plutarch, than that they should say that there was one Plutarch, that would eat his children as soon as they were born:” as the poets speak of Saturn: and, as the contumely is greater towards God, so the danger is greater towards men. Atheism leaves a man to sense, to philosophy, to natural piety, to laws, to reputation: all which may be guides to an outward moral virtue, though religion were not; but superstition dismounts all these, and erecteth an absolute monarchy in the minds of men: therefore atheism did never perturb states; for it makes men wary of themselves, as looking no further, and we see the times inclined to atheism (as the time of Augustus Cæsar) were civil times: but superstition hath been the confusion of many states, and bringeth in a new “primum mobile,” that ravisheth all the spheres of government. The master of superstition is the people, and in all superstition wise men follow fools; and arguments are fitted to practice, in a reversed order. It was gravely said, by some of the prelates in the council of Trent, where the doctrine of the schoolmen bare great sway, that the schoolmen were like astronomers, which did feign eccentrics and epicycles, and such engines of orbs to save phenomena, though they knew there were no such things; and, in like manner, that the schoolmen had framed a number of subtle and intricate axioms and theorems, to save the practice of the church. The causes of superstition are, pleasing and sensual rites and ceremonies; excess of outward and pharisaical holiness; over great reverence of traditions, which cannot but load the church; the stratagems of prelates for their own ambition and lucre; the favouring too much of good intentions, which openeth the gate to conceits and novelties; the taking an aim at divine matters by human, which cannot but breed mixture of imaginations; and, lastly, barbarous times, especially joined with calamities and disasters. Superstition, without a veil, is a deformed thing: for as it addeth deformity to an ape to be so like a man, so the similitude of superstition to religion makes it the more deformed: and, as wholesome meat corrupteth to little worms, so good forms and  orders corrupt into a number of petty observances. There is a superstition in avoiding superstition, when men think to do best if they go furthest from the superstition formerly received; therefore care would be had that (as it fareth in ill purgings) the good be not taken away with the bad, which commonly is done when the people is the reformer.

XXXIII. OF PLANTATIONS.

Plantations are amongst ancient, primitive, and heroical works. When the world was young, it begat more children; but now it is old, it begets fewer; for I may justly account new plantations to be the children of former kingdoms. I like a plantation in a pure soil; that is, where people are not displanted to the end to plant in others; for else it is rather an extirpation than a plantation. Planting of countries is like planting of woods; for you must make account to lose almost twenty years profit, and expect your recompense in the end: for the principal thing that hath been the destruction of most plantations, hath been the base and hasty drawing of profit in the first years. It is true, speedy profit is not to be neglected, as far as may stand with the good of the plantation, but no further. It is a shameful and unblessed thing to take the scum of people and wicked condemned men, to be the people with whom you plant; and not only so, but it spoileth the plantation; for they will ever live like rogues, and not fall to work, but be lazy, and do mischief, and spend victuals, and be quickly weary, and then certify over to their country to the discredit of the plantation. The people wherewith you plant ought to be gardeners, ploughmen, labourers, smiths, carpenters, joiners, fishermen, fowlers, with some few apothecaries, surgeons, cooks, and bakers. In a country of plantation, first look about what kind of victual the country yields of itself to hand; as chestnuts, walnuts, pineapples, olives, dates, plums, cherries, wild honey, and the like, and make use of them. Then consider what victual, or esculent things there are which grow speedily and within the year: as parsnips, carrots, turnips, onions, radish, artichokes of Jerusalem, maize, and the like: for wheat, barley, and oats, they ask too much labour; but with pease and beans you may begin, both because they ask less labour, and because they serve for meat as well as for bread; and of rice likewise cometh a great increase, and it is a kind of meat. Above all, there ought to be brought store biscuit, oatmeal, flour, meal, and the like, in the beginning, till bread may be had. For beasts, or birds, take chiefly such as are least subject to diseases, and multiply fastest; as swine, goats, cocks, hens, turkeys, geese, house-doves, and the like. The victual in plantations ought to be expended almost as in a besieged town; that is, with certain allowance: and let the main part of the ground employed to gardens or corn, be to a common stock; and to be laid in, and stored up, and then delivered out in proportion; besides some spots of ground that any particular person will manure for his own private use. Consider, likewise, what commodities the soil where the plantation is doth naturally yield, that they may some way help to defray the charge of the plantation; so it be not, as was said, to the untimely prejudice of the main business, as it hath fared with tobacco in Virginia. Wood commonly aboundeth but too much: and therefore timber is fit to be one. If there be iron ore, and streams whereupon to set the mills, iron is a brave commodity where wood aboundeth. Making of bay-salt, if the climate be proper for it, would be put in experience: growing silk likewise, if any be, is a likely commodity: pitch and tar, where store of firs and pines are, will not fail; so drugs and sweet woods, where they are, cannot but yield great profit; soap-ashes likewise, and other things that may be thought of; but moil not too much under ground, for the hope of mines is very uncertain and useth to make the planters lazy in other things. For government, let it be in the hands of one, assisted with some counsel; and let them have commission to exercise martial laws, with some limitation; and, above all, let men make that profit of being in the wilderness, as they have God always, and his service before their eyes; let not the government of the plantation depend upon too many counsellors and undertakers in the country that planteth, but upon a temperate number; and let those be rather noblemen and gentle men, than merchants; for they look ever to the present gain: let there be freedoms from custom, till the plantation be of strength; and not only freedom from custom, but freedom to carry their commodities where they may make their best of them, except there be some special cause of caution. Cram not in people, by sending too fast, company after company; but rather hearken how they waste, and send supplies proportionably; but so as the number may live well in the plantation, and not by surcharge be in penury. It hath been a great endangering to the health of some plantations, that they have built along the sea and rivers in marish and unwholesome grounds: therefore, though you begin there, to avoid carriage and other like discommodities, yet build still rather upwards from the stream, than along. It concerneth likewise the health of the plantation that they have good store of salt with them, that they may use it in their victuals when it shall be necessary. If you plant where savages are, do not only entertain them with trifles and gingles, but use them justly and graciously, with sufficient guard nevertheless; and do not win their favour by helping them to invade their enemies, but for their defence it is not amiss: and send oft of them over to the country that plants, that they may see a better condition than their own, and commend it when they return. When the plantation grows to strength, then  it is time to plant with women as well as with men; that the plantation may spread into generations, and not be ever pieced from without. It is the sinfullest thing in the world to forsake or destitute a plantation once in forwardness; for, besides the dishonour, it is the guiltiness of blood of many commiserable persons.

XLVII. OF NEGOTIATING.

It is generally better to deal by speech than by letter; and by the mediation of a third than by a man’s self. Letters are good when a man would draw an answer by letter back again; or when it may serve for a man’s justification afterwards to produce his own letter; or where it may be danger to be interrupted, or heard by pieces. To deal in person is good, when a man’s face breedeth regard, as commonly with inferiors; or in tender cases, where a man’s eye upon the countenance of him with whom he speaketh, may give him a direction how far to go; and generally, where a man will reserve to himself liberty either to disavow or to expound. In choice of instruments, it is better to choose men of a plainer sort, that are like to do that that is committed to them, and to report back again faithfully the success, than those that are cunning to contrive out of ether men’s business somewhat to grace themselves, and will help the matter in report, for satisfaction sake. Use also such persons as affect the business wherein they are employed, for that quickeneth much; and such as are fit for the matter, as bold men for expostulation, fair-spoken men for persuasion, crafty men for inquiry and observation, froward and absurd men for business that doth not well bear out itself. Use also such as have been lucky and prevailed before in things wherein you have employed them; for that breeds confidence, and they will strive to maintain their prescription. It is better to sound a person with whom one deals afar off, than to fall upon the point at first; except you mean to surprise him by some short question. It is better dealing with men in appetite, than with those that are where they would be. If a man deal with another upon conditions, the start of first performance is all; which a man can reasonably demand, except either the nature of the thing be such, which must go before: or else a man can persuade the other party, that he shall still need him in some other thing; or else that he be counted the honester man. All practice is to discover, or to work. Men discover themselves in trust, in passion, at unawares; and of necessity, when they would have somewhat done, and cannot find an apt pretext, if you would work any man, you must either know his nature and fashions, and so lead him; or his ends, and so persuade him; or his weakness and disadvantages, and so awe him; or these that have interest in him, and so govern him. In dealing with cunning persons, we must ever consider their ends, to interpret their speeches; and it is good to say little to them, and that which they least look for. In all negotiations of difficulty, a man may not look to sow and reap at once; but must prepare business, and so ripen it by degrees.

XXXVII. OF MASQUES AND TRIUMPHS.

These things are but toys to come amongst such serious observations; but yet, since princes will have such things, it is better they should be graced with elegancy, than daubed with cost. Dancing to song, is a thing of great state and pleasure. I understand it that the song be inquire, placed aloft, and accompanied by some broken music; and the ditty fitted to the device. Acting in song, especially in dialogues, hath an extreme good grace; I say acting, not dancing, (for that is a mean and vulgar thing;) and the voices of the dialogue would be strong and manly, (a base and a tenor, no treble,) and the ditty high and tragical, not nice or dainty. Several quires placed one over against another, and taking the voice by catches anthem-wise, give great pleasure. Turning dances into figure is a childish curiosity; and generally let it be noted, that those things which  I here set down are such as do naturally take the sense, and not respect petty wonderments. It is true, the alterations of scenes, so it be quietly and without noise, are things of great beauty and pleasure; for they feed and relieve the eye before it be full of the same object. Let the scenes abound with light, especially coloured and varied; and let the masquers, or any other that are to come down from the scene, have some motions upon the scene it self before their coining down; for it draws the eye strangely, and makes it with great pleasure to desire to see that it cannot perfectly discern. Let the songs be loud and cheerful, and not chirpings or pulings: let the music likewise be sharp and loud, and well placed. The colours that show best by candle-light, are white, carnation, and a kind of sea-water green and ouches, or spangs, as they are of no great cost, so they are of most glory. As for rich embroidery, it is lost and not discerned. Let the suits of the masquers be graceful, and such as become the person when the vizards are off; not after examples of known attires; Turks, soldiers, mariners, and the like. Let anti-masques not be long; they have been commonly of fools, satyrs, baboons, wild men antics, beasts, spirits, witches, Ethiopes, pigmies turquets, nymphs, rustics, Cupids, statues moving and the like. As for angels, it is not comical enough to put them in anti-masques; and any thing that is hideous, as devils, giants, is, on the other side as unfit; but chiefly, let the music of them be recreative, and with some strange changes. Some sweet odours suddenly coming forth, without any drops falling, are, in such a company as there is steam and heat, things of great pleasure and refreshment. Double masques, one of men another of ladies, addeth state and variety; but all is nothing except the room be kept clean and neat.

