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The Articles of Confederation

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Would Benjamin Franklin’s structure of government have worked for the United States? Why or why not?

Compare and contrast these Articles of Confederation with those ratified by the Continental Congress several years later.

Identify some of the elements of Franklin’s Articles of Confederation that are radical for his time. Discuss what makes them so novel.

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First Amendment Exhibit Historic Graphic

New exhibit

The first amendment, historic document, articles of confederation (1781).

Continental Congress | 1781

Six sheets of parchment stitched together. The last sheet bears the signatures of delegates from all 13 states.

When the Constitutional Convention met in 1787, the United States already had a framework of national government—the Articles of Confederation.  The Constitutional Convention itself was—in many ways—a response to the weaknesses of this form of government.  Adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and ratified by the states in 1781, the Articles of Confederation created a weak central government—a “league of friendship”—that largely preserved state power (and independence).  The Articles created a national government centered on the legislative branch, which was comprised of a single house.  There was no separate executive branch or judicial branch.  The delegates in Congress voted by state—with each state receiving one vote, regardless of its population.  The national government did not have the power to tax, to regulate commerce between the states, or to force the states to provide troops or send the government money.  And any proposed amendment to the Articles required unanimous approval from all thirteen states.  As a result, no amendment was ever ratified.  The delegates to the Constitutional Convention eventually framed a new Constitution designed to address many of these flaws.

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The National Constitution Center

Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America in Congress assembled did on the fifteenth day of November in the year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Independence of America agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the States of Newhampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhodeisland and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia . . . .

Article I.  The Stile of this confederacy shall be, “The United States of America.”

Article II.  Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.

Article III.  The said states hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defence, the security of their Liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. . . .

Article V.  For the more convenient management of the general interests of the united states, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each state to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the Year.

No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person shall be capable of being delegate for more than three years, in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind.

Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the states, and while they act as members of the committee of the states.

In determining questions in the united states, in Congress assembled, each state shall have one vote. . . .

Article IX. The united states, in congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, . . . - of sending and receiving ambassadors - entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made, whereby the legislative power of the respective states shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever . . . .

The united states, in congress assembled, shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective states - fixing the standard of weights and measures throughout the united states - regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the states; provided that the legislative right of any state, within its own limits, be not infringed or violated - establishing and regulating post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the united states, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same, as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office - appointing all officers of the land forces in the service of the united States, excepting regimental officers - appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the united states; making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations.

The united States, in congress assembled, shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of congress, to be denominated, “A Committee of the States,” and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the united states under their direction - to appoint one of their number to preside; provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the united states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses; to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half year to the respective states an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted, -  to build and equip a navy - to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each state for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such state . . . .

The united states, in congress assembled, shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defence and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the united states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine states assent to the same, nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day, be determined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united states in congress assembled. . . .

Article XIII. Every State shall abide by the determinations of the united states, in congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this confederation shall be inviolably observed by every state, and the union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them, unless such alteration be agreed to in a congress of the united states, and be afterwards con-firmed by the legislatures of every state.

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Articles of Confederation

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 15, 2023 | Original: October 27, 2009

HISTORY: The Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first written constitution of the United States. Written in 1777 and stemming from wartime urgency, its progress was slowed by fears of central authority and extensive land claims by states. It was not ratified until March 1, 1781. 

Under these articles, the states remained sovereign and independent, with Congress serving as the last resort on appeal of disputes. Significantly, The Articles of Confederation named the new nation “The United States of America.”

Congress was given the authority to make treaties and alliances, maintain armed forces and coin money. However, the central government lacked the ability to levy taxes and regulate commerce, issues that led to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 for the creation of new federal laws under The United States Constitution.

From the beginning of the American Revolution , Congress felt the need for a stronger union and a government powerful enough to defeat Great Britain. During the early years of the war this desire became a belief that the new nation must have a constitutional order appropriate to its republican character. 

A fear of central authority inhibited the creation of such a government, and widely shared political theory held that a republic could not adequately serve a large nation such as the United States. The legislators of a large republic would be unable to remain in touch with the people they represented, and the republic would inevitably degenerate into a tyranny.

To many Americans, their union seemed to be simply a league of confederated states, and their Congress a diplomatic assemblage representing 13 independent polities. The impetus for an effective central government lay in wartime urgency, the need for foreign recognition and aid and the growth of national feeling.

Who Wrote the Articles of Confederation?

Altogether, six drafts of the Articles were prepared before Congress settled on a final version in 1777. Benjamin Franklin wrote the first and presented it to Congress in July 1775. It was never formally considered. Later in the year Silas Deane, a delegate from Connecticut, offered one of his own, which was followed still later by a draft from the Connecticut delegation, probably a revision of Deane’s.

None of these drafts contributed significantly to the fourth version written by John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, the text that after much revision provided the basis for the Articles approved by Congress. Dickinson prepared his draft in June 1776; it was revised by a committee of Congress and discussed in late July and August. The result, the third version of Dickinson’s original, was printed to enable Congress to consider it further. In November 1777 the final Articles, much altered by this long deliberative process, were approved for submission to the states.

Ratification of the Articles of Confederation 

By 1779 all the states had approved the Articles of Confederation except Maryland, but the prospects for acceptance looked bleak because claims to western lands by other states set Maryland in inflexible opposition. Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Connecticut and Massachusetts claimed by their charters to extend to the “South Sea” or the Mississippi River. 

The charters of Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware and Rhode Island confined those states to a few hundred miles of the Atlantic. Land speculators in Maryland and these other “landless states” insisted that the West belonged to the United States, and they urged Congress to honor their claims to western lands. Maryland also supported the demands because nearby Virginia would clearly dominate its neighbor should its claims be accepted. 

Eventually Thomas Jefferson persuaded his state to yield its claims to the West, provided that the speculators’ demands were rejected and the West was divided into new states, which would be admitted into the Union on the basis of equality with the old. Virginia’s action persuaded Maryland to ratify the Articles, which went into effect on March 1, 1781.

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

The weakness of the Articles of Confederation was that Congress was not strong enough to enforce laws or raise taxes, making it difficult for the new nation to repay their debts from the Revolutionary War. There was no executive and no judiciary, two of the three branches of government we have today to act as a system of checks and balances. Additionally, there were several issues between states that were not settled with ratification: A disagreement over the appointment of taxes forecast the division over slavery in the Constitutional Convention. 

Dickinson’s draft required the states to provide money to Congress in proportion to the number of their inhabitants, black and white, except Indians not paying taxes. With large numbers of slaves, the southern states opposed this requirement, arguing that taxes should be based on the number of white inhabitants. This failed to pass, but eventually the southerners had their way as Congress decided that each state’s contribution should rest on the value of its lands and improvements. In the middle of the war, Congress had little time and less desire to take action on such matters as the slave trade and fugitive slaves, both issues receiving much attention in the Constitutional Convention.

Article III described the confederation as “a firm league of friendship” of states “for their common defense, the security of their liberties and their mutual and general welfare.” This league would have a unicameral congress as the central institution of government; as in the past, each state had one vote, and delegates were elected by state legislatures. Under the Articles, each state retained its “sovereignty, freedom and independence.” The old weakness of the First and Second Continental Congresses remained: the new Congress could not levy taxes, nor could it regulate commerce. Its revenue would come from the states, each contributing according to the value of privately owned land within its borders.

But Congress would exercise considerable powers: it was given jurisdiction over foreign relations with the authority to make treaties and alliances; it could make war and peace, maintain an army and navy, coin money, establish a postal service and manage Indian affairs; it could establish admiralty courts and it would serve as the last resort on appeal of disputes between the states. Decisions on certain specified matters–making war, entering treaties, regulating coinage, for example–required the assent of nine states in Congress, and all others required a majority.

Although the states remained sovereign and independent, no state was to impose restrictions on the trade or the movement of citizens of another state not imposed on its own. The Articles also required each state to extend “full faith and credit” to the judicial proceedings of the others. And the free inhabitants of each state were to enjoy the “privileges and immunities of free citizens” of the others. Movement across state lines was not to be restricted.

To amend the Articles, the legislatures of all thirteen states would have to agree. This provision, like many in the Articles, indicated that powerful provincial loyalties and suspicions of central authority persisted. In the 1780s–the so-called Critical Period–state actions powerfully affected politics and economic life. 

For the most part, business prospered and the economy grew. Expansion into the West proceeded and population increased. National problems persisted, however, as American merchants were barred from the British West Indies and the British army continued to hold posts in the Old Northwest, which was named American territory under the Treaty of Paris . 

