buddhism in cambodia essay

The Role and Influence of Buddhism in Cambodian Society and Culture

Buddhism is the dominant religion in Cambodia, with about 97% of the population identifying as Buddhists. Buddhism has been present in Cambodia since at least the 5th century, and has shaped the culture, values, and identity of the Khmer people. Buddhism has also played a vital role in the history, politics, and development of Cambodia. In this article, we will explore the role and influence of Buddhism in Cambodian society and culture.

The History of Buddhism in Cambodia

Buddhism entered Cambodia through two different streams. The first stream was Mahayana Buddhism, which was brought by Indian merchants and missionaries to the Kingdom of Funan, the earliest recorded state in Cambodia. Mahayana Buddhism flourished in Funan and its successor states, such as Chenla and Zhenla, until the 9th century.

The second stream was Theravada Buddhism, which was introduced by Mon monks and missionaries from the Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Haripunchai, which were located in present-day Thailand. Theravada Buddhism gradually replaced Mahayana Buddhism as the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia, especially during the Angkor Empire, which ruled most of Southeast Asia from the 9th to the 15th century.

Theravada Buddhism reached its peak during the reign of King Jayavarman VII (1181-1218), who was a devout Buddhist and a great patron of art and architecture. He built many temples, hospitals, schools, and roads throughout his empire, and promoted a compassionate and egalitarian society based on Buddhist principles.

However, Theravada Buddhism declined after the fall of Angkor to the Thai Kingdom of Ayutthaya in the 15th century. Buddhism was suppressed by successive Hindu kings, who tried to restore the Brahmanical religion and culture. Buddhism also faced challenges from Islam, which spread among the Cham minority and some coastal areas.

Buddhism was revived in the 19th century under the French protectorate, which recognized Buddhism as the state religion and supported its education and administration. However, Buddhism also faced challenges from Christianity, which was propagated by French missionaries and colonial authorities.

Buddhism suffered a great tragedy during the Khmer Rouge regime (1975-1979), which attempted to eradicate all forms of religion and culture in Cambodia. Thousands of monks were killed or disrobed, and thousands of temples were destroyed or desecrated. It is estimated that only 3,000 monks survived out of 65,000 before the regime.

Buddhism was restored after the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime, with the help of surviving monks, refugees, and international organizations. Buddhism has since regained its status as the state religion and has been enshrined in the constitution. Buddhism has also been involved in the peace and reconciliation process after decades of civil war and genocide.

The Practice of Buddhism in Cambodia

The practice of Buddhism in Cambodia is mainly based on Theravada Buddhism, which follows the Pali Canon as its main source of scripture. Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the attainment of nirvana, or liberation from suffering, through personal effort and discipline. Theravada Buddhists follow the Four Noble Truths, which are:

The truth of suffering (dukkha), which means that all existence is impermanent, unsatisfactory, and without self.
The truth of the origin of suffering (samudaya), which means that suffering is caused by craving (tanha) for sensual pleasures, existence, or non-existence.
The truth of the cessation of suffering (nirodha), which means that suffering can be ended by eliminating craving.
The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (magga), which means that there is a way to overcome suffering by following the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Noble Eightfold Path consists of eight factors that lead to moral conduct, mental development, and wisdom. They are:

Right view (samma ditthi), which means to understand the Four Noble Truths and karma (the law of cause and effect).
Right intention (samma sankappa), which means to have wholesome thoughts free from greed, hatred, and delusion.
Right speech (samma vaca), which means to speak truthfully, kindly, politely, and beneficially.
Right action (samma kammanta), which means to act morally by abstaining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxication.
Right livelihood (samma ajiva), which means to earn a living by honest and harmless means.
Right effort (samma vayama), which means to exert oneself to prevent or abandon unwholesome states of mind and to cultivate or maintain wholesome states of mind.
Right mindfulness (samma sati), which means to be aware of one’s body, feelings, mind, and phenomena in the present moment.
Right concentration (samma samadhi), which means to develop a calm and focused mind through meditation.

Theravada Buddhists also observe the Five Precepts, which are the basic ethical guidelines for lay followers. They are:

To abstain from killing any living being.
To abstain from taking what is not given.
To abstain from sexual misconduct.
To abstain from false speech.
To abstain from intoxicating drinks and drugs that cloud the mind.

Theravada Buddhists also practice various forms of meditation, such as mindfulness of breathing, loving-kindness, and insight. Meditation is seen as a way to purify the mind, develop concentration, and gain insight into the true nature of reality.

Theravada Buddhists also venerate the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the monastic community) as the Three Jewels of refuge. They also pay respect to various Bodhisattvas, who are beings who have attained enlightenment but postpone their entry into nirvana to help others. The most popular Bodhisattva in Cambodia is Avalokiteshvara, who is known as Lokesvara or Lokanatha, and is associated with compassion and mercy.

Theravada Buddhists also celebrate various festivals and ceremonies throughout the year, such as:

Magha Puja, which commemorates the gathering of 1,250 enlightened disciples of the Buddha who spontaneously assembled to hear his sermon on the principles of Buddhism.
Vesakha Puja, which celebrates the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha.
Asalha Puja, which marks the first sermon of the Buddha after his enlightenment, in which he taught the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
Vassa, which is the three-month rainy season retreat for monks, during which they stay in one place and devote themselves to intensive study and meditation.
Pchum Ben, which is a 15-day festival dedicated to honoring and making offerings to the ancestors and departed relatives.
Kathina, which is a ceremony in which lay followers offer robes and other necessities to monks after their Vassa retreat.
Meak Bochea, which commemorates the miraculous event when 1,250 enlightened disciples of the Buddha gathered without prior notice to hear his sermon on the essence of Buddhism.

The Role of Buddhism in Cambodian Society and Culture

Buddhism has played a significant role in shaping Cambodian society and culture in various aspects, such as:

Education: Buddhism has been a source of education and literacy for Cambodians since ancient times. Buddhist temples were the main centers of learning where monks taught various subjects such as Pali, Sanskrit, Khmer, history, geography, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, etc. Buddhist texts were also preserved and transmitted in temples. Many Cambodian kings and leaders were educated by Buddhist monks. Even today, many Cambodian children receive their primary education in temples.
Art: Buddhism has inspired many forms of art in Cambodia, such as architecture, sculpture, painting, music, dance, literature, etc. Buddhist temples are among the most magnificent and elaborate structures in Cambodia, such as Angkor Wat, Bayon, Ta Prohm, etc. Buddhist statues and images are among the most exquisite and revered artworks in Cambodia, such as the Emerald Buddha, the Reclining Buddha, etc. Buddhist paintings and murals depict various scenes from the life of the Buddha and his previous lives. Buddhist music and chants are among the most soothing and sacred sounds in Cambodia. Buddhist dances are among the most graceful and elegant expressions in Cambodia, such as Apsara dance, Robam Tep Monorom (dance of celestial beings), etc. Buddhist literature is among the most profound and poetic works in Cambodia, such as Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha’s previous lives), Reamker (the Khmer version of Ramayana), etc.
Ethics: Buddhism