For jousts, and tourneys, and barriers, the glories of them are chiefly in the chariots, wherein the challengers make their entry; especially if they be drawn with strange beasts; as lions, bears camels, and the like; or in the devices of their entrance, or in bravery of their liveries, or in the goodly furniture of their horses and armour. But enough of these toys.

L. OF STUDIES.

Studies serve for delight, for ornament and for ability. Their chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business; for expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one: but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of affairs come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies, is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humour of a scholar: they perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books; else distilled books are, like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man; and, therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit: and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtile; natural philosophy deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend “Abeunt studia in mores;” nay, there is no stond or impediment in the wit, but may be wrought out by fit studies: like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises; bowling is good for the stone and reins, shooting for the lungs and breast, gentle walking for the stomach, riding for the head, and the like; so, if a man’s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again; if his wit be no apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the schoolmen, for they are “Cymini sectores;” if he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call upon one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyer’s cases: so every defect of the mind may have a special receipt.

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Bacon, Francis. Bacon’s Essays and Wisdom of the Ancients . Little, Brown, and Company, 1884, is licensed under no known copyright.

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'Of Studies' by Francis Bacon

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Francis Bacon, the first major English essayist , comments forcefully in Of Studies on the value of reading, writing, and learning.

Notice Bacon's reliance on parallel structures (in particular, tricolons ) throughout this concise, aphoristic  essay. Then, compare the essay to Samuel Johnson 's treatment of the same theme more than a century later in On Studies .

The Life of Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon is considered a Renaissance man. He worked as a lawyer and scientist throughout his life (1561-1626.)

Bacon's most valuable work surrounded philosophical and Aristotelian concepts that supported the scientific method. Bacon served as an attorney general as well as lord chancellor of England and received his education from several universities including Trinity College and the University of Cambridge.

Bacon wrote over 50 essays beginning with "Of" in the title and following the concept, such as Of Truth , Of Atheism and Of Discourse .

Bacon Facts

Bacon's uncle was the lord keeper for Queen Elizabeth I. He helped symbolize the approvals for key documents. Additionally:

  • Bacon is known as the father of the scientific method which was influenced by his own Baconian method based on reason and observation.
  • There are rumors that Bacon was mostly attracted to men, due to his late marriage in life, among other ​theories.

Interpretations of 'Of Studies'

Bacon's essay expresses several comments in Of Studies that can be interpreted as the following:

  • Studying is helpful for better understanding and provides a knowledge that develops experience, as well as a character that grows.
  • Reading provides delight and fun, ornament and showing off, and the ability for success.
  • Bacon expanded upon different fields of study depending on one's goal; for example, to master clarity with language, study poetry.

'Of Studies' Excerpt

"Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment and disposition of business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of a scholar. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning, by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books, else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit: and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend. Abeunt studia in mores [Studies pass into and influence manners]. Nay, there is no stone or impediment in the wit but may be wrought out by fit studies; like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like. So if a man’s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the Schoolmen; for they are cymini sectores [splitters of hairs]. If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyers’ cases. So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt."

Bacon published three editions of his essays (in 1597, 1612, and 1625) and the last two were marked by the addition of more essays. In many cases, they became expanded works from earlier editions. This is the best-known version of the essay Of Studies , taken from the 1625 edition of  Essays or Counsels, Civil and Moral.

Version From the First Edition (1597)

"Studies serve for pastimes, for ornaments, for abilities; their chief use for pastimes is in privateness and retiring; for ornaments in discourse; and for ability in judgment; for expert men can execute, but learned men are more fit to judge and censure. To spend too much time in them is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor of a scholar; they perfect nature, and are themselves perfected by experience; crafty men contemn them, wise men use them, simple men admire them; for they teach not their use, but that there is a wisdom without them and above them won by observation. Read not to contradict nor to believe, but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested: that is, some are to be read only in parts, others to be read but curiously, and some few to be read wholly with diligence and attention. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready, and writing an exact man; therefore, if a man write little, he had need of a great memory; if he confer little, he had need of a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth not know. Histories make wise men; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend."

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Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works

By francis bacon, francis bacon: essays and major works summary and analysis of the essays, part one (civil).

Bacon divides his essays into two types: civil and moral. Notable civil essays include "Of Death," "Of Seditions and Troubles," "Of Friendship," "Of Praise," and "Of Beauty."

In "Of Death," Bacon argues that men fear death the same way that children fear the dark, and that the fear is only increased by storytelling. Bacon perceives a fear of death as "weak," arguing that often death occurs with less pain than other experiences, like the loss of a limb (342).

Bacon argues that death has so many combatants on earth that no man should be afraid of it. Some of these combatants include revenge, love, honor, grief, and pity.

In "Of Seditions and Troubles," Bacon explains that all states are subject to "libels and licentious discourses" (366). He compares seditious speech to tempests that a ship must face, arguing that this type of discourse is most common when a civilization begins to approach a state of equality. Sedition stems from poverty and discontentment, and so states should strive to eliminate these things among their citizens.

In "Of Friendship," Bacon offers his praise of friendship as a human pursuit consecrated by God . He notes that just as there exists medicine for different organs in the body, friendship is a figurative "medicine" for the heart.

In "Of Praise," Bacon argues that praise is the "reflection of virtue," but that if praise is given by the common people it is likely false and worthless (442). He notes that praise from the common folk is synonymous with fame, and one should instead strive for praise from "persons of quality and judgment" (442).

In "Of Beauty," Bacon suggests that virtue is what creates beauty, not physical appearance. He notes that it is not always the case that virtuous people are also beautiful, and that beauty should instead be defined by "dignity of presence" (425). Physical beauty is, according to Bacon, dependent on the observer, and beauty of youth – though pleasant to see – is fleeting and cannot last.

Bacon's civil essays address elements of human existence related to humanity as a civilization, such as socialization, governmental systems, and popular beliefs. While this guide divides the essays into moral and civil, it is important to note that Bacon himself does not. His complete essays are entitled Essays or Counsels, Moral and Civil , and he alternates freely between essays of the moral and civil nature. As such, Bacon implies that these "counsels" are all related to one another, and that his moral advice is inextricable from the civil and vice versa.

These civil essays, generally speaking, all tend to follow the same structure. They begin on a critical note, explaining how common perceptions or widely held beliefs are problematic or untrue. In his essay "Of Death," for example, Bacon argues that a fear of death – a common fear – is unwarranted. By comparing a fear of death to a child's fear of the dark, Bacon infantalizes those who would be afraid of dying, suggesting that they are lacking an important perspective on life and especially on God.

Similarly, in "Of Praise," Bacon dispels with the notion that fame is something to which men should aspire. Instead, he argues that fame is merely praise from those who do not understand true virtue, and is therefore meaningless in the grand scheme of life. Bacon's criticism of the "common people" in this essay, while certainly pejorative, emphasizes his belief that fame is something relegated only to society and that it does nothing to better or redeem one's soul.

One can witness Bacon's religious influence in the civil essays as well. He speaks frequently about virtue and its importance in shaping people's interactions with one another. In the essay "Of Friendship," Bacon argues that solitude is inherently antithetical to divine nature – that is, that pursuing friendships is in keeping with God's will. In "Of Beauty," he describes beauty as a divine quality rather than a physical one, a manifestation of one's commitment to virtue rather than an outward appearance.

In this way, the civil essays once again lead readers back to Bacon's moral perspective, which is defined first and foremost by his exaltation of Christianity.

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Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

why baccon used OF before starting his essays

becose it is used to mention the things particular

What is Sir Francis Bacon’s main purpose in the text?

In this essay Bacon states his ideology about education and learning. He argues that, "studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability." Bacon felt that people should delight in knowledge for its own sake rather than a means to an end...

Part A: which statement best summarizes the text

A. Learning is personal and focuses on improving weaknesses and enhancing strengths.

Study Guide for Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works

Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works study guide contains a biography of Francis Bacon, literature essays, a complete e-text, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis of select works.

  • About Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works
  • Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works Summary
  • Character List

Essays for Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works

Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of Francis Bacon's quotes and writings.

  • An Scholarly Analysis of A Scholar's Analysis

Wikipedia Entries for Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works

  • Introduction
  • Philosophy and works
  • Influence and legacy
  • Historical debates

analysis of bacon's essay

Smart English Notes

Of Studies | Francis Bacon |Summary and Analysis | Questions

Table of Contents

Of Studies – Summary

Francis Bacon’s classic essay “Of Studies” explains how and why study—knowledge—is important. In this essay, he discusses some of the benefits of studying and offers some sound ideas on the subject.

Bacon is regarded as the “Father of the English Essay”. Bacon envisioned the essay as an opportunity to offer advice. The title of his essay collection: “Essays or Counsels: Civil and Moral,” suggests that didactic intent.

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In “Of Studies,” Bacon explains the practical value of knowledge. Bacon considers how studies might be put to use. He is more interested in their practical utility than in their theoretical promise, a proclivity that is perhaps more English than French. In “Of Studies,” Bacon’s writing is direct and pointed. It avoids Montaigne’s essays’ meandering, find-your-own-way free form. Bacon gets right to the point in his first sentence: “Studies serve for delight, ornament, and ability.” He then goes on to explain how studies can help in these three ways. And he doesn’t mince words when describing the use of “studies” for a Renaissance gentleman.

One of the essay’s main draws is Bacon’s skillful use of parallel sentence structure, which is evident in the opening sentence and throughout “Of Studies.” This stylistic technique adds clarity and order to the writing, as in “crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them,” which demonstrates confidence and elegance in addition to clarity and emphasis through its straightforward assertiveness.

Studies are a source of pleasure. They have ornamental value and also improve one’s ability.

A man who lives a life of aloofness and retirement is best suited to enjoy the pleasures of study. Study has a ornamental value in that it enables a man to become a good talker. A student who devotes too much time to his studies becomes temporarily sluggish. Whoever tries to make a show of his knowledge by reading excessively for conversational purposes is wasting his time. It reveals a man’s eccentricity if his judgement is entirely based on rules he has learned from books.

Studies allow you to easily develop your skills and abilities. Studies provide guidance on their own, but this is abstract without practical experience. The studies are disliked by cunning men, but they are admired by simple men. Men who are fundamentally wise use studies to advance in life.

One should not read books solely to contradict others. Everything written in a book should not be followed in real life. One should think about what he reads and how he applies it.

Studies are a treatment for mental illness. Mathematics is good for wondering wits in the same way that bowling is good for kidneys, shooting is good for lungs, walking is good for digestion, and riding is good for the head. Every mental defect in a man can be cured through studies

Critical Analysis

This essay discusses various types of books and their effects on the reader. Bacon divides the uses of studies into three categories: the use of studies for delight, the use of studies for ornament, and the use of studies for ability. Bacon also provides some excellent advice on why and how to read. He claims that different studies have different effects on the human mind.