These circumstances contributed to a sense that constitutional revision was imperative. Still, national feeling grew slowly in the 1780s, although major efforts to amend the Articles in order to give Congress the power to tax failed in 1781 and 1786. The year after the failure of 1786, the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia and effectively closed the history of government under the Articles of Confederation.

The Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation Text

To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting.

Whereas the Delegates of the United States of America in Congress assembled did on the fifteenth day of November in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy seven, and in the Second Year of the Independence of America, agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, in the words following, viz:

Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

Thirteen Articles:

The Stile of this confederacy shall be "The United States of America."

Article II.

Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.

Article III.

The said states hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defence, the security of their Liberties and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever.

Article IV.

The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different states in this union, the free inhabitants of each of these states, paupers, vagabonds and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several states; and the people of each state shall have free ingress and regress to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties impositions and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restriction shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any state, to any other state, of which the Owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any state, on the property of the united states, or either of them. If any Person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony, — or other high misdemeanor in any state, shall flee from Justice, and be found in any of the united states, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power, of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the state having jurisdiction of his offense. Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these states to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other state.

For the more convenient management of the general interests of the united states, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature of each state shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each state, to recal its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead, for the remainder of the Year.

No state shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor by more than seven Members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the united states, for which he, or another for his benefit receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind.

Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the states, and while they act as members of the committee of the states. In determining questions in the united states in Congress assembled, each state shall have one vote.

Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any Court, or place out of Congress, and the members of congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendance on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace.

Article VI.

No state, without the Consent of the united states in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference agreement, alliance or treaty with any King prince or state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the united states, or any of them, accept of any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever from any king, prince or foreign state; nor shall the united states in congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility.

No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, confederation or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the united states in congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue.

No state shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the united states in congress assembled, with any king, prince or state, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by congress, to the courts of France and Spain.

No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any state, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the united states in congress assembled, for the defence of such state, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any state, in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judgment of the united states, in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defence of such state; but every state shall always keep up a well regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of field pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage. No state shall engage in any war without the consent of the united states in congress assembled, unless such state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such state, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the united states in congress assembled can be consulted: nor shall any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the united states in congress assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the united states in congress assembled, unless such state be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the united states in congress assembled, shall determine otherwise.

Article VII.

When land-forces are raised by any state for the common defence, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each state respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such state shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment.

Article VIII.

All charges of war, and all other expences that shall be incurred for the common defence or general welfare, and allowed by the united states in congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several states in proportion to the value of all land within each state, granted to or surveyed for any Person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the united states in congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint.

The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several states within the time agreed upon by the united states in congress assembled.

Article IX.

The united states in congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article — of sending and receiving ambassadors — entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective states shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities, whatsoever — of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the united states shall be divided or appropriated — of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace — appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts.

The united states in congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more states concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other cause whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any state in controversy with another shall present a petition to congress stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other state in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree, congress shall name three persons out of each of the united states, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as congress shall direct, shall in the presence of congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination: and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each state, and the secretary of congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgment and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress, and lodged among the acts of congress for the security of the parties concerned: provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the state, where the cause shall be tried, "well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgment, without favour, affection or hope of reward:" provided also, that no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the united states.

All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more states, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the states which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the congress of the united states, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different states.

The united states in congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective states — fixing the standard of weights and measures throughout the united states — regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the states, provided that the legislative right of any state within its own limits be not infringed or violated — establishing or regulating post offices from one state to another, throughout all the united states, and exacting such postage on the papers passing thro' the same as may be requisite to defray the expences of the said office — appointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the united states, excepting regimental officers — appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the united states — making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations.

The united states in congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of congress, to be denominated "A Committee of the States," and to consist of one delegate from each state; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the united states under their direction — to appoint one of their number to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the united states, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expences to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the united states, transmitting every half year to the respective states an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted, — to build and equip a navy — to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each state for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such state; which requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloth, arm and equip them in a soldier like manner, at the expence of the united states; and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and quipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united states in congress assembled: But if the united states in congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any state should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number than its quota, and that any other state should raise a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such state, unless the legislature of such sta te shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the same, in which case they shall raise officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the united states in congress assembled.

The united states in congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expences necessary for the defence and welfare of the united states, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the united states, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine states assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of a majority of the united states in congress assembled.

The congress of the united states shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the united states, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six Months, and shall publish the Journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances or military operations, as in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each state on any question shall be entered on the Journal, when it is desired by any delegate; and the delegates of a state, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said Journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several states.

The committee of the states, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of congress, such of the powers of congress as the united states in congress assembled, by the consent of nine states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said committee, for the exercise of which, by the articles of confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress of the united states assembled is requisite.

Article XI.

Canada acceding to this confederation, and joining in the measures of the united states, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this union: but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states.

Article XII.

All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed and debts contracted by, or under the authority of congress, before the assembling of the united states, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the united states, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said united states, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged.

Article XIII.

Every state shall abide by the determinations of the united states in congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this confederation shall be inviolably observed by every state, and the union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a congress of the united states, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every state.

Conclusion:

And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation and perpetual union. Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that pur pose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said articles of confederation and perpetual union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained: And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the united states in congress assembled, on all questions, which by the said confederation are submitted to them. And that the articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the states we respectively represent, and that the union shall be perpetual.

In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the state of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord one Thousand seven Hundred and Seventy-eight, and in the third year of the independence of America.

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Lesson 1: The Road to the Constitutional Convention

Signing of Constitution, by Howard C. Christy

Howard Chandler Christy's painting of the signing of the United States Constitution.

Architect of the Capitol

In February of 1787, Congress authorized a convention, to be held in Philadelphia in May of that year, for the purpose of recommending changes to the Articles of Confederation. In what has come to be known as the Constitutional Convention of 1787, all of the states—with the exception of Rhode Island—sent delegates to debate how to amend the Articles of Confederation in order to alleviate several problems experienced by the United States after the War for Independence. Although the Convention eventually decided to scrap the Articles altogether, and recommend instead the adoption of an entirely new plan of government, all of the delegates were initially united by one belief—that something must be done in order to correct the "errors" of the American political system in the 1780s.

This lesson will focus on the various problems under the Articles of Confederation between 1783 and 1786 that led to the call for the 1787 Convention. By examining documents of Congress, the state governments, and prominent American founders—both public and private—students will better understand why many Americans agreed that the Articles should be revised and amended. Students will also see why some prominent American founders, more than others, believed that the United States faced a serious crisis, and that drastic changes, rather than minor amendments, to the Articles were necessary.

Guiding Questions

Was the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, called for by Congress to recommend amendments to the Articles of Confederation, necessary to preserve the Union?

Learning Objectives

Identify the steps taken by Americans to bring about the 1787 Convention by placing key events in historical order in a timeline.

Discuss actions by several state governments that violated the Articles of Confederation and acts of Congress.

Identify the powers of Congress under the Articles of Confederation, and explain why those powers were insufficient to ensure the prosperity and security of the United States.

Articulate the views of several American founders about the problems of the American political system in the 1780s.

Lesson Plan Details

The 1780s promised to be a time of peace and prosperity for the United States. Having declared and won their independence from Great Britain, Americans enjoyed the freedom to establish for themselves state governments based on the principles of liberty, consent of the governed, and protection of natural rights. Most state constitutions included declarations of these principles, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 and the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780 . The thirteen states had also entered "into a firm league of friendship with each other" under the Articles of Confederation, adopted in 1781, in order to promote "their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare." The Articles of Confederation established a Congress charged with the "management of the general interests of the United States." Americans, therefore, had established for themselves state governments to provide for the safety and happiness of their own citizens, and a national government to take care of the general interests of all the states. Such were the promising circumstances in which American citizens found themselves during the early 1780s.

By 1786 it had become apparent to many Americans that all was not well. There were three general problems that contributed to the "melancholy situation" (as Alexander Hamilton called it in The Federalist No. 15 ) of the 1780s: first, problems within the states themselves; second, violations of the Articles of Confederation and of national treaties by the states; and third, the lack of powers on the part of Congress to get states to comply with the Articles and acts of national legislation. Within the states, the governments often acted in ways contrary to the ideal of good government as held forth in the state declarations of rights. The state governments also seemed incapable of dealing with the problem of majority factions. State governments flagrantly violated national treaties, ignored requisitions for funds passed by Congress, and continued to exercise powers prohibited by the Articles of Confederation. But arguably the most pressing problem was that the states frequently disregarded Congressional requisitions for funds to pay for national defense.

Many Americans came to believe that the problems of the 1780s arose largely from defects in the Articles of Confederation, which had given Congress too little power and therefore made it incapable of dealing effectively with national problems, and of keeping the state governments in compliance. In August of 1786, some members of Congress made an attempt to remedy these problems by proposing amendments to the Articles of Confederation, but the attempt failed because of division among Congressional delegates.

A discussion of these defects of the Articles took place among delegates from five states - Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New York - at Annapolis, Maryland in September of 1786. The delegates to the Annapolis Convention issued a report to their respective states, noting that "there are important defects in the system of the Federal Government," and recommending that Congress authorize a convention in the following May for the purpose of addressing these defects. On February 21, 1787, Congress passed a resolution authorizing "a Convention of delegates who shall have been appointed by the several states be held at Philadelphia for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and provisions therein as shall…render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government & the preservation of the Union." Even as the states began to commission delegates to the Philadelphia Convention, however, different opinions formed about what the delegates should try to accomplish there. All of the delegates agreed that the Articles of Confederation should be amended, but many disagreed over how drastic the changes should be. The differences between the two groups over the purpose of the Convention would eventually lead to deadlock during the first two months of the Convention.

For more background information on the road to the 1787 Convention, see " Introduction to the Constitutional Convention " at TeachingAmericanHistory.org . This website also provides a very good overview of how the states selected their delegates, and detailed accounts of the views and personal background of each of the delegates. The Founding Documents  section of the National Archives website also offers an account of the events leading to the 1787 Convention, and it includes a page of questions and answers pertaining to the Constitutional Convention. Digital History also provides a series of background pages on what is known as " The Critical Period " from 1783-1787, including Shays' Rebellion, the Newburgh Conspiracy, and the difficulties with getting the states to comply with Congressional requisitions for funds.

Review the lesson plan. Locate and bookmark suggested materials and links from EDSITEment reviewed websites used in this lesson. Download and print out selected documents and duplicate copies as necessary for student viewing. Alternatively, excerpted versions of these documents are available as part of the PDF Document for each activity. Download the Documents for this lesson, available here as three PDFs:

  • Activity 1. The Problem of Congress' Lack of Authority

Activity 2. The Problems with the Articles of Confederation

Activity 3. the road to the 1787 convention.

  • Supplemental Activity: Problems within the States, 1783-1787

These files contains excerpted versions of the documents used in the first and second activities, as well as questions for students to answer. Print out and make an appropriate number of copies of the handouts you plan to use in class.

Analyzing primary sources

If your students lack experience in dealing with primary sources, you might use one or more preliminary exercises to help them develop these skills. The Learning Page at the American Memory Project of the Library of Congress includes a set of such activities. Another useful resource is the Educator Resources section of the National Archives website, which features a set of Document Analysis Worksheets . Finally, History Matters offers pages on " Making Sense of Maps " and " Making Sense of Oral History " which give helpful advice to teachers in getting their students to use such sources effectively.

Activity 1. The problem of Congress' lack of authority

Time required for the activity: In class reading and writing assignment and one 45 minute class period for presentations.

Preparing for the activity

Print copies (or provide links) for students of the documents assigned as homework (listed below, included in the Text Document for Activity One ).

Optional: Print the Graphic Organizer (included in Page 9 of the Text Document for Activity One ) and give a copy to each student (only if you will not go on to activity 2 of this lesson).

The purpose of this activity is to introduce students to the problems that resulted from the defects of the Articles of Confederation. Because the states had jealously surrendered very limited powers to the national government under the Articles, Congress had no means of compelling states to comply with requests for funds or preventing them from violating the Articles of Confederation. As a result, Congress was incapable of fulfilling its responsibilities. Those responsibilities included:

  • Raising funds from the states to defray the costs of defense and the war against Great Britain
  • Managing foreign relations for all of the states, including making treaties and alliances with foreign nations
  • Paying both domestic and foreign debts incurred by the United States

Congress' inability to fulfill these responsibilities placed the United States in a precarious situation that threatened the security and stability of the Union. The need to remedy these dangers led many Americans to call for a Convention to amend the Articles of Confederation.

On the day of the activity:

Divide the class into 7 groups, and assign each group one of the following documents, available at the EDSITEment-reviewed Avalon Project at Yale Law School , The Papers of George Washington , and Teaching American History . Excerpts are included on pages 1-7 of the Text Document for Activity One

  • The Federalist No. 15 (third and fourth paragraphs only) (page 1 of the Text Document)
  • Robert Morris to the President of Congress , March 17, 1783 (page 2)
  • Gouverneur Morris to John Jay , January 1, 1783 (page 3)
  • George Washington to James Warren , October 7, 1785 (page 4)
  • Rufus King to Elbridge Gerry , April 30, 1786 (page 5)
  • George Washington to John Jay , August 15, 1786 (page 6)
  • John Jay to Thomas Jefferson , October 27, 1786 (page 7)

Each group should analyze their document (approximately 10 minutes) and answer the assigned discussion questions for their reading (Discussion Questions can be found on page 8 of the text Document for Activity One ). They should especially be able to identify the specific problem(s) under the Articles of Confederation discussed by the author. Each group should then provide a short presentation (about 2-3 minutes each) to the class on their assigned document.

Teachers: If you do not intend to continue with activity 2 of this lesson, you can extend this activity by having students record information from the in-class presentations by filling out the Graphic Organizer (included on page 9 of the Text Document for Activity One). Have them write an essay for homework on "The problem of Congress' lack of authority," using their notes from their Graphic Organizer and the in-class presentations.

Time required for activity: In class reading assignment with questions and two 45 minute class periods. Preparing for the activity: Print copies (or provide links) for students of the assigned documents and questions (listed below, included on pages 1-4 of the Text Document for Activity Two ).

Print a copy of the List of Possible Resolutions for debate, located on pages 5-7 of the Text Document for Activity Two . These will be for the teacher's use only.

Print the State ID name placards provided on pages 8-14 of the Text Document for Activity Two .

Print the "State Delegate" cards provided on pages 14-16 of the Text Document for Activity Two (be sure to print enough for all the students in your class).

The purpose of this activity is to show students how the structure of Congress under the Articles of Confederation prevented it from fulfilling its responsibilities. Congress was comprised of one house, and each state had one vote on all matters. The legislatures of each state selected their delegates to Congress, and had the power to recall them at any time. Furthermore, nine of thirteen states had to agree to any Congressional request for funds from the states. In this activity students will see that because the state delegations were inclined to represent the interests of their own state, rather than what was necessary for the good of the whole Union, congressional debates frequently became deadlocked. Even if Congress was actually able to muster nine votes in favor of a requisition, it still had to rely on the good will of the states for compliance. This system of government, Madison lamented in his Vices of the Political System of the United States, was wholly unworkable, and had to be revised for the future safety and happiness of American citizens.

On the first day of the activity:

Divide the students into 7 groups and have them read the Articles of Confederation , available at the EDSITEment reviewed Avalon Project at Yale University . Excerpts are available on pages 10-11 of the Text Document. Assign one discussion question (included on pages 3-4 of the Text Document for Activity Two ) to each group. After approximately 15 minutes of reading and group discussion, have each group present its answer to the entire class.

During the remaining class time, distribute the State ID name placards and "State Delegate" cards, and explain the role playing activity that will take place on the following day. In this role playing activity, students will be delegates from the states to Congress. Divide students into at least 7 groups. It is not necessary to have the same number of students in each group - there should be at least 2 and no more than 7 in each group, however. Each group will represent a delegation from a particular state, as indicated on their "State Delegate" card. Each student should be given a "State Delegate" card, which indicates which state he or she represents, something about the state, and the particular interests the delegate represents. Also, give each state delegation their state ID name placard so that the other students know who they are representing.

On the second day of the activity:

Students should group together with other delegates from their respective states. A presiding officer for the Congress should be selected through nomination and vote—each state group having only one vote. Then the presiding officer should announce the resolution for debate (as selected by the teacher from the list provided on pages 5-7 of the Text Document for Activity Two ). Each state should meet for 5 minutes to discuss and prepare a short speech (1 minute) in support of or against the resolution. This speech should include reasons why other states ought to support or oppose the resolution. The presiding officer should oversee these deliberations. After this debate has concluded, the presiding officer will call for a vote. These basic concepts should be kept in mind:

  • Each state delegation casts one vote, determined by the majority within each group.
  • If the majority of delegates from a state do not agree with a resolution, they may attempt to block passage by "requesting" a letter from their state legislature recalling them all back to their state. In this case they do not get to vote on the resolution, but two-thirds of the state delegations—whether they are "present" or not - must still approve the resolution in order for it to pass.
  • 5 of 7 states (or two-thirds, if more than 7 states are in play) must agree in order to pass a resolution to make a treaty, raise money, or borrow money. 4 of 7 states (or a simple majority, if more than 7 states are in play) must agree for all other resolutions.
  • Land Value (as indicated on State Delegate Cards).
  • Population (as indicated on State Delegate Cards)
  • Annual State Wealth (as indicated on State Delegate Cards)
  • For resolutions that tax or otherwise affect imported or exported goods, students should be aware of the Import/Export ratio listed on their state delegate card. The first number represents imports, the second number represents exports. Those states with a lower first number export many more goods than they import. For example, a state with an Import/Export ratio of 1:10 exports ten times as many goods than it imports. Those states with a higher first number rely more on imported goods than those with a lower first number. For example, a state with an Import/Export ratio of 10:10 imports the same amount of goods as it exports.