Various kinds of studies can help to correct a variety of mental flaws. The importance of experience in supplementing and perfecting studies is duly emphasised in the essay. Bacon would not be satisfied with more bookish knowledge. The wisdom gained through experience is just as important as the wisdom gained through reading books.

But ideas aren’t the only thing that matters in this essay. Bacon demonstrates his talent for expressing his ideas with the least amount of words possible. The essay is a masterwork of concision and brevity. His sentences have a proverbial feel to them.

Bacon’s essays abound in very appropriate and original similes. We have one such simile here when Bacon says that “distilled books are, like common distilled waters, flashy things”.

It is, without a doubt, one of the best English prose essays ever written. It provides us with a number of sound maxims and sentences that we can quote when the situation calls for it. Some of the sentences do, in fact, stick in our heads without any conscious effort on our part. Bacon’s essay is one of his most well-known works.

Questions and Answers

You must have understood Bacon’s ideas about studies. You must have understood the uses and disadvantages of study. You have also come to know about rules and modes of study.

Exercise – 1

Now answer the following questions by choosing the correct answer from the three alternatives given below each question.

1. Bacon’s essay entitled Of Studies is a passage to be:

(i) chewed and digested

(ii) read with main points

(iii) studied thoroughly Answer: i) chewed and digested

2. One who makes too much use of his readings for conversational purposes makes:

(i) things haphazard

(ii) vain display of his learnings

(iii) proper use of books Answer: (ii) vain display of his learning

3. One should take extracts from :

(i) books of high value

(ii) meaner sort of books

(iii) remedial books Answer: (ii) meaner sort of books

4. Books worth a closer and thorough reading :

(i) are smaller in number

(ii) are written by famous writers

(iii) are text books Answer: (i) are smaller in number

5. Logic and rhetoric develops :

(i) man’s debating powers

(ii) man’s thinking power

(iii) man’s power to interact Answer: (i) man’s debating powers

Exercise – 2

Now try to answer the following questions in sentences of your own :

1. What type of books are to be chewed and digested? Answer: The books which have knowledgeable contents should be read thoroughly and understood properly.

2. What do you think is the proper use of study? Answer: We study for personal enjoyment and for cultivation of social charm through the cultivation of the power of exposition in speech and to develop ability for judgment of facts and circumstances.

3. What is the use of the study of natural philosophy? Answer: It enables the reader to understand things in a better way and reach to the depth of subject matter.

4. How can a man acquire ability to perfection? Answer: It can be acquired when knowledge gained from books is supplemented with practical experience.

5. For what we should not read books? Answer: One should not read books to contradict others.

Now try to answer the following questions :

1. How did Bacon classify the books? Answer: Bacon classified books under three major categories. Some books are for personal enjoyment, others are to be read to develop conversational qualities and some others are to develop power of judgment.

2. What are special qualities of this essay? Answer: Some of these qualities are maximum economy of words, straight forward presentation, brevity, terseness and use of sentences as proverbs.

3. Comment on the theme of this essay. Answer: Bacon tries to discover fundamental principles of conduct influence and actions of men.

4. Discuss the peculiarity of structure of this essay. Answer: Each sentence is carefully selected and strung together. The essay shows brevity and compactness.

5. Discuss the main qualities of Bacon’s style. Answer: The essay of Bacon is compressed, full of condensed thought and utterly devoid of ornamentation. The sentences in the paragraph run smooth.

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Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon | Complete Summary and Analysis

Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon - Complete Summary and Analysis

“Of Studies” is one of the most quoted essays of Sir Francis Bacon. He has analyzed the importance of studies; therefore, in this essay, he convinces his readers to know its vitality. He does not only talk about bookish knowledge but also demonstrates the importance of experience; without experience, the studies cannot help a person, means Sir Francis Bacon. Moreover, in his eyes, studies and education are two separate things. However, he agrees that education is the name of studying books and experiences of life. He answers some common questions that arise in every common mind. For instance, he answers why we should read books; what are the impacts of studies in one’s life; why study without experience is useless; and many other such like questions.

He elaborates each assertion through either reference or example. Style of the author is simple but his arguments are much effective. Further, he uses concise sentences, similes , and Latin phrases to strengthen his stance.

Three Types of studies in the Eyes of Sir Francis Bacon:

From the very beginning of the essay, Sir Francis Bacon divides studies into three categories; in fact, these three types are benefits of studies. Studies serve three purposes, says Sir Francis Bacon, “delight”, “ornament” and “ability”. In Bacon’s times, the drama was banned; drama may have a moral purpose but it is certainly a source of entertainment. It was forbidden in that era; therefore, people had no other option except to rely upon books; thus, books replaced stage. From that point of view, if we think, then books are the source of entertainment. It may be the reason that Bacon has used the word “delight”. From modern views, there are still people in the world, who find delight in books instead of movies and plays.

However, in next lines, he has explained the word “delight” while saying, “their chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring”. Hence, only words are different but the purpose is same i.e. entertainment.

The second purpose that studies serve is “ornaments”. A person, after learning from books, can present himself in a good manner. Studies also help a person learn etiquettes. His societal impression is improved and he becomes wise in the eyes of people. However, Bacon has used only one word to explain, “ornament” i.e. “discourse”. Thereby, studies increase the speaking power of a person but the word “discourse” also needs explanation. It has many meanings; discourse has different types; romantic, professional, religious, motivational, debate etc. Nevertheless, considering in view the worldly approach of the author, he may have used it as a professional speaking power or perhaps, he is talking about impressive discourse in every field of life whether it is profession, religion or romance.

Elaboration of the third purpose of studies, according to Sir Francis Bacon is “judgment and disposition of business”. It is somewhat professional. Studies can help a person in dealing with business matters. Thereby, studies support a person in professional life. Sir Francis Bacon has also used the word “judgment” to infer that studies enhance mental eyesight of a person. His vision becomes strong and he takes quick as well as accurate decisions in business matters.

Experience is the Key Factor:

All three purposes are useless without experience, says Bacon. Too much study for “delight” makes a person lazy; ornamentation makes him showcase; similarly, cramming bundle of rules from books does not increase his ability nor does it help him enhancing his thinking capacity. Everyone has natural abilities and studies make them perfect but along with studies, the experience is also required to gain perfection. It actually improves the mentality of a person. In order to elaborate it further, Bacon uses similes , which are worth mentioning:-

“the natural abilities are like natural plants, that need proyning by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience.” Sir Francis Bacon

Hence, studies show a person thousands of paths to walk but experience helps choosing the right one. Additionally, different types of men see studies differently; some people do not give studies any value; some appreciate them; but wise are those, who perfectly use them.

Why and What Kind of Books should We Study?

After describing the importance of study, Francis Bacon gives his own opinions, “read….to weigh and consider”. A person should not read books to win over a debate or to oppose arguments of others; nor should he read to believe on each and everything written in the book; rather he should study books to know the difference between right and wrong. Moreover, not every book is worth reading. He divides books, too, into three categories; “tasted”, “swallowed”, and “chewed and digested”. “Tasted” books are those, which require no special attention. A reader just needs to go through them; books that come in the category of “swallowed” need a little attention. Category, “Chewed and digested” is self-explanatory. These kinds of books need the full concentration of the readers. Each word and every line should be chewed completely and then digested.

Some Subjects and Their Purposes:

If a person has a habit of reading books then Bacon guarantees improvement in his temperament. If he is used to exchanging dialogues then his wit is going to be enhanced. Above all, if he reads books and then writes down every important suggestion or advice then this method will definitely increase his intellectuality. Francis Bacon, at the end of the essay, creates a list of different subjects and sorts them by their benefits. Here is the list of books and their benefits:-

  • History increases wisdom.
  • Poetry enhances imagination.
  • Mathematics makes a person subtle.
  • Philosophy deepens thinking.
  • Logic and rhetoric help to contend.

Thus, a person needs to study the relevant subject as per his choice or requirement. If he wants wisdom, history can help him. If he wants imaginative powers, his concern should be poetry. Similarly, mathematics, philosophy, and logic serve their specific purposes. In Bacon’s eyes, a person can improve himself as much as he can; he just needs to focus. He actually wants to say that, “reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body”. With body, the mind also needs exercise; therefore, every person needs to do an exercise of the mind; he can do it by studying books.

Conclusion of “Of Studies” by Sir Francis Bacon: 

The whole essay proves the intellectuality of Sir Francis Bacon. It is full of wisdom. Every line, written by the author, is philosophically rich. His philosophy is definitely praiseworthy. Moreover, he is called the father of English prose not only because of his deep philosophy but also because of his writing style. He uses exact words to summarize his viewpoint. He tries to demonstrate his thinking in concise words. This essay is well knitted. There is no denying the fact that “Of Studies” is the pure creation of Sir Francis Bacon . In short, this essay is enough to regard him as the father of English prose.

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Critical Analysis of Francis Bacon Essay Of Studies

Francis Bacon is considered to be the Father of English Essay. He is a man of Renaissance who introduced the spirit of learning and stress on the importance of inculcating knowledge. He said ”Knowledge is power” that reflected the Renaissance thirst for knowledge ans is seen in his propagation through his essays. His essays are mainly aphoristic and lucid. He wrote many essays and has been evaluated by many Neo-Classical poets and other critics as well.

The essay discusses the avail of studying. Its purpose is to persuade one to study and to guide one on how to study if one is to make the best of what one reads meaning a practical application. Bacon highlights that studies comes best from experience but the knowledge becomes vague if it is of no use in practical supply. In this essay , Bacon states that of education and earning a knowledge. He aphoristically articulated that, “studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability.” Bacon felt that some people gain knowledge for pure delight. People, who acquire knowledge for delight, do so because they enjoy it. For instance, those who play sports practice and learn about their sport because they want to, not because they have to. There are, however, some people who gain knowledge for mere ornament. These people only want to improve themselves in the eyes of others. These are the people who try to better themselves by bragging about their achievements and accomplishments in conversation with others.

There are those who gain knowledge for ability. They want to show that they are able to do something. They learn for themselves in their free time. Ability is widely used in the area of business, those who are well educated rather than those who are not better run a company. Bacon strives to persuade us to study, and tells us how to study if we are to make the best of what we read. He does this by using many rhetorical devices and substantiations to prove his arguments. Bacon attempts to prove to us that “studies serve for delight, for ornament and for discourse” by showing us how education is used and can be used in our lives. Education is meant to be preparation for the real world. Bacon encourages studies, he warns that studying heavily can lead to laziness and being idle. If one uses one’s knowledge too often in a conversation with others, then one is bragging himself and to be guided solely by one’s studies one becomes a scholar rather than a practical man. According to Bacon, dishonest men condemn education; stupid men admire education; but wise men use education as their real world experience dictates.

Bacon returns to addressing the effects of reading, conversation, and writing: reading creates a well-rounded man; conversation makes a man think quickly; and writing, by which Bacon usually means argument essay writing, makes a man capable of thinking with logic and reason. History, Bacon argues, makes men wise; poetry, clever; mathematics, intellectually sharp; logic and rhetoric, skilled in argument.

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Critical analysis of Bacon’s essay ”Of Studies”

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CBSE Board Exam 2024 Live Updates : The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has conduced Tibetan, Kashmiri, mizo and other papers for Class 10 and Retail, Web Application and multimedia for Class 12 on February 23, 2024. The duration of these exams is three hours – The papers started at 10:30 am and ended at 1:30 pm. ...Read More

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The board question paper of English Core ( 301) is absolutely matches the sample question paper with all modalities in place. Following is the analysis section-wise.

The first comprehension passage is comprehensive in structure ( word limit exceeded) but inferential and understanding-based.

The 2nd comprehension is factual and informative with no statistical inputs. But overall section A seems scoring and student friendly.

The writings section is based on contemporary topics which are relatable and relevant in today's scenario.

Section C, literature has a balanced approach, keeping in mind the typology and the quality of the literary nuances in place. It truly exhibits the need for literary skills and proper comprehension of the texts . Overall, students must have enjoyed writing each question to express their utmost understanding. All three sets seem to score once the student is well aware of the syllabus.

(Malabika Chattopadhyay Mukherjee Headmistress- Senior School MRIS Sector 46, Gurugram)

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Hrithka Grover, of Modern Public School Shalimar Bagh, said, “The first section of the text was initially confusing due to the multiple answers to a single question. However, the writing section was straightforward for those familiar with the formats and language needed to write. The majority of the literature portion was detailed and subjective, making it easier to handle. The long answers were tricky, as they required proper contemplation while interpreting chapters and poems. Overall, the paper was good and the examiner was able to cover maximum numbers of topics very wisely”.

CBSE Board exam 2024: English exam analysis

Today, class 12 students appeared in the English Exam of the CBSE Board, which was thoughtfully planned in a balanced manner to check the overall knowledge of the students, it was a standard paper. Unlike a mere last-minute cramming scenario, success demands a thorough understanding of the subject. The literature section, structured around competency, required a deep understanding acquired through diligent reading of the relevant chapters. The long answers, while demanding decent writing skills, also tested the depth of comprehension. Further, the writing section was straightforward, adding a practical dimension to the knowledge a student acquired throughout the year.

Besides, equivalent to the sample paper, the question paper was neither too complicated nor a cakewalk, it was a 360-degree examination to check students' knowledge about all the important sections quite fairly.

In essence, the exam was a wholesome treat to those who had studied diligently. It rewarded students who had invested time and effort in understanding the entire course and studied accordingly. The competency-based approach in the literature section and the emphasis on writing skills in the long answers contributed to a well-rounded assessment, making it a suitable reflection of the subject's expectations.

Ms. Alka Kapur, Principal Modern Public School, Shalimar Bagh

CBSE Class 12th English Core analysis: Teacher's reaction after exam

As per Vijaya Chauhan, HOD English, Bhai Parmanand Vidya Mandir,"The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) Class 12 English Core paper on Thursday, February 22 was moderate.There were inference based questions in the paper which needed a thorough study of the chapters and logical reasoning.Overall the questions were from the prescribed syllabus and entirely based on the pattern of latest Sample Paper issued by CBSE.

Regarding section-wise difficulty level, section A was average, section B was simple and section C was thought provoking. The exam was not too hard or too easy, it was moderately designed with questions to analyze the student’s competency in the language. Overall the paper covered different aspects of the English language."

CBSE Class 12 English core analysis: Students, teachers say lengthy paper

Both students and teachers have mentioned that the passage section of the English core paper was lengthy, with the first passage containing some tricky questions. Read the complete analysis here .

CBSE Class 12 English core analysis: What Gurugram teacher said

All three sections in the paper were presented with an average level of difficulty, offering a well-rounded mix of textual and competency-based questions.

Section A Passages posed some challenging questions that may have required additional time. The second passage was relatively straightforward.

Section B had four questions of creative writing which included notice writing, invitation/ reply writing, letter writing, and report/ article writing. The questions were clear and sufficient hints were given.

Section C was inference-based. The RTC questions in the Literature Section followed the format outlined in the CBSE Sample Paper. Long questions in literature interlinked the narratives and poems.

The paper followed the pattern of sample paper, most of the questions in the paper were easy. The question paper comprised a well-rounded blend of knowledge, analysis, and application-oriented questions. The majority of students managed to finish the paper well in time and even had time left for revision.

(Priyanka Yadav, PGT English, KIIT World School, Gurugram)

CBSE Class 12 English Core analysis: Section-wise marks

The paper was divided into Section A, Section B, and Section C.

Section A: Reading (22 marks)

Section B: Creative Writing (18 marks)

Section C: Literature (40 marks)

CBSE Class 12 English Core: What Chandigarh students said after exam

Students in Chandigarh found the Class 12 CBSE English core exam to be a bit lengthy, and some of them said they were unable to finish the exam on time.

At the exam centre in Government Model Senior Secondary School Sector 46 where the English Core exam was conducted, Shivam Singla a student of Guru Nanak Khalsa Senior Secondary School in Sector 30 said that he was unable to finish the exam on time and had to spend extra time on the two comprehension questions which were for 22 marks. "The first passage on artificial intelligence (AI) was especially tough and about half my time went on the two questions."

Another student at the same school, Tanveer Singh said that there were many two-mark questions asked per passage which took him extra time to solve.

Students of AKSIPS School in Sector 41 said that the exam was easy but overall it was lengthy and required critical thinking to solve. Mansi, a student here said she was able to finish her exam right at the last minute while some other students were asking for more time to finish the exam.

(Inputs from Rajanbir Singh, Chandigarh)

CBSE Class 12 English Core paper analysis by teacher

The CBSE English Core [301] question paper was good. The 80-mark question paper was divided into Three Sections: Reading, Writing and Literature. Reading and Literature section had competency-based questions. The question paper followed the pattern already shared by CBSE with a mix of subjective and objective questions. The MCQ questions were good and children had to infer the answers which they did with intelligence. Long questions in literature interlinked the narratives and poems. The students were able to answer the questions well. Students who did a thorough reading of the NCERT books were able to answer the paper well.

(Lopamudra Majumder, PGT English, Vidyagyan Sitapur)

CBSE Class 12 English Core paper analysis: Average paper balanced between textual, competency-based questions

The Class 12 English Core paper was average with a fine balance of questions – textual as well as competency-based, for students with high, mediocre, and low linguistic proficiency. In the reading section, the first passage had tricky questions- it might consume more time than usual. The second passage was easy. In the writing skills section, the questions were easily comprehensible with sufficient clues to build up the content. The literature section had RTCs based on the format of the CBSE Sample Paper. The subjective part was of an optimum standard to test the students’ insightfulness, content knowledge, and logic. Long questions were competency-based and students needed to analyse the questions before writing a suitable answer.

– Spokesperson: Kavita Bali, PGT Teacher, Silverline Prestige School, Ghaziabad

CBSE Class 12 English exam 2024: Paper analysis shortly

CBSE Class 12 English paper analysis will be shared here at 1:30 pm.

CBSE Board exam 2024: Class 12 papers scheduled for February 23

CBSE Class 12 February 23 exams:

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India Today English Literature

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Short stories, literary essays, india today english lit 1, francis bacon’s essay of studies—summary and critical analysis, introduction:.

The Renaissance influenced the people of Elizabethan Age so greatly that studies became an essential part of their daily life. In order to attain limitless knowledge so many of them began to adopt short - cut methods of reading books. In place of reading bulky books they liked to know about books by using notes, or extracts made from them by others. Bacon points out objects and proper ways of studies in the present essay. According to him the short - cut method should be used to study unimportant books only.

Bacon claims that studies serve not only the single purpose of increasing knowledge, but also they contribute to delight, to improve ability and to make our expression impressive. He warns against the excessive use of studies for in practical life the importance of natural abilities and practical experience cannot be ignored. This essay brings to light Bacon's good sense, wit and condensation of thought. It consists of those thoughts and ideas which Bacon has discussed in his great work “The Advancement of Learning” . It is Bacon's comprehensive approach to the subject that he points out the medical value as well as the disadvantages of studies.

Summary of the Essay:

Bacon deals with different modes of study and concludes with useful advice how some mental defects can be cured by appropriate studies. The essay is remarkable for apt illustrations and the wisdom it embodies. Bacon begins his essay by pointing out that there are three chief uses of studies. They provide delight in leisure and privacy. They serve as decorative ornaments in social gatherings and they give ability in practical business. They develop and perfect the natural faculties of the mind and are themselves perfected by the experience of real life. The disadvantages of studies are also there. Spending too much of time in studies and neglecting other affairs indicate sloth. Needless display of knowledge in season and out of season shows affectation. To decide everything by the help of bookish learning is the natural characteristic of a scholar. 

Bacon gives valuable guidance to us by laying down some rules for study. He says that books should be studied dispassionately and not with a prejudiced mind. One should not blindly accept everything that is written in books; nor should one criticize and contradict everything. One should weigh, consider and accept only those things that convince one as true. There are also different kinds of books. Some books are to be read in parts only. There are some others which can be read entirely but hurriedly there are a few good books which must be read in details and very carefully. There are still some books which can be read in summaries and abstracts made by others. 

There are different modes of study. Reading is meant to gather knowledge. Conversation helps the mind to acquire readiness and agility. The habit of writing helps to systematize thoughts and ideas and to obtain accuracy of expressions. Studies also exercise a profound influence on the development of character. The study of mathematics increases the subtlety of mind and that of philosophy enhance its gravity. The study of logic and rhetoric increases the power of debate and discussion. 

Just as physical exercises cure physical defects and diseases, in the same way studies cure mental defects and diseases. Just as bowling is good for the kidneys, shooting for the lungs, gentle walking for the stomach and riding for the head, in the same way the study of mathematics in good for wandering wits, that of scholastic philosophy helps a confused mind and the study of law cases helps those who cannot recall reference and arrange arguments to prove their point. Thus, every mental defect can be removed by proper study.

Critical Analysis of the Essay:

Introduction: .

Bacon's “Of Studies” is one of his most popular essays. The Renaissance influenced the people of Elizabethan Age so greatly that studies became an essential part of their daily life. In order to attain limitless knowledge so many of them began to adopt short - cut methods of reading books. In place of reading bulky books they liked to know about books by using notes, or extracts made from them by others. Bacon points out objects and proper ways of studies in the present essay. According to him the short - cut method should be used to study unimportant books only. Bacon claims that studies serve not only the single purpose of increasing knowledge, but also they contribute to delight, to improve ability and to make our expression impressive. He warns against the excessive use of studies for in practical life the importance of natural abilities and practical experience cannot be ignored. This essay brings to light Bacon's good sense, wit and condensation of thought. It consists of those thoughts and ideas which Bacon has discussed in his great work “The Advancement of Learning” . It is Bacon's comprehensive approach to the subject that he points out the medical value as well as the disadvantages of studies. It is a representative essay by Bacon for it brings to light all of his qualities as an essayist. The essay is full of great ideas, clarity of thought and expression, practical wisdom, poetic images as well as for and against arguments. The poet uses some Latin expressions also. 