Further resolutions can be introduced and debated at the teacher's discretion, depending on time.

After the final vote on each resolution, the teacher should read the consequences of the vote (included in the List of Possible Resolutions for Debate on pages 5-7 of the Text Document for Activity Two ). For example, if the resolution was to raise money to pay the army, and the resolution passed, Rhode Island might refuse to pay; if it doesn't pass, there might be a mutiny among the army.

This activity can be extended with a written assignment in which students should analyze why the voting outcomes occurred as they did. What arguments were effective? Which states joined to support or to oppose? What could have been done or said to alter the outcome? Students might also write about how difficult it was to get a resolution passed by Congress under the Articles of Confederation.

Time required for the activity: If research is done for homework, one 50 minute class period for presentations.

Preparing for the activity:

Print copies (or provide links) for students of the assigned documents (listed below, included on pages 1–14 of the Text Document for Activity Three ).

The teacher should create a basic timeline on a classroom wall spanning 1780 to 1789 (approximately 90" x 16"). Distribute one 5" x 7" piece of cardstock to each group of students (9 groups total).

The purpose of this activity is to allow students to develop an understanding of the events that led to the 1787 Convention in Philadelphia. Students should gain an appreciation for the "melancholy situation," as Alexander Hamilton would later call it in The Federalist No. 15 , in which Americans found themselves under the Articles of Confederation. Students should also see how long it took — and why it took several years — to actually organize a convention to remedy the defects of the Articles of Confederation.

On the day before the activity:

Assign one of the following topics/documents to groups of 2–3 students (Teachers: these documents can be used to supplement information found in the textbook you are using for class). Each document represents a significant step leading up to the 1787 Convention. The documents are available at the EDSITEment-reviewed Avalon Project at Yale University , Teaching American History , and American Memory websites.

  • Spain closes navigation of the Mississippi River to American ships (pages 738–39 only) Page 1 of the Text Document
  • Unpaid Soldiers and the Newburgh Conspiracy Page 2
  • Lack of U.S. Naval Strength to promote and protect commerce Page 3
  • Congress is unable to raise revenue and repay Revolutionary War debts Pages 4–5
  • Massachusetts farmers take up arms in Shays' Rebellion Page 6
  • Continental Congress proposes amendments to the Articles of Confederation, but cannot muster enough votes among the states to pass them Pages 7–8
  • Annapolis Convention in 1786 recommends revising the Articles of Confederation Pages 9–10
  • Congress calls for a Convention in Philadelphia in May of 1787 to amend the Articles of Confederation Pages 11–12
  • Philadelphia Convention begins in 1787 Pages 13–14

Students should meet in groups (10–15 minutes) to discuss their assigned document, and prepare their timeline card. Then each group should make a short presentation (2–4 minutes each) on the main points of their research and assigned document. Prior to the presentations, the teacher will create a basic timeline on a classroom wall spanning 1780 to 1789. Each student group should list the important points of their presentation on a 5" x 7" piece of cardstock. These cards should also contain the topics and dates. As students complete the classroom presentation, one member places their card on the timeline at the appropriate place.

Alternate Activity: Teachers may give each student an individual timeline which spans 1780 to 1789. There should be enough space between the years for students to add topics and short descriptions as groups give the presentations.

After completing this lesson, students should be able to write brief (1-2 paragraph) essays answering the following questions:

  • What were the major problems or events that eventually led to the call for a 1787 Convention in Philadelphia to amend the Articles of Confederation?
  • What were the views of some prominent American founders about the problems of the Union under the Articles of Confederation?
  • What were the main problems within the states between 1776 and 1787 that caused them to act contrary to the principles of the American Revolution?
  • What were the powers and responsibilities of Congress under the Articles of Confederation? How were delegates selected for Congress under the Articles of Confederation, and how were resolutions voted on and passed?
  • Why was it so difficult to pass resolutions in Congress under the Articles of Confederation?
  • What were the defects of the Articles of Confederation that prevented Congress from fulfilling its responsibilities? Why, for example, was it so difficult for Congress to raise funds?

Students should also be able to debate the need for a new form of government to replace the Articles of Confederation, and write a longer (1-2 pages) essay answering the following question: Do you think there was any point between 1780 and 1789 that the outcome (that is, doing away with the Articles) could have been avoided? At what point might this have occurred, and what changes would have been needed to alter the outcome?

An alternative method of assessment might be to divide the class into small groups, and have each one develop a thesis statement that encompasses all the various elements of this lesson. They should be given roughly 15 minutes to do this. Once they have done so, each group should write its thesis statement on the board, and as a class discuss which is the best, and why. The entire class could then be given a homework assignment to write an essay that defends the statement.

Students should be able to identify and explain the significance of the following:

  • The Newburgh Conspiracy
  • Spain and navigation on the Mississippi River
  • Articles of Confederation
  • Shays' Rebellion
  • Annapolis Convention, 1786
  • Philadelphia Convention, 1787
  • Congress' inability to pay Revolutionary War debts

PBS' " Liberty! " website has suggested activities on " Creating a New Nation ," including the problems under the Articles of Confederation after the War for Independence.

Teachers can also extend this lesson by engaging in the following supplemental activity:

Supplemental Activity: Problems within the states, 1783-1787

Time required for activity: Homework reading assignment with questions and two 45 minute class periods.

Print copies (or provide links) for students of the assigned documents and questions (listed below, included on pages 1-5 of the Text Document for the Supplemental Activity ).

Print and read the list of possible bills (for teacher use only), available on page 6 of the Text Document for the Supplemental Activity .

Print the interest/role cards, located on pages 7-14 of the Text Document for the Supplemental Activity . Make sure that you have one card for every student in your class.

The purpose of the activity is to show how many state legislatures, after 1776, began to violate their own constitutions, which declared the rights of their citizens and established governments meant to secure those rights. As James Madison documented in his Vices of the Political System of the United States, written in April of 1787, several state legislatures passed unjust laws, and were often incapable of protecting their citizens against internal violence or rebellions. The unforeseen problem within the states was that in societies based on consent and majority rule, it is possible for the majority to pass laws that are harmful to the natural rights of the minority. In this activity, students should recognize how easy it is for dangerous factions to form in a state legislature and for laws to be passed that violate the rights of the minority. This activity will illustrate one major problem that led Americans in the 1780s to call for revisions to the Articles of Confederation by increasing the authority of Congress and limiting the powers of the individual states.

Divide the class into smaller groups, and have students read the following documents, available at the EDSITEment reviewed National Archives Experience , Avalon Project at Yale University and Teaching American History . Excerpts are available on pages 1-3 of the Text Document for the Supplemental Activity .

  • Declaration of Independence , 1776 (first two paragraphs only)
  • Virginia Declaration of Rights , 1776
  • Massachusetts Constitution , Preamble, 1780

Have each group work together to write a one-paragraph answer to each of the following questions (these are also listed on the Analysis Sheet found on pages 4-5 of the Text Document for the Supplemental Activity )

  • What is the purpose of each document?
  • What are the main principles put forth in each document?
  • What are the rights listed in each of the documents?

Have each group present their answers to the class.

For homework that night, have each student write a one-paragraph answer to each of the following questions (these are also listed on the Analysis Sheet on pages 4-5 of the Text Document for the Supplemental Activity ):

  • Why is electing representatives necessary?
  • What are some of the responsibilities of government?
  • Why did the citizens create their governments?
  • What are some things governments should not do?
  • What might happen if government fails to keep rights secure?
  • How do these documents promote the idea of self-government?

Randomly distribute one interest/role card to each student, and have them study the information on their card that night (the cards can be printed from the Text Document for the Supplemental Activity ). These cards provide the student with background information on the interests he or she will represent in the role playing activity on the following day. The teacher should also tell the students about the proposed bill they will debate on the following day, and have them draft some comments on why they might support or oppose the bill. Teachers may also take the opportunity, if time permits, to explain the rules of the role play activity in advance.