Greatness of Ideas: 

Bacon's "Of Studies" is an ideal essay that is full of great ideas. The Renaissance influenced the people of Elizabethan Age so greatly that studies became an essential part of their daily life. In order to attain limitless knowledge so many of them began to adopt short - cut methods of reading books. In place of reading bulky books they liked to know about books by using notes, or extracts made from them by others. Bacon points out objects and proper ways of studies in the present essay. According to him the short - cut method should be used to study unimportant books only. Bacon claims that studies serve not only the single purpose of increasing knowledge, but also they contribute to delight, to improve ability and to make our expression impressive. 

“Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability.” 

He warns against the excessive use of studies for in practical life the importance of natural abilities and practical experience cannot be ignored. 

“They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience.” 

According to Bacon there should be a positive object of making studies. We should study not to contradict and challenge or accept whatever is present in books. It is better to judge and think over that. 

“Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh and consider.” 

He warns against blind following of books. Besides, all books are not of equal standard. We should give importance to books according to their greatness. Only a few books are to be chewed and digested i.e., to read and understand attentively. All books are not to be read attentively with labour. It is practical wisdom to give time to books according to their importance. Mostly books may be read with the help of notes and guide books or selected pieces made of the subject by other writers. Books of lower standard may be read with notes. But it will be foolishness to read important books with the help of notes. 

“Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.” 

Otherwise notes and guides are like purified water that is tasteless and devoid of depth. No man feels inclined to drink it more. The same may be said regarding notes, no reader wishes to read it again while original books amuse in spite of reading again and again. In this way, Bacon points out the great importance of original books.

“Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of arguments, and the meaner sort of books; else distilled books are, like common distilled waters, flashy things.” 

Bacon's greatness of ideas becomes remarkable when he points out how different subjects affect the character of a reader. 

“Histories make man wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle: natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.”  

Bacon claims that all mental weaknesses can be removed by proper studies. Studies pass into human character and therefore, all the defects of mind can be cured by proper study just as proper physical exercise is useful to remove physical defects. Thus, there is proper treatment of every mental weakness. 

Clear of Thought and Expression: 

Bacon's belief in clarity of thought and expression is well exposed in this essay when he adopts the device of classification. He classifies purposes of studies in three parts: 

He brings to light not only advantages of studies but also its disadvantages that appear when studies are used in excess. Too much study for delight develops idleness; for ornamentation develops artificiality; to take decision wholly by their rules is a bookish approach becomes the whim of a learned man. Studies mature natural talent that is perfected by practical knowledge. Natural talent too requires pruning or trimming. Books express confusing or contradictory ideas that should be limited by experience. Wicked people oppose studies, common or foolish people admire them while wise people use them. 

“Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them.”

Bacon's classification of books on the basis of their importance is remarkable. He advises the ways of studies according to the value of the book. He clearly points out that all books are not to be studies attentively. 

“Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be of wed and digested.” 

It makes a clear account of various subjects and their positive effect on human minds. According to him Histories develop wisdom, poetry wit, mathematics concentration, natural philosophy depth and moral gravity. 

“Histories make man wise: poets witty; the mathematics subtle: natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend.”  

Poetic Images: 

Bacon uses poetic images to give a poetic touch to his style. In “Of Studies”, he introduces nature imagery when he claims that natural abilities are like natural plants that should be ordered by study.

“For natural abilities are like natural plants that need pruning by study.”  

Likewise to classify books on the basis of their importance he uses the food imagery. 

“Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.”  

Proverbial Style: 

Bacon's great wisdom enables him to express thoughts of universal importance. When he expresses these thoughts in aphoristic style so many sentences of the novel seem proverbial. It encourages him to make proverbial statements. The essay, “Of Studies” for example opens with a proverbial statement: 

If anybody talks about studies, he refers to this statement necessarily. The essay is full of such statements that express a general thought which is true to all. 

“To spend too much time in studies is sloth. 

For natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study: They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience. 

Crafty men condemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them. 

Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.” 

Bacon uses water imagery for notes and guides; 

Compendium of Practical Wisdom and Comprehensiveness: 

Throughout the essay, Bacon shows his practical wisdom and comprehensiveness. Generally people give unimportance to either technical knowledge or practical experience but Bacon recognizes importance to both and advises to consult an experienced man if the work is at a small scale, and technically trained or learned man for managing a work at a large scale. Generally people think studies are always useful but Bacon advises to avoid excess of studies. He recognises importance of natural talent, training and practical experience. Generally people think all books are equally important but Bacon advises to study books according to their importance. He recognises importance of original texts and notes. Generally people think that reading is the only way of learning but Bacon advises to give importance to conference and writing also. Bacon shows how different subjects affect our mind also. 

Comprehensive Arguments: 

Bacon is a practical philosopher who does not believe in imposing his thoughts on others. He gives arguments for and against the subject and leaves it to the reader to conclude according to his requirement. For example, he points out advantages as well as disadvantages of studies and its three purposes. 

Studies provide amusement; help in improving effectiveness of speech: and improve skill and perfection; their main purpose of giving amusement is when we are alone or taking rest. They give effectiveness to conversation or discussion. They make perfect in deciding or managing things. According to Bacon experienced man perform well in special parts. But suggestions of universal importance, details and management of business are done best by trained persons. But his discussion does not end here for incoming lines he warns against the disadvantages of making excessive use of studies. Bacon points out disadvantages of studies if done unwisely. Too much study for delight develops idleness; for ornamentation develops artificiality; to take decision wholly by their rules is a bookish approach becomes the whim of a learned man. Studies mature natural talent that is perfected by practical knowledge, Natural talent too requires pruning or trimming. Books express confusing or contradictory ideas that should be limited by experience. Wicked people oppose studies, common or foolish people admire them while wise people use them. How to use studies is a more important art that is attained by practical experience. Likewise on the one hand suggests reading of books and on the others pleads for natural talent. He points out advantages as well as disadvantages of experienced man. He suggests reading some books with the help of notes or extracts made by others. 

Use of Latin Expressions: 

Bacon used to think that his Latin works should prove immortal and the English works would disappear with the passing of time. It shows his love for Latin . In this essay also he uses a few Latin expressions like: 

Abeunt studia in mores    (studies pass into character) 

Cymni Sectores              (hair - splitters) 

Thus, Bacon's “Of Studies” is a representative essay that brings to light all the qualities of the essayist with a comprehensive discussion on the subject.

Saurabh Gupta

Saurabh Gupta

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Opinion: We know how voters feel about Trump and Biden. But how do the experts rank their presidencies?

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Presidents Day occurs at a crucial moment this year, with the presidency on the cusp of crisis as we inexorably shuffle toward a rematch between the incumbent and his predecessor. It’s the sort of contest we haven’t seen since the 19th century, and judging by public opinion of President Biden and former President Trump, most Americans would have preferred to keep it that way.

But the third installment of our Presidential Greatness Project , a poll of presidential experts released this weekend, shows that scholars don’t share American voters’ roughly equal distaste for both candidates.

Biden, in fact, makes his debut in our rankings at No. 14, putting him in the top third of American presidents. Trump, meanwhile, maintains the position he held six years ago: dead last, trailing such historically calamitous chief executives as James Buchanan and Andrew Johnson. In that and other respects, Trump’s radical departure from political, institutional and legal norms has affected knowledgeable assessments not just of him but also of Biden and several other presidents.

Republican presidential candidate former President Donald Trump greets supporters as he arrives at a campaign stop in Londonderry, N.H., Tuesday, Jan. 23, 2024. (AP Photo/Matt Rourke)

Opinion: Panicking over polls showing Donald Trump ahead of President Biden? Please stop

Like Biden, Obama and Reagan had rough reelection polls. Too many journalists treat polls as predictive, but political professionals use them to inform campaigns.

Jan. 24, 2024

The overall survey results reveal stability as well as change in the way scholars assess our nation’s most important and controversial political office. Great presidents have traditionally been viewed as those who presided over moments of national transformation, led the country through major crises and expanded the institution of the presidency. Military victories, economic growth, assassinations and scandals also affect expert assessments of presidential performance.

The presidents at the top of our rankings, and others like ours, reflect this. Hallowed leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Franklin Delano Roosevelt and George Washington consistently lead the list.

Our latest rankings also show that the experts’ assessments are driven not only by traditional notions of greatness but also by the evolving values of our time.

Donald Trump speaks at a rally in Las Vegas.

Op-Ed: Worst. President. Ever.

President Trump’s final grade will be in the hands of scholars. It doesn’t look good.

Jan. 13, 2021

One example is the continuing decline in esteem for two important presidents, Andrew Jackson and Woodrow Wilson. Their reputations have consistently suffered in recent years as modern politics lead scholars to assess their early 19th and 20th century presidencies ever more harshly, especially their unacceptable treatment of marginalized people.

More acutely, this survey has seen a pronounced partisan dynamic emerge, arguably in response to the Trump presidency and the Trumpification of presidential politics.

Proponents of the Biden presidency have strong arguments in their arsenal, but his high placement within the top 15 suggests a powerful anti-Trump factor at work. So far, Biden’s record does not include the military victories or institutional expansion that have typically driven higher rankings, and a family scandal such as the one involving his son Hunter normally diminishes a president’s ranking.

Biden’s most important achievements may be that he rescued the presidency from Trump, resumed a more traditional style of presidential leadership and is gearing up to keep the office out of his predecessor’s hands this fall.

Trump’s position at the bottom of our rankings, meanwhile, puts him behind not only Buchanan and Johnson but also such lowlights as Franklin Pierce, Warren Harding and William Henry Harrison, who died a mere 31 days after taking office.

Trump’s impact goes well beyond his own ranking and Biden’s. Every contemporary Democratic president has moved up in the ranks — Barack Obama (No. 7), Bill Clinton (No. 12) and even Jimmy Carter (No. 22).

Yes, these presidents had great accomplishments such as expanding healthcare access and working to end conflict in the Middle East, and they have two Nobel Prizes among them. But given their shortcomings and failures, their rise seems to be less about reassessments of their administrations than it is a bonus for being neither Trump nor a member of his party.

Indeed, every modern Republican president has dropped in the survey, including the transformational Ronald Reagan (No. 16) and George H.W. Bush (No. 19), who led the nation’s last decisive military victory.

Academics do lean left, but that hasn’t changed since our previous surveys. What these results suggest is not just an added emphasis on a president’s political affiliation, but also the emergence of a president’s fealty to political and institutional norms as a criterion for what makes a president “great” to the scholars who study them.

As for the Americans casting a ballot for the next president, they are in the historically rare position of knowing how both candidates have performed in the job. Whether they will consider each president’s commitment to the norms of presidential leadership, and come to rate them as differently as our experts, remains to be seen.

Justin Vaughn is an associate professor of political science at Coastal Carolina University. Brandon Rottinghaus is a professor of political science at the University of Houston.

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Lydia Polgreen

Restoring the Past Won’t Liberate Palestine

An illustration of two faces atop the ground. A small white person stands on top of one of the faces.

By Lydia Polgreen

Opinion Columnist

Amid the graphic images, fierce polemics and endless media criticism that have dominated my social media feeds since the war in Gaza began late last year, I noticed a seemingly bizarre subplot emerge: skin cancer in Israel.

“You are not Indigenous if your body cannot tolerate the area’s climate,” one such post read, highlighting outdated news coverage claiming that Israelis had unusually high rates of skin cancer. (They do not .) Skin cancer, these posts claimed, was proof that Israeli Jews were not native to the land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea but were white Europeans with no ancestral connection to the region, enactors of one of the worst crimes of the modern age: settler colonialism.

On one level, the claims about skin cancer — like similar ones about Israeli cuisine and surnames — are silly social media talking points from keyboard warriors slinging hashtags, hyped up on theories of liberation based on memes of Frantz Fanon quotes taken out of context. In the context of the ongoing slaughter in Gaza — more than 28,000 people dead, mostly women and children — such posturing may seem trivial. But even, or maybe especially, at this moment, when things are so grim, the way we talk about liberation matters. And I find this kind of talk revealing of a larger trend on the left these days, emanating from important and complex theories in the academy but reflected in crude and reductive forms in the memes and slogans at pro-Palestine protests — an increasingly rigid set of ideas about the interloping colonizer and the Indigenous colonized. In this analysis, there are two kinds of people: those who are native to a land and those who settle it, displacing the original inhabitants. Those identities are fixed, essential, eternal.

I have spent much of my life and career living and working among formerly colonized peoples attempting to forge a path for themselves in the aftermath of empire. The rapacious carving up of much of the globe and the genocide and enslavement of millions of people by a handful of European powers for their own enrichment was the great crime of early modernity. The icons who threw off the yoke of colonial oppression — including Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah, India’s Jawaharlal Nehru and Fanon — were my childhood heroes, and they remain my intellectual lodestars. But I sometimes struggle to recognize their spirit and ideas in the way we talk about decolonization today, with its emphasis on determining who is and who is not an Indigenous inhabitant of the lands known as Israel and Palestine.

A good deal of the antipathy toward Israeli Jews today is undergirded and enabled, I believe, by something that to some ears sounds progressive: the idea that people and lands that have been colonized must be returned to their indigenous peoples and original state. But that belief, when taken literally, is, at best, a kind of left-wing originalism, a utopian politics that believes the past answers all the questions of the present. At worst, it is a left-wing echo to the ancestral fantasies of the far right, in which who is allowed to live in which places is a question of the connection of one’s blood to a particular patch of soil.

Implicit in the emphasis on indigeneity is a promised restoration, albeit one of a very different sort from the imperial fantasies of Vladimir Putin or the gender obsessions of Ron DeSantis. Decolonization “is not converting Indigenous politics to a Western doctrine of liberation; it is not a philanthropic process of ‘helping’ the at-risk and alleviating suffering; it is not a generic term for struggle against oppressive conditions and outcomes,” as the scholars Eve Tuck and K. Wayne Yang write in an influential academic paper published in 2012, “ Decolonization Is Not a Metaphor .”

“The broad umbrella of social justice may have room underneath for all of these efforts,” Tuck and Yang write. “By contrast, decolonization specifically requires the repatriation of Indigenous land and life.”

There is perhaps no more vexed question in the world than how this might play out in Israel and Palestine. There is no doubt that Palestinians long lived in the land that became Israel. Jews have deep historical roots in that land, but a vast majority of the people who established the state of Israel came from elsewhere, fleeing genocide and persecution in Europe and forced into exile by Middle Eastern and North African nations. It is impossible to separate Israel’s birth from the dying gasps of the old colonial order. It was, in the indelible phrase of Arthur Koestler, “one nation solemnly promised to a second nation the country of a third.”

In theory, decolonization includes the disestablishment of the very idea of land as property, of modern notions like nationhood and citizenship. In theory, it is a chance to do it all over and replay history with the benefit of indigenous ideas and traditions to guide us.

But history doesn’t work that way. People do bad things. Other people resist those bad things. Humans invent and discover; they create and destroy. There is no going backward to some mythic state. There is no restoration. The events that unfold over time shape the land and the people who live on it, and those people shape one another in manifold ways, some brutal and destructive, some generative and loving. But time and experience ensure that nothing can ever be the same as it was before the last thing that happened.

A s I was thinking through these issues, I came across a series of social media posts about settler colonialism by Iyad el-Baghdadi, a Palestinian writer and activist whose work has been an indispensable guide for me in the present crisis. I sent him an email, and he agreed to speak with me to expand on his ideas. I explained my unease with the reliance on concepts like indigeneity to decide who has a just claim to live in a place.

“Don’t take these people seriously,” he told me, though he made clear that he has some sympathy for those who espouse such views. “They’re not really motivated by some kind of ideology. They’re really motivated by emotion, and they kind of slap together an ideology to satisfy their emotion, but then emotions, by their very nature, cannot be satisfied that way.” He told me that sometimes when he hears people talk about Palestinian liberation, it is almost as though they are expecting a literal reversal of 1948, what Palestinians call the nakba, or catastrophe, of their expulsion upon the founding of the state of Israel.

“It is as if there will be this magical moment and all our villages are going to appear out of the earth. And then 75 years of settler colonialism is going to disappear,” he said. “But this romantic idea is really unmourned trauma.”

Questions of indigeneity are simply a distraction, he said, from the real challenge of building Palestinian political power. “I don’t care if they’re settlers or not,” he said. “The solution is not to constantly try to moralize. The solution is to fix the power imbalance. The future needs to be rooted in the truth that all human beings are equal and that Jewish life is equivalent to Palestinian life and that we can together work on a future in which nobody is oppressed and we can address the inequities of the past.”

Eventually our conversation came around to Fanon, whose writings on political violence are now once again in vogue, taken up with alacrity by the activists focused on undoing settler colonialism — even, or perhaps especially, if it requires bloodshed.

“People are really using him to lend some kind of intellectual legitimacy for political violence,” he said. “And I find that really, really obscene. When I read Fanon, I think he’s talking about power. He’s not really talking about violence. Violence is a weak person’s idea of what power is.”

Fanon, a psychiatrist turned anticolonial political figure, had a lot to say about violence. In his book “The Wretched of the Earth” he wrote that “violence is a cleansing force. It frees the native from his inferiority complex and from his despair and inaction; it makes him fearless and restores his self-respect.”

There is no question that Fanon, who devoted much of his short life to the often violent struggle to liberate Algeria from French rule, believed that violence was a legitimate tool to fight oppression. But what did he actually mean, and did he write these words as a physician’s description or a revolutionary’s prescription?

The writer Adam Shatz argues in “The Rebel’s Clinic,” his terrific new biography of Fanon , that “cleansing” is a misleading translation: “The English translation of ‘la violence désintoxique’ as ‘violence is a cleansing force’ is somewhat misleading, suggesting an almost redemptive elimination of impurities,” Shatz writes. “Fanon’s more clinical word choice indicates the overcoming of a state of drunkenness, the stupor induced by colonial subjugation.”

Indeed, what violence restored to the colonial subject was agency, the ability to shake off the role imposed by the colonizer and begin to act of his or her own volition. Colonized people may harbor fantasies of returning to a long-lost past, before their land was stolen. But it is equally likely that they, like Fanon, want to build a new and different future.

Fanon had a lot to say about history. Shatz’s book details Fanon’s early infatuation with the romantic ideas of thinkers like Léopold Sédar Senghor, the poet and anticolonial leader who would become Senegal’s first president. Senghor and some of his generation of Black colonial intellectuals posited an idealized and mystical precolonial African past that needed to be unearthed and revived.

Eventually, Fanon rejected these backward-looking ideas: “In no way do I have to dedicate myself to reviving a Black civilization unjustly ignored,” he wrote in his book “Black Skin, White Masks.” “I will not make myself the man of any past.”

A nd yet. How can we not look to the past to try to find a path through the present, just as we look to the future as the repository of some long-awaited justice that never quite arrives? This human propensity leaves us stuck between memory and dreams, neither of which tell us all that much about our present difficulties.

We think understanding the past with hindsight will somehow save us. But what is that hindsight? A perfect knowledge of the past that was not accessible or visible to those experiencing it. Somehow, we believe, the future will be untainted by the passions of the present and able to see what unfolded more clearly. In practice, it works the other way: We see the past through the prism of the present and often in the blinding light of our hopes for the future, eliding and emphasizing the role of the past as suits our present purpose.

A theory of decolonization that seeks to move backward will inevitably run up against this human tendency. But it also, perhaps unwittingly, strips the formerly colonized of the very self-determination they seek.

Olúfémi Táíwò, a Nigerian philosopher at Cornell University, argued in his book “Against Decolonisation: Taking African Agency Seriously” that the Manichaean divide between the colonized and the colonizer and the rejection of everything emanating from the latter stripped the colonized of agency by denying them the creative freedom to make something new out of the experience of being oppressed. “It must and does foreclose the possibility that the colonized could find anything of worth in the life and thought of the colonizer which they could repurpose for their own societies, both during and after colonialism,” he wrote.

Africans, Táíwò argues, should be able to take what they want from modernity and use it, like any free people, to invent their own future, not look backward to a past that in any case can never be recovered.

The agonizing months since Oct. 7 have made it seem all but impossible for any of us to imagine what kind of hopeful future might be invented out of the present nightmare. We have reached a terrifying new stage of the war with the looming assault on Rafah, where hundreds of thousands of civilians have fled Israeli bullets and bombs only to find themselves once again in the cross hairs with nowhere left to run. But generations of Palestinian activists and intellectuals, people who have perhaps the greatest reason to find sustenance in fantasies of a mythic past free of Israel and its people, do not dream of rolling back time.

“Successful liberation movements were successful precisely because they employed creative ideas, original ideas, imaginative ideas, whereas less successful movements (like ours, alas) had a pronounced tendency to formulas and an uninspired repetition of past slogans and past patterns of behavior,” wrote the Palestinian American scholar Edward Said. “The future, like the past, is built by human beings. They and not some distant mediator or savior provide the agency for change.”