Before engaging in the role play activity, the teacher should review the homework assignment questions from the previous night with the class.

The activity involves role playing, in which students portray delegates to a state legislature (either Virginia or Massachusetts, at the teacher's discretion), in which they will represent different interests within their state. The immediate purpose of the activity is to have students try to pass a bill that agrees with their group's interests; but the larger purpose is to show them how easy it is for factions to form in legislatures, and also how easy it is to pass a law that violates the rights of the minority.

As presiding officer in the state legislature, the teacher introduces one of the bills included in the Teacher Resources file. The teacher should then open the floor for discussion of the proposed bill for up to 10 minutes. Students should have no more than 30 seconds at a time to make comments on the proposed bill. When recognized to speak, each student should state his or her interest as it is listed on the role card. The goal is to get students to think about whether the bill seems to coincide with the interest they have been given on their role playing card.

After 10 minutes of open discussion, the legislature should adjourn for 10 minutes. During this period, students should form into groups to discuss the pros and cons of the proposed bill. Based on comments during the open floor discussion, students will form into two groups: those in favor of the bill will form into a group, those against in another group. Each group should work together to compile a list of arguments as to why they are for or against the bill. They will select one of their members to present their arguments to the class.

Upon resuming the legislative session, the presiding officer (teacher) should call for the representative of each group to make a short (2 minute max each) presentation of their arguments for or against the bill. After the presentations, the teacher might remind students that they can change their minds about whether they are for or against the resolution at any time. A vote should be taken, and the result announced by the teacher. Students should then be separated into groups representing each interest, at which time they should declare whether they will abide by the law or not, and what course of action they will take (perhaps some will comply, others will protest, and others might take more drastic measures). The teacher should then explain how either a majority or minority (or both) faction has formed.

Teachers have the option of extending the activity by introducing further resolutions and continuing the role play activity on additional days. Teachers may also assign for homework a one to two page essay on the following questions: How do factions develop legislatures and why they are dangerous in a representative democracy (Teachers: if you are going to move on to Activity 2 on the following day, be aware that you will need to assign the readings for the next exercise as well).

Materials & Media

Road to convention: worksheet 1, road to convention: worksheet 2, road to convention: worksheet 3, road to convention: worksheet 4, related on edsitement, lesson 2: the question of representation at the 1787 convention, lesson 3: creating the office of the presidency.

American History Central

The Articles of Confederation — America’s First Constitution

March 1, 1781–1789

The Articles of Confederation was America's first constitution. It was in effect from March 1, 1781, to March 4, 1789, when it was replaced by the United States Constitution.

John Dickinson, Illustration

John Dickinson, a delegate from Delaware, was the principal author of the draft of the Articles of Confederation. Image Source: New York Public Library Digital Collections .

Articles of Confederation Summary

As the delegates to the Second Continental Congress were drafting the Declaration of Independence , they were also developing a plan for unifying the 13 Colonies to defeat Great Britain. In the summer of 1776, a committee composed of one delegate from each colony drafted the Articles of Confederation — America’s first constitution. Although the document created a weak central government compared to the federal government established by the current Constitution, the Articles successfully created a “firm league of friendship” that guided the new nation through its early years.

Articles of Confederation Dates

  • On June 11, 1776, the Second Continental Congress appointed a committee, composed of one representative from each colony, to draft a document forming a confederation of the 13 colonies.
  • The Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress on November 15, 1777.
  • The Articles went into effect when they were ratified by the 13th and final state (Maryland) on March 1, 1781.
  • In May 1787, following events such as Shays’ Rebellion, a convention was held in Philadelphia to revise the Articles. However, the convention resulted in the United States Constitution.
  • The Articles were replaced by the Constitution on March 4, 1789.

Facts About the Articles of Confederation

  • John Dickinson, a delegate from Delaware, was the principal writer of the draft document.
  • As adopted, the articles contained a preamble and 13 articles.
  • The Articles established a Confederation Congress with each state having one vote.
  • Measures passed by Congress had to be approved by 9 of the 13 states.
  • It did not establish federal executive or judicial branches of government.
  • Each state retained “every Power…which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States.”
  • Provided Congress with the powers to conduct foreign affairs, declare war or peace, maintain an army and navy, print money, resolve disputes between states, and a variety of other lesser functions.
  • Denied Congress the power to collect taxes, regulate interstate commerce, and enforce laws.
  • All 13 states had to agree to any amendment of the federal government’s power.

Articles of Confederation — A Brief History of America’s First Constitution

The Articles of Confederation outlined the functions of the first national government of the United States, after gaining independence from Great Britain. The Articles created a limited central government that, to a certain extent, restricted individual states from conducting their own foreign diplomacy.

Albany Plan of Union

Just before the outbreak of the French and Indian War, the Albany Plan of Union was developed It was the first attempt to unite the colonies from New England to South Carolina. However, the plan was rejected for various reasons, including concerns the individual colonies had about granting authority to a central colonial government. 

However, as the American Revolution progressed and became the American Revolutionary War, many leaders recognized the benefits of a centralized government to coordinate the war effort. 

Benjamin Franklin, Portrait, Duplessis

New York’s Plan of Unification

In June 1775, the First New York Provincial Congress submitted a proposal for a united government to the Continental Congress. Like the Albany Plan, New York’s “Plan of Accommodation between Great Britain and America” acknowledged the authority of the British Crown, which was unpopular with the faction of Congress that leaned toward independence. 

Benjamin Franklin’s Articles of Confederation

Outside of the proceedings of Congress, some delegates explored the idea of a permanent union between the colonies, other than the temporary Continental Congress. 

Benjamin Franklin drafted a plan titled “Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union.” Although key delegates such as Thomas Jefferson endorsed Franklin’s proposal, it faced opposition. Franklin introduced his plan to Congress on July 21, emphasizing it should be considered a draft, which should be revised at a later date. The delegates agreed and decided to set the plan aside at that time.

Congress Agrees on Independence

Ultimately, Congress adopted Virginia’s “Resolution for Independence,” which was introduced by Richard Henry Lee on June 7, 1775. Also known as the “Lee Resolution,” it proposed three important initiatives:

  • Called for Congress to declare independence.
  • Form foreign alliances.
  • Prepare a plan to unite the colonies.

Richard Henry Lee, Illustration

The Committee of Thirteen

On June 11, Congress set up three committees — one for each of the initiatives. The committee assigned to “prepare a plan to unite the colonies” is known as the “Committee of Thirteen.” It included one delegate from each state:

  • John Dickinson, Pennsylvania, Chairman
  • Samuel Adams, Massachusetts
  • Josiah Bartlett, New Hampshire
  • Button Gwinnett, Georgia
  • Joseph Hewes, North Carolina
  • Stephen Hopkins, Rhode Island
  • Robert R. Livingston, New York
  • Thomas McKean, Delaware
  • Thomas Nelson, Virginia
  • Edward Rutledge, South Carolina
  • Roger Sherman, Connecticut
  • Thomas Stone, Maryland
  • Francis Hopkinson, New Jersey

Roger Sherman, Founding Father, Illustration

The Committee Introduces the Articles of Confederation

On July 22, the committee presented its report to Congress. The Articles included. 

  • A government consisting solely of a unicameral legislature without an executive or judicial branch.
  • It would have limited powers to deal with foreign affairs, defense, and treaty-making.
  • The government did not have the authority to levy national taxes or regulate interstate trade. 
  • Any laws it created were nonbinding unless states chose to enforce them. 

The Articles were intended to balance the political ideas embraced in the American Revolution, such as “No Taxation Without Representation” and the necessity of conducting the war. However, there were significant issues that needed to be addressed, including:

  • Representation. The issue was resolved by giving all states equal status and one vote.
  • Appropriation. This was settled by having states contribute money to Congress based on the value of privately owned land. 
  • Control of western lands. Some states, like Virginia, claimed large territories that stretched across the frontier, to the west. Others, like Maryland, had no claims and insisted that such territories should be ceded to Congress beforehand. This issue was not resolved until much later.

The issues postponed the final debates on the Articles of Confederation until October 1777.

Congress Agrees to the Articles of Confederation

By October 1777, the situation was urgent, as British forces had captured Philadephia in September, forcing the members of Congress to flee to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and then to York, Pennsylvania. On November 15, 1777, During the sessions in York, the delegates finally agreed to a framework for the Articles of Confederation. 

Congress forwarded the Articles to the states for ratification in late November. While most delegates recognized the Articles as a flawed compromise, they believed it was preferable to having no formal national government at all.

12 States Ratify the Articles of Confederation

Virginia led the way by ratifying the Articles of Confederation on December 16, 1777. Subsequently, other states followed suit during the early months of 1778. However, when Congress reconvened in June 1778, it was revealed that Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey had not succeeded in ratifying the Articles. 

The Articles required unanimous approval from all states, and the states that were holding out insisted the others needed to abandon their western land claims before they would ratify the document. 

Ultimately, with the war at a crucial point, the “landed” states — those with western land claims, like Virginia — indicated they would cede the lands. New Jersey and Delaware were satisfied and agreed to the terms of the Articles.

  • New Jersey ratified the Articles on November 20, 1778.
  • Delaware ratified the Articles on February 1, 1779. 

Maryland’s Path to Ratification

Maryland was not convinced the states would follow through on ceding lands and was the last holdout to ratify the Articles of Confederation.

Maryland’s reluctance was frustrating to the other state governments. Some even passed resolutions in favor of establishing a national government without Maryland. 

However, some politicians, like Congressman Thomas Burke of North Carolina, argued against such a measure. Burke and others insisted that without the unanimous approval of all 13 States, the nation would be vulnerable, divided, and susceptible to foreign interference and manipulation.

In 1780, British forces carried out raids on Maryland towns located along the Chesapeake Bay, alarming state officials. Maryland responded by contacting the French Minister, Anne-César De la Luzerne, and requesting French naval support. Luzerne responded by encouraging Maryland to ratify the Articles of Confederation. 

Virginia’s Governor, Thomas Jefferson , also agreed to cede all western land claims to Congress.

Finally, the Maryland legislature ratified the Articles of Confederation on March 1, 1781. On that date, the Articles of Confederation formally transformed the United States from a collection of 13 loosely connected states into a confederation government

Thomas Jefferson, Painting, Rembrandt Peale

Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

Unfortunately, the Articles did not grant Congress the necessary authority to force the states to comply with its decisions, including the provisions in the 1783 Treaty of Paris .

The Treaty of Paris allowed British creditors to sue debtors for pre-Revolutionary debts, a clause many state governments simply ignored. In response, British forces continued to occupy forts in the Great Lakes Region. 

Additional issues that were caused by the weakness of the Articles of Confederation included:

  • Without the ability to raise funds, the Confederation Congress was financially limited and dependent on the states for revenue, and the States often failed to provide funds.
  • States also disregarded laws meant to standardize interstate commerce. 
  • Congress did not have the power to regulate foreign trade, allowing nations like Britain to impose trade restrictions without fear of retaliation. 
  • Congress had no way to force states to provide military forces during a time when the military was needed to deal with Indian unrest in the Northwest Territory .

Similar issues, along with the Confederation government’s inadequate response to Shays’ Rebellion in Massachusetts, convinced national leaders of the need to make changes to the Articles of Confederation. This ultimately led to the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 , which drafted the Constitution of the United States.

Constitutional Convention, Signing the Constitution, Christy

Accomplishments Under the Articles of Confederation

Despite its limited authority, the Confederation Congress was able to accomplish some important feats that led to the growth and development of the nation.

1783 Treaty of Paris

The 1783 Treaty of Paris was one of a series of treaties, collectively known as the Peace of Paris, or the Treaty of Versailles of 1783, that established peace between Great Britain and the allied nations of France, Spain, and the Netherlands. The Treaty of Paris was negotiated as a separate treaty between Great Britain and the United States, the primary provisions of the Treaty of Paris established the independence of the United States and ended hostilities between the two nations. Other provisions dealt with defining borders, restitution for Loyalist property confiscated by Americans during the war, the return of slaves confiscated by the British, and the removal of British troops from American soil. Congress ratified the treaty on January 14, 1784.

Ordinance of 1784

The Ordinance of 1784 was a bill passed by the Congress of the Confederation that served as an initial blueprint for governing the territory Britain ceded to the United States after the American Revolutionary War.

Land Ordinance of 1785

The Land Ordinance of 1785 was a bill passed by the Congress of the Confederation. It made adjustments to the Ordinance of 1784 and introduced squares. If first divided the land into six-mile-square townships. It also required the land to be surveyed and for some of it to be given to veterans of the Continental Army.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 , also known as the Ordinance of 1787, set up the rules and guidelines for governing the Northwest Territory, including a bill of rights and prohibition of slavery. It also set up the process for a territory to become a state and join the Union, with equal status to the 13 Original States.

Presidents Under the Articles of Confederation

The following men served as President from 1781 to 1789 under the Articles of Confederation. The position was officially called “President of the United States in Congress Assembled.” 

Contrary to some sources, these men did not hold the office of President of the United States. It was an entirely different office. 

Thomas McKean, Portrait

  • Samuel Huntington served from March 2, 1781, to July 6, 1781, when he retired.
  • Thomas McKean served from July 10, 1781, to October 23, 1781. During his term as President, Congress received the news of the British surrender at Yorktown .
  • John Hanson was the first President to serve a full term and served from November 5, 1781, to November 3, 1782. Hanson is sometimes referred to as the first President of the Confederation Congress. However, he is recognized as the third President by the Office of the Historian of the United States House of Representatives.
  • Elias Boudinot was President from November 4, 1782, to November 3, 1783. During his term, the British evacuated Charleston in January 1783, and the Treaty of Paris of 1783 was signed in September 1783, which officially ended the American Revolutionary War.
  • Thomas Mifflin was President from November 3, 1783, to November 30, 1784. During his term, George Washington resigned from the army. On December 23, 1783, in a ceremony in Annapolis, Maryland, Washington handed his commission and resignation speech to Mifflin.
  • Richard Henry Lee served from November 30, 1784, to November 4, 1785.
  • John Hancock was appointed President and held the title from November 23, 1785, to June 6, 1786. However, Hancock was ill and he could not perform the duties of the office. His duties were carried out by David Ramsay from November 23, 1785, to May 15, 1786, and then by Nathaniel Gorham from May 15 to June 5, 1786. Ramsay and Gorham were Chairman of the Confederation Congress.
  • Nathaniel Gorham served as President from June 6, 1786, to November 2, 1786.
  • Arthur St. Clair served as President and served from February 2, 1787, to October 5, 1787.
  • Cyrus Griffin was the last President of the Congress Assembled and served from January 22, 1788, to March 2, 1789.

Articles of Confederation Significance

The Articles of Confederation are important to United States history because they served as the first Consitution of the United States. Although the Articles had many weaknesses, the Confederation Congress was able to make some key legislative decisions that helped the nation develop. Ultimately, the lessons learned during the time the nation operated under the Articles helped develop its replacement, the United States Constitution.

Thomas Mifflin, Illustration

Articles of Confederation APUSH, Review, Notes, Study Guide

Use the following links and videos to study the Articles of Confederation, the Confederation Congress, and the Confederation Era for the AP US History Exam. Also, be sure to look at our Guide to the AP US History Exam .

Articles of Confederation Definition APUSH

The Articles of Confederation is defined as the first written constitution of the United States, adopted in 1781. The articles established a weak federal government with limited powers, with most decision-making power reserved for the individual states. The articles were in effect until 1789 when they were replaced by the United States Constitution.

Articles of Confederation Video — Explained for APUSH and AP Gov

This video from Heimler’s History discusses the Articles of Confederation, one of the Foundational Documents for APUSH and AP Gov.

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Lesson Plan: The Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

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The Origin of the Articles of Confederation

Peter Hanson Michael discussed the origins of the Articles of Confederation, specifically referencing John Hanson's role in the government under the Articles of Confederation.

Description

After the Declaration of Independence, the former colonies needed a constitution to help organize the new country. The Articles of Confederation was adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1777 and served as the basis of government until it was replaced by the current U.S. Constitution in 1788. This lesson has students learn about the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation by viewing clips from experts and has them predict solutions to these problems.

Have the students answer the following questions. Review the answers and discuss afterwards.

  • Describe the structure of government that the colonies had under British rule. Who had the power? How were decisions about the colonies made?
  • Describe the type of government the former colonists might create for their new country as a reaction to British rule.

INTRODUCTION:

As a class, watch both of the following clips about the beginning of the Articles of Confederation. Have the students answer each of the questions below and on the Handout: Articles of Confederation. (Google Doc.)

Video Clip: The Origin of the Articles of Confederation (5:25)

Video Clip: Articles of Confederation (3:01)

  • Explain the events that were taking place during the creation and ratification of the Articles of Confederation.
  • How did the 2nd Continental Congress handle land grants and western expansion? Why is this significant?
  • Describe the structure of government under the Articles of Confederation.
  • What powers did the national government have under the Articles of Confederation?