Said was perhaps the most influential intellectual heir to Fanon, and in a tragic twist, he too died of leukemia, the same cancer that killed Fanon at the age of 36. Both of them died without seeing their lifelong struggles won. But both went to their graves as modern, cosmopolitan men, engaged with the world not as they wished it was but as they found it, chronicled it and shaped it toward their unshakable vision of self-determination and freedom for the colonized peoples of the world. Liberation requires invention, not restoration. If history tells us anything, it is this: Time moves in one direction, forward.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , X and Threads .

Lydia Polgreen is an Opinion columnist and a co-host of the “ Matter of Opinion ” podcast for The Times.

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Father Stretch My Hands (detail) by Nathaniel Mary Quinn, 2021.

Black identity, Blake’s intensity and how to dust David – the week in art

Plus splashy colourful paintings, Korean colour pencil drawings and Yoko Ono’s huge retrospective – all in your weekly dispatch

Exhibition of the week

The Time is Always Now: Artists Reframe the Black Figure Lubaina Himid, Kerry James Marshall and Amy Sherald are among the artists in this survey of Black identity in painting. National Portrait Gallery, London, until 19 May

Also showing

William Blake’s Universe Enter the intense world of Blake and his fellow romantic artists, including Philipp Otto Runge and Caspar David Friedrich. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, until 19 May

Jemimah Stehli : Happenstance Splashy abstract expressionist-like paintings by an artist best known for her subversive photographic work. Marlborough London, until 23 March

Do Ho Suh Retrospective of this Korean-born, London-based artist’s poetic drawings and sculptures. Modern One, Edinburgh, until 1 September

Accordion Fields Group show by painters including Tim Stoner, Pam Evelyn and Dexter Dalwood. Lisson Gallery, London, until 4 May

Image of the week

Italian restorer Eleonora Pucci cleans Michelangelo’s statue of David.

The trickiest part of the job for Italian restorer Eleonora Pucci is capturing the dust and spiders’ webs that lurk in David’s curls. The cleaning of Michelangelo’s statue at the Galleria dell’Accademia in Florence takes at least half a day and has been compared to cleaning a bathroom by the gallery’s director.

What we learned

An oversized herd of animal puppets is planning to walk 20,000km

One of Francis Bacon’s most emotive paintings is going on sale

David Hockney and other artists have picked their favourite paintings

Yoko Ono’s Tate Modern retrospective is huge, moving and full of surprises

Frederic Leighton’s clever, titillating Flaming June is visiting the UK from Puerto Rico

A sweet potato and a black cat are vying for a place on London’s fourth plinth

Zineb Sedira’s installations lead viewers through cinematic classics

Prism, a three-part film essay, turns the camera on race, colour and imperialism

A new John Singer Sargent show reduces his portraits to facts about hats and frocks

A tunnel 150m below the Atlantic boasts a six-mile-long art installation

Masterpiece of the week

The Skiff by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1875

The Skiff by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1875

Two women go boating on the Seine in a shimmering weightless utopia of light. Every brushstroke unleashes a different mix of gold, silver, green and blue in this amazingly dappled and variegated painting. Renoir raises a very ordinary scene of modern leisure to something sublime. Reality is consummately depicted yet seems to blaze with Arcadian majesty. Messing about on the river has rarely been so charged and poetic. The impressionist movement included women as artists, most brilliantly Berthe Morisot , and also in paintings as the autonomous subjects we see here, having fun without men. National Gallery, London

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  • 12 February 2024

China conducts first nationwide review of retractions and research misconduct

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The reputation of Chinese science has been "adversely affected" by the number of retractions in recent years, according to a government notice. Credit: Qilai Shen/Bloomberg/Getty

Chinese universities are days away from the deadline to complete a nationwide audit of retracted research papers and probe of research misconduct. By 15 February, universities must submit to the government a comprehensive list of all academic articles retracted from English- and Chinese-language journals in the past three years. They need to clarify why the papers were retracted and investigate cases involving misconduct, according to a 20 November notice from the Ministry of Education’s Department of Science, Technology and Informatization.

The government launched the nationwide self-review in response to Hindawi, a London-based subsidiary of the publisher Wiley, retracting a large number of papers by Chinese authors. These retractions, along with those from other publishers, “have adversely affected our country’s academic reputation and academic environment”, the notice states.

A Nature analysis shows that last year, Hindawi issued more than 9,600 retractions, of which the vast majority — about 8,200 — had a co-author in China. Nearly 14,000 retraction notices, of which some three-quarters involved a Chinese co-author, were issued by all publishers in 2023.

This is “the first time we’ve seen such a national operation on retraction investigations”, says Xiaotian Chen, a library and information scientist at Bradley University in Peoria, Illinois, who has studied retractions and research misconduct in China. Previous investigations have largely been carried out on a case-by-case basis — but this time, all institutions have to conduct their investigations simultaneously, says Chen.

Tight deadline

The ministry’s notice set off a chain of alerts, cascading to individual university departments. Bulletins posted on university websites required researchers to submit their retractions by a range of dates, mostly in January — leaving time for universities to collate and present the data.

Although the alerts included lists of retractions that the ministry or the universities were aware of, they also called for unlisted retractions to be added.

analysis of bacon's essay

More than 10,000 research papers were retracted in 2023 — a new record

According to Nature ’s analysis, which includes only English-language journals, more than 17,000 retraction notices for papers published by Chinese co-authors have been issued since 1 January 2021, which is the start of the period of review specified in the notice. The analysis, an update of one conducted in December , used the Retraction Watch database, augmented with retraction notices collated from the Dimensions database, and involved assistance from Guillaume Cabanac, a computer scientist at the University of Toulouse in France. It is unclear whether the official lists contain the same number of retracted papers.

Regardless, the timing to submit the information will be tight, says Shu Fei, a bibliometrics scientist at Hangzhou Dianzi University in China. The ministry gave universities less than three months to complete their self-review — and this was cut shorter by the academic winter break, which typically starts in mid-January and concludes after the Chinese New Year, which fell this year on 10 February.

“The timing is not good,” he says. Shu expects that universities are most likely to submit only a preliminary report of their researchers’ retracted papers included on the official lists.

But Wang Fei, who studies research-integrity policy at Dalian University of Technology in China, says that because the ministry has set a deadline, universities will work hard to submit their findings on time.

Researchers with retracted papers will have to explain whether the retraction was owing to misconduct, such as image manipulation, or an honest mistake, such as authors identifying errors in their own work, says Chen: “In other words, they may have to defend themselves.” Universities then must investigate and penalize misconduct. If a researcher fails to declare their retracted paper and it is later uncovered, they will be punished, according to the ministry notice. The cost of not reporting is high, says Chen. “This is a very serious measure.”

It is not known what form punishment might take, but in 2021, China’s National Health Commission posted the results of its investigations into a batch of retracted papers. Punishments included salary cuts, withdrawal of bonuses, demotions and timed suspensions from applying for research grants and rewards.

The notice states explicitly that the first corresponding author of a paper is responsible for submitting the response. This requirement will largely address the problem of researchers shirking responsibility for collaborative work, says Li Tang, a science- and innovation-policy researcher at Fudan University in Shanghai, China. The notice also emphasizes due process, says Tang. Researchers alleged to have committed misconduct have a right to appeal during the investigation.

The notice is a good approach for addressing misconduct, says Wang. Previous efforts by the Chinese government have stopped at issuing new research-integrity guidelines that were poorly implemented, she says. And when government bodies did launch self-investigations of published literature, they were narrower in scope and lacked clear objectives. This time, the target is clear — retractions — and the scope is broad, involving the entire university research community, she says.

“Cultivating research integrity takes time, but China is on the right track,” says Tang.

It is not clear what the ministry will do with the flurry of submissions. Wang says that, because the retraction notices are already freely available, publicizing the collated lists and underlying reasons for retraction could be useful. She hopes that a similar review will be conducted every year “to put more pressure” on authors and universities to monitor research integrity.

What happens next will reveal how seriously the ministry regards research misconduct, says Shu. He suggests that, if the ministry does not take further action after the Chinese New Year, the notice could be an attempt to respond to the reputational damage caused by the mass retractions last year.

The ministry did not respond to Nature ’s questions about the misconduct investigation.

Chen says that, regardless of what the ministry does with the information, the reporting process itself will help to curb misconduct because it is “embarrassing to the people in the report”.

But it might primarily affect researchers publishing in English-language journals. Retraction notices in Chinese-language journals are rare.

Nature 626 , 700-701 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-00397-x

Data analysis by Richard Van Noorden.

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  • Of Ambition

Read our detailed study guide on the essay “Of Ambition” by Francis Bacon. Our study guide covers Of Ambition summary and analysis.

Of Ambition Summary

In the middle ages, it was believed that the human body comprised of four body fluids, named blood, phlegm choler, and melancholy. Among these four, choler was thought to determine emotional and physical disposition. Bacon opens the essay by associating ambition with this fluid choler that has the quality of making people restless and irritable to do some actions. Likewise, a person sparkling with ambitions can hardly be found to live an un-hassled and relaxed life. The ambition to achieve something in a life makes a person, according to bacon, active, intense, full of enthusiasm, and magnificent. Such a person is hard to stop.

But if such an ambitious person is stopped, it could be very treacherous and make a person scorched, resulting in harmful and lethal situations. All his energy and enthusiasm will go waste making a person to develop a negative mindset.

Whenever an ambitious man finds for himself in an environment that supports him and made little or no hindrance in the path, he will devote all his time to his work to achieve the desired goals. However, if such a person is not allowed to work properly or he feel any hindrance from the outer environment, it will makes him furtively restless and will look upon others with an evil eye. They will set up a negative mindset towards other people and if any misfortune happens to other’s business, they seek pleasure out of it.

Therefore, for government officials, it is better to appoint such ambitious people and utilize their abilities as much as they can but it is necessary that these people should be given sufficient freedom to let their ingenuity flower. However, if you can’t provide them the sufficient freedom they are worthy of, it is better not to appoint them. In the latter case, they might prove to be more dangerous than that of fruitful. If they are discontented, with their fall they will also make their emperor fall, too.

To employ or not to employ an ambitious man is a matter of long debate. The discussion that is done so far proves that an ambition man, without any necessity, should not be employed. However, it is not a hard and fast rule. One can employ the ambitious person to utilize their abilities.

It is not necessary for a commander to be ambition, as his services involve to command others and think rationally. While for the soldier, it is necessary to be ambitious at his heart. Only a courageous, determined and ambitious soldier can confront the enemy brashly. Similarly, an ambitious man is needed to appoint as a body-guard to a king or emperor. For this job, an ordinary man will never agree, as it involves a life-threatening risks and even to shed a life to save the emperors life. For such a job, only an ambitious man is suitable. Such focused and committed to duty man is analogous to the sealed dove, mounting higher and higher hooked on the sky without worrying about the detachment and its inadequate energy.