ASSIGNMENT:

Have the students watch each of the following video clips. Students should take notes on the weaknesses, limitations and failures of the Articles of Confederation on the handout (Google Doc).

Video Clip: Why the Articles of Confederation Failed (3:37)

Video Clip: Articles of Confederation (3:26)

Video Clip: George Washington and the Articles of Confederation (3:16)

Video Clip: The Articles of Confederation and Shay's Rebellion (5:05)

Video Clip: Articles of Confederation and the Annapolis Convention (1:19)

Using the Handout: Articles of Confederation (Google Doc.) the students will make a list of weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. For each weakness, students will explain why it is a problem and predict how this problem could be fixed when creating a new constitution.

CONCLUSION:

As a class, review the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and go over the students' predictions for the new constitution. After reviewing the weaknesses, view the video clip on the Constitutional Convention as a class. After viewing the clip, students will discuss the following question either in small groups or as a class:

Based on the clip, how did the new Constitution address the problems and weaknesses of the government under the Articles of Confederation? Provide specific examples to support your point.

EXTENSION ACTIVITIES:

Argumentative Essay Free Response Question- Respond to this writing prompt presented in the style of the Argumentative Question component of the redesigned AP Government and Politics exam.

Constitution Clips- Using C-SPAN Classroom's Constitution Clips site, students will identify individual parts of the Constitution that address each of the weaknesses and limitations of the Articles of Confederation.

Political Cartoon- Students will create a political cartoon about one or more of the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

Letter to the Editor- Students will write a letter to the editor from the perspective of an American living during the time of the Articles of Confederation. Include your view of the Articles of Confederation and what should be done about it.

Summarize the Articles- Using the text of the Articles of Confederation, summarize each of the articles within the Articles of Confederation.

Articles in Modern Times- Imagine that we still had the Articles of Confederation as our government. Pick a current crisis or major event and describe how the government under the Articles of Confederation would react to it. Evaluate the effectiveness of this reaction.

Related Articles

  • Avalon Project - Articles of Confederation : March 1, 1781
  • The Articles of Confederation: Primary Documents of American History (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)

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Articles of Confederation

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Engrossed and corrected copy of the Articles of Confederation, showing amendments adopted, November 15, 1777, Papers of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789; Records of the Continental and Confederation Congresses and the Constitutional Convention, 1774-1789, Record Group 360; National Archives.

After considerable debate and alteration, the Articles of Confederation were adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777. This document served as the United States' first constitution, and was in force from March 1, 1781, until 1789 when the present day Constitution went into effect.

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Similarities and Differences between Articles of Confederation and Constitution – Compare and Contrast Essay

Introduction, similarities between articles of confederation and constitution, differences between articles of confederation and constitution.

The Articles of Confederation vs Constitution share commonalities, albeit with notable differences. Primarily, both documents were crafted by individuals who, despite their shared endeavor, held distinct perspectives. These foundational texts have long been regarded as the official government of the United States, enduring over an extended period as the guiding laws for the nation.

There is a number of similarities between Articles of Confederation and Constitution. The nation is recognized as the United States of America in both the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. Both documents delegate the authority to make laws to the legislature. However, a crucial distinction lies in the structure of the legislature: the Articles of Confederation establish a single house referred to as Congress, while the Constitution features two houses, collectively known as Congress but subdivided into the Senate and the House of Representatives.

The Congress in the Articles of Confederation comprises members ranging from two to seven per state. In contrast, the Constitution stipulates two senators per state, contingent on each state’s population. The voting system in Congress diverges between the two documents: the Articles of Confederation dictate one vote per state, while the Constitution prescribes one vote per representative.

The process of appointing members differs as well. In the Constitution, representatives are elected through the popular vote, whereas, in the Articles of Confederation, members are appointed by state legislatures. Another notable distinction is found in the terms of service for legislative officeholders. In the Constitution, representatives serve for two years, while senators serve for six years. Conversely, the Articles of Confederation mandate a one-year term for legislative officeholders, with a term limit not exceeding three out of six years.

These nuanced differences in legislative structure and processes illuminate the evolution from the Articles of Confederation to the Constitution.

The differences between Articles of Confederation and Constitution are as follows. The Articles of Confederation do not recognize any executive, while the Constitution acknowledges the president as the executive. Amendments to laws under the Articles of Confederation require the agreement of all states, whereas in the Constitution, it is achieved with the consent of three-quarters of all states.

Analyzing the strengths and weaknesses in both the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution offers a nuanced understanding of the evolutionary strides made in governance. The Articles of Confederation served as a starting point in the journey toward a new constitution, marked by having more weaknesses than strengths. Notably, it exerted extra efforts to unite the states and establish a robust legislature.

Many valued this initiative, providing an opportunity for people to actively contribute to government actions. Within the Articles, colonists proposed the land ordinance as a means to create new states and address the national debt. However, a significant weakness lay in its failure to allocate powers to the federal government, rendering it insufficient.

The federal government under the Articles of Confederation lacked the authority to regulate commerce and taxes. In contrast, the Constitution introduced strengths such as empowering the government to tax, provisioning for a standing army, establishing a common currency, and appointing a common leader.

Above all, its main strength is that it has remained successful and unchanged up to date, serving as the source of rules and regulations for the United States. However strong the US Constitution is, it has some critics. This constitution has been regarded by many as undemocratic, particularly when compared in the context of the Articles of Confederation vs Constitution. It is considered to be undemocratic because of its idea of having indirect presidential elections and confusing senators’ elections. Finally, the Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation as its strengths overdo its weaknesses, unlike the Articles which had more weaknesses than strengths.

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IvyPanda. (2024, January 12). Similarities and Differences between Articles of Confederation and Constitution - Compare and Contrast Essay. https://ivypanda.com/essays/comparison-of-the-us-constitution-with-the-articles-of-confederation/

"Similarities and Differences between Articles of Confederation and Constitution - Compare and Contrast Essay." IvyPanda , 12 Jan. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/comparison-of-the-us-constitution-with-the-articles-of-confederation/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Similarities and Differences between Articles of Confederation and Constitution - Compare and Contrast Essay'. 12 January.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Similarities and Differences between Articles of Confederation and Constitution - Compare and Contrast Essay." January 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/comparison-of-the-us-constitution-with-the-articles-of-confederation/.

1. IvyPanda . "Similarities and Differences between Articles of Confederation and Constitution - Compare and Contrast Essay." January 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/comparison-of-the-us-constitution-with-the-articles-of-confederation/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Similarities and Differences between Articles of Confederation and Constitution - Compare and Contrast Essay." January 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/comparison-of-the-us-constitution-with-the-articles-of-confederation/.

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Essay On The Articles of Confederation

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Law , Hamilton , Articles of Confederation , Constitution , Nation , Elections , Politics , Government

Words: 1000

Published: 05/17/2021

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The experiment in national government under the Articles of Confederation proved to be a failure. The Articles of Confederation served as the 1st constitution for the country. The Articles of Confederation had crucial flaws such as a weak executive, no control over national taxation and no power over trade. The government had no power to compel people to perform national obligations as they were carried out in individual states (Declaration of Independence, 65). Under the Articles of Confederation, each state still retained its full “sovereignty, freedom and independence” (Political, 33). The Founders saw it wise to call for a constitutional convention of all states in Philadelphia (1787) with the sole purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and establish a more functional constitution and government. The new constitution formulated was met by opponents (anti-federalists) who were concerned by the lack of the bill of rights in the constitution. Other key issues of the opponents were the election of the president and the motives of the authors (they were rich and famous) (We the People, 41). Despite the arguments put forward by the anti-federalists, the Founders established a new national government under the U.S constitution rather than break it into regional confederacies. The reasons why they opted for this move would be the subject of our discussion in this essay.

The federalists (supporters of the constitution) argued that the constitution would “correct the flaws of the Articles of Confederation and would have the power necessary to formulate a prosperous and secure union” (We the People, 44). They also argued that “because of the restrictions of its powers, the new government would neither endanger the states nor the liberties of people” (44). Under the pen name Publius, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay (federalists) wrote a series of essays named the Federalist Papers supporting the new constitution. The Federalist Papers were published in New York and later distributed to the other states. These essays urged the people to support the new constitution and also attempted to explain why the constitution was preferable to the Articles of Confederation.

In Federalist Paper1, the federalist Hamilton argues that breaking the country into regional federacies would only mean that the men who assume power will take advantage of their position and “aggrandize themselves with power.” (pg.8). He further argues that the leaders would become jealous of the liberties and rights awarded to the people and use their influence to deny them these rights. Hamilton notes that there is always vigor in the formation of a government and protection of liberties but this is usually masked by the dangerous ambition of tyranny (pg.8). Hamilton was for the view that regional confederacies would bring up the rise of tyrants and despots due to the powers awarded to their respective leaders. He further urges people to support the constitution by stating “the formation of the Union offers the safest course for your liberties, your dignity and your happiness.” (pg.8).

In Federalist Paper 2, John Jay argues that the prosperity of the American people largely depended on their continuity of being firmly together. He notes that independent America was not composed of different territories but one country (pg.10). Jay noted that the confederacies would divide the united America into a number of “unsocial, jealous and alien sovereignties” (pg.2). As a nation, he argued, they had fought wars, vanquished common enemies and entered into treaties. Jay convinced people to support the constitution by noting that the Founders at the convention in Philadelphia had proposed formation of a federal national government. Jay encouraged the people to support their decision as the convention comprised of the congress which was trusted by the people and hence their decision reflected the views of the people. Jay further stated that “rejection of the constitution would put the Union at utmost jeopardy.” (pg.12).The other reason for the support of the Union was that it offered security and peace. Jay noted that under the Union, under an efficient national government governed by the constitution, the people could be accorded the best security against hostilities from abroad or within (pg.13). Jay further expounded on the topic by explaining that the Union would enter into treaties with other nations and resolve conflicts amicably. Federacies on the other hand, would come up with many interpretations of the law, break treaties and fail to solve conflicts as they would try to justify their actions.

In the Federalist Paper 9, Hamilton argues that a firm Union would be the best option to safeguard against domestic factions and insurrection (pg.37). He notes that the constitution offered mechanisms by which such events would be tamed through the various arms of government (executive, legislature and judiciary). Hamilton also noted that the constitution was progressive as it offered distribution of power, legislative balances and checks and the representation of people in the legislature. In Federalist paper 10, Madison noted that the constitution offered means by which to break and control the violence of faction. A small country, he argued, can give dominant factions power to control the government and use it for selfish purposes (Political, 43). He further notes that issues related to faction such as injustice and instability could aptly be dealt with by the constitution. Madison argued that justice, which was being offered by the constitution, would be the balance between the different groups of people as it would protect their liberties. Madison also stated that a national government would not threaten the liberties as people had a stronger allegiance to the state which would prevent federal encroachment (pg. 44). He went on further to argue that if a government serves the common goal, it is a function of a range of interests and not of its side. In the subsequent Federal Papers (48, 49, 50, 51), Madison explains how the separation of the national institutions in the constitution was designed to empower and restrict the federal government from encroaching state powers.

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COMMENTS

  1. The Articles of Confederation (1781-1789): Suggested Essay Topics

    Pick one of the weaknesses of the Confederation Congress (for example, its inability to regulate interstate commerce) and explain how that led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Explain the way (s)in which the Articles of Confederation established precedents for the U.S. government.

  2. PDF AP UNITED STATES HISTORY 2009 SCORING GUIDELINES (Form B)

    This essay has a clear thesis tying experience and, to a lesser extent, ideas of the revolutionary period to the Articles of Confederation. There is sufficient historical evidence regarding experiences, such as various revenue acts, but only vague reference to ideas. The analysis is adequate overall but imbalanced.

  3. PDF AP United States Government and Politics

    Restate the prompt • "The power of the executive and legislative branches of government are important because there is a balance of power." Do not respond to the prompt • "The executive branch is the most effective branch of government because the president has many constitutional powers." Examples that earn this point: •

  4. PDF AP United States Government and Politics

    The Articles of Confederation are a prime example of why a strong national government is better. With the Articles, the government could do very little. It made the states more independent by allowing them to have their own currency and impose their own taxes." Example that earns 3 points:

  5. The Articles of Confederation Essay Topics

    1. Would Benjamin Franklin's structure of government have worked for the United States? Why or why not? 2. Compare and contrast these Articles of Confederation with those ratified by the Continental Congress several years later. 3. Identify some of the elements of Franklin's Articles of Confederation that are radical for his time.

  6. PDF AP United States History

    Short Answer Question 1 (continued) b) Briefly explains ONE specific argument critics used in the 1780s to support revising the Articles of Confederation. Examples of responses to (b) that would earn the point: The national government under the Articles of Confederation was weak and often unable to conduct routine business.

  7. PDF Lesson: A Closer Look at the Articles of Confederation

    Step 1 - review background information on previous knowledge with students on the creation of the Articles of Confederation and the time period surrounding it. Hook - Ask students to define the word "Confederation" and discuss the idea of working together.

  8. PDF AP United States History

    Responses earn 1 point by describing a broader historical context relevant to the topic of the prompt. To earn this point, the response must accurately and explicitly connect the context of the prompt to broader historical events, developments, or processes that occurred before, during, or continued after the time frame of the question.

  9. Creating the United States Road to the Constitution

    The Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution of the United States, on November 15, 1777, but the states did not ratify them until March 1, 1781. The Articles created a loose confederation of sovereign states and a weak central government, leaving most of the power with the state governments.

  10. Articles of Confederation (1781)

    Article I. The Stile of this confederacy shall be, "The United States of America.". Article II. Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every Power, Jurisdiction and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled. Article III.

  11. Articles of Confederation

    Early U.S. Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation By: History.com Editors Updated: August 15, 2023 | Original: October 27, 2009 copy page link Smith Collection/Gado/Getty Images...

  12. Lesson 1: The Road to the Constitutional Convention

    This lesson focuses on the problems under the Articles of Confederation between 1783 and 1786 leading to the 1787 Convention. Through examination of primary sources, students will see why some prominent American founders, more than others, believed that the United States faced a serious crisis, and that drastic changes, rather than minor amendments, to the Articles were necessary.

  13. Articles of Confederation, Summary, Facts, Significance, APUSH

    Articles of Confederation Summary. As the delegates to the Second Continental Congress were drafting the Declaration of Independence, they were also developing a plan for unifying the 13 Colonies to defeat Great Britain.In the summer of 1776, a committee composed of one delegate from each colony drafted the Articles of Confederation — America's first constitution.

  14. Lesson Plan: The Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation

    The Articles of Confederation was adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1777 and served as the basis of government until it was replaced by the current U.S. Constitution in 1788. This ...

  15. Articles of Confederation

    Articles of Confederation, first U.S. constitution (1781-89), which served as a bridge between the initial government by the Continental Congress of the Revolutionary period and the federal government provided under the U.S. Constitution of 1787. Learn more about the Articles of the Confederation in this article.

  16. Articles of Confederation (1777)

    View Transcript The Articles of Confederation were adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777. This document served as the United States' first constitution. It was in force from March 1, 1781, until 1789 when the present-day Constitution went into effect.

  17. The Articles of Confederation: Primary Documents of American History

    Williamsburg: Va. Printed by Alexander Purdie [1777]. Rare Book and Special Collections Division. The Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, the first constitution of the United States, on November 15, 1777. However, ratification of the Articles of Confederation by all thirteen states did not occur until March 1, 1781.

  18. Articles of Confederation

    The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was an agreement among the 13 states of the United States, formerly the Thirteen Colonies, that served as the nation's first frame of government.It was debated by the Second Continental Congress at Independence Hall in Philadelphia between July 1776 and November 1777, and finalized by the Congress on November 15, 1777.

  19. Avalon Project

    Articles of Confederation : March 1, 1781 To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting.

  20. Articles of Confederation

    After considerable debate and alteration, the Articles of Confederation were adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777. This document served as the United States' first constitution, and was in force from March 1, 1781, until 1789 when the present day Constitution went into effect. Read more at Our Documents ...

  21. Compare and Contrast the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution

    Updated: Jan 12th, 2024 Table of Contents Introduction The Articles of Confederation vs Constitution share commonalities, albeit with notable differences. Primarily, both documents were crafted by individuals who, despite their shared endeavor, held distinct perspectives.

  22. The Articles of Confederation Essay

    Essay On The Articles of Confederation Type of paper: Essay Topic: Law, Hamilton, Articles of Confederation, Constitution, Nation, Elections, Politics, Government Pages: 4 Words: 1000 Published: 05/17/2021 ORDER PAPER LIKE THIS The experiment in national government under the Articles of Confederation proved to be a failure.

  23. The Federalist and Anti-Federalist Flashcards

    George Mason. Anti-Federalist, a Virginian Plantation owner. Wrote the Virginia Declaration of Rights, the model for the Bill of Rights. *Refused to sign Constitution until Bill of Rights was included. Federalist. *Support Constitution. *Big, national government. *No need for Bill of Rights. *Articles of Confederation not strong enough.