Bacon, by glimpsing upon the story of Sejanus, Tiberius, and Marco, mentions another use of an ambitious man. According to him, an ambitious man like Marco can be appointed by the emperors like Tiberius to pull down the desolaters like Sejanus. Sejanus was the part-time emperor of Rome. He cleared the royal duties in the absence of the real emperor Tiberius. When Tiberius come to know about this matter, he appointed an ambitious man like Marco to kill him. If an ambitious man like Marco was not available, it would be impossible for an emperor like Tiberius to pull down Sejanus. Therefore, the government official needs the ambitious men like Marco. However, Bacon gives an advice that such ambitious people on the staff must be kept under the chain either secretly or openly, or they can be highly dangerous.

Bacon mentions the various ambitious men and guides the readers about the more dangerous ones among them and the less dangerous ones. To him, the ambitious men who are born in the lower class family served to be less dangerous than those who belong to the aristocracy. Moreover, the ill-mannered and harsh security guards are less dangerous than that of polished. Similarly, the new appointed are less dangerous than the old one. Since they are aware of the affairs of the court, the might miss-use them.

It is often thought by the people that it is an unwise policy of the emperors to employ the trusted and known people in the Security Council. However, to Bacon, this the wisest policy as it will keep them satisfies in the proximity of the king. Similarly, not considering the government’s benefit, it is better to appoint such known and favorite people as they, in the proximity of the kind, will not cause any harm to him. And the other means to control them is to appoint another person of equal status and zeal in a parallel position. Moreover, another higher authority should be employed to keep check both of them. This should be done to keep things steady. Furthermore, an emperor should bring a man from the lower class to the inner circle as will appear to counterbalance the early ambitious men.

Bacon argues that for the potential candidates for the Security Council, the emperor should be well aware of the nature of the candidates. If the candidate has a repulsive and fearful persona, then it is good to appoint him. On the other hand, if the candidate is of a daring nature, better not to appoint him as it may invite a danger. Once the emperor finds any suspicious affairs about the, he should deal with it cleverly, without taking any harsh step against them. This will provoke in them an evil spirit that might harm the emperor.

Bacon continues to argue that being ambitious is not harmful but scorching ambition and enthusiasm should be restricted to the area they outshine in. It is better to have ambitious people in business but these people should not be appointed to the post that has a dependency on other posts. Those who are ambitious among us have a great job to do. They are gifted people that should be rewarded.

There are three things associated with the honor: to do well for others, to reach a glorious position in the society, and to rise is the fortune. If an ambitious man has all these three intentions, he is a right man to be rewarded. And the king, who has the ability to recognize such people is the wise man.

Bacon ends the essay by setting some guidelines for the emperors in choosing their ministers. They should hire the people who are sensitive to their duty, love their work and are ambitious, people who are driven by their conscience and love to work more with a willing mind.

Of Ambition Analysis

Of Ambition is an argumentative essay by Francis Bacon, in which he argues about the benefits and outbursts of being ambition. He demonstrates various situations in which ambition is highly useful and one can appoint a highly ambitious person. While he also makes the audience aware of the positions on which appointing an ambitious person might invite problems for them.

Critical appreciation:

Brevity, directness, wit, and to the point arguments are one of the qualities that Bacon’s essay contain. The systematic way of writing makes bacon’s essay to move from one point to another logically. Moreover, the subject matters he discusses in his writing style are all based on the real life and the reader found an epigrammatic wisdom in it. With the use of metaphors, similes referring to various historical stories makes his essay comprehensible and agreeable.

Bacon starts the essay by using the simile of choler for ambition. Ambition is something that induces in a man a spirit to achieve something in his life. Such ambitiousness can be benefitting as well as harmful. Bacon deals with the topic purely on political merits and demerits. He mentions the various position on which ambitiousness is highly required. These include a post of a soldier, a post of security guard etc. on such posts, an ordinary person cannot survive as requires a life-threatening risk.

For the post like administration etc. an ambitious man is highly restricted as they involve dependency on other posts which highly challenging for them.

This essay is not only for the guidance of the emperors of his time, however, it proves to be persistence throughout the ages. Even his arguments are valid for the present time as well. This essay contains some guiding principles for the head of the state when they are about to hire the ministers. He mentions various criteria for the ministers. If these criteria are filled in a candidate he should hire him. They should hire the people who are sensitive to their duty, love their work and are ambitious, people who are driven by their conscience and love to work more with a willing mind.

More From Francis Bacon

  • Of Adversity
  • Of Discourse
  • Of Followers and Friends
  • Of Friendship
  • Of Great Place
  • Of Marriage and Single Life
  • Of Nobility
  • Of Parents and Children
  • Of Simulation and Dissimulation
  • Of Superstition
  • Of Goodness and Goodness of Nature

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COMMENTS

  1. Of Studies by Francis Bacon Summary & Analysis

    Bacon says, "Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them". The men who are hard workers or primitive men hate or contemn studies. However, the men who have simple wits admire them. Moreover, the men who are wise use them practically. Studies do not teach their own use.

  2. Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works Summary and Analysis of The

    Bacon explains that revered figures from history remained unaffected by love and desire, which he describes as a "weak passion" that corrupts virtuous hearts (358). In "Of Truth," Bacon admits that truth is perplexing, evasive, and often unpalatable.

  3. Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works Summary

    Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works Summary Many of Francis Bacon 's works were based on learning: the mind's inherent faults hampering it, how we as people make mistakes in learning, and effective ways of gathering knowledge. All his works were linked to the critique, advancement, and improvement of knowledge and learning in some form.

  4. Essays (Francis Bacon)

    Essays (Francis Bacon) 1696 title page Essayes: Religious Meditations. Places of Perswasion and Disswasion. Seene and Allowed (1597) was the first published book by the philosopher, statesman and jurist Francis Bacon. The Essays are written in a wide range of styles, from the plain and unadorned to the epigrammatic.

  5. Francis Bacon: Essays

    Each essay that Bacon wrote reveals his knowledge of Latin and draws on ancient Roman wisdom through axioms and proverbs. Additionally, Bacon uses wit as a way of getting his point across to his audience and this indeed causes the reader to reflect on his or her own beliefs and values.

  6. Essays Analysis

    Essays by Francis Bacon is exactly that: a collection of essays that detail his ideas and musings on philosophy, morality, life, and much, much more. Francis Bacon's most prominent feature...

  7. Of Love by Francis Bacon Summary and Analysis

    Bacon discusses the men's nature and argues that men have a special inclination towards love for other. He makes his love universal by expanding it towards everyone, no matter such love gentle and kind and people who have some spiritual and religious belonging have this kind of love.

  8. Francis Bacon's Classic Essay of Studies

    Bacon's essay expresses several comments in Of Studies that can be interpreted as the following: Studying is helpful for better understanding and provides a knowledge that develops experience, as well as a character that grows. Reading provides delight and fun, ornament and showing off, and the ability for success.

  9. How can Francis Bacon's essay "Of Truth" be analyzed?

    Francis Bacon's essay "Of Truth" is one of the more famous of his works of prose. The essay begins by mocking those who refuse to admit that there is any certain, objective truth. Bacon ...

  10. Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works Summary and Analysis of The

    Buy Study Guide Francis Bacon: Essays and Major Works Summary and Analysis of The Essays, Part One (Civil) Summary Bacon divides his essays into two types: civil and moral. Notable civil essays include "Of Death," "Of Seditions and Troubles," "Of Friendship," "Of Praise," and "Of Beauty."

  11. Analysis of Francis Bacon's Prose Writing Style

    The finding of this paper through analyzing his three major essays ("Of Studies" Of Revenge" and "Of Marriage and Single Life) revealed, Bacon has used various features which can be termed as:...

  12. Of Truth by Francis Bacon Summary & Analysis

    With a profound observation of man's psychology, Bacon states that if deprived of false pride and vanities, the human mind would contract like a deflated balloon and these human beings would become poor, sad and ill. However, poetic untruth is not gone unnoticed by Bacon's piercing intellect.

  13. Of Studies

    Exercise - 2 Exercise-3 Francis Bacon's classic essay "Of Studies" explains how and why study—knowledge—is important. In this essay, he discusses some of the benefits of studying and offers some sound ideas on the subject. Bacon is regarded as the "Father of the English Essay". Bacon envisioned the essay as an opportunity to offer advice.

  14. Critical Analysis Of Francis Bacon Philosophy Essay

    Bacon was a really wise man. His "Essays" is a treasure of world philosophy. They teach us those permanent moral principles which everyone must know obligatory. The essay "Of Great Places" consists of variety of moral maxims yet in this essay he also teaches worldly success.

  15. A Compositionist Analysis of Sir Francis Bacon's Essay "Of Studies"

    Selected Essays for Francis Bacon. Lahore, Pakistan: New Kitab Mahal 08. Knowledge is Power: Francis Bacon and the Method of Science. London: Icon Books Landry. Henry, John. (2002). Knowledge is ...

  16. Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon

    Watch on Of Studies by Sir Francis Bacon | Complete Summary and Analysis Three Types of studies in the Eyes of Sir Francis Bacon: From the very beginning of the essay, Sir Francis Bacon divides studies into three categories; in fact, these three types are benefits of studies.

  17. Critical Analysis of Francis Bacon Essay Of Studies

    In this essay , Bacon states that of education and earning a knowledge. He aphoristically articulated that, "studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability." Bacon felt that some people gain knowledge for pure delight. People, who acquire knowledge for delight, do so because they enjoy it.

  18. Critical analysis of Bacon's essay ''Of Studies"

    Of Studies is the first essay of the first collection of ten essays of Francis Bacon published in 1597. The subject of this essay, as suggested in the. Offer for students: unlock all articles by joining us on Patreon for $3. ... Critical analysis of Bacon's essay "Of Studies" ...

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  20. Francis Bacon's Essay Of Studies—Summary and Critical Analysis

    Francis Bacon's Essay Of Studies—Summary and Critical Analysis Saurabh Gupta September 07, 2022 Introduction: The Renaissance influenced the people of Elizabethan Age so greatly that studies became an essential part of their daily life. In order to attain limitless knowledge so many of them began to adopt short - cut methods of reading books.

  21. Of Adversity by Francis Bacon Summary & Analysis

    Bacon, by arguing about this point, wants us to think about adversity in a positive way; human should master to deal bliss and misery equally. It is often seen that most of the miracle happens in the time of adversity. They happen so to completely neutralize the pain of the calamity. Bacon argues about the "faith" of a man.

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  28. Of Ambition by Francis Bacon Summary & Analysis

    Of Ambition Analysis Genre: ... Brevity, directness, wit, and to the point arguments are one of the qualities that Bacon's essay contain. The systematic way of writing makes bacon's essay to move from one point to another logically. Moreover, the subject matters he discusses in his writing style are all based on the real life and the reader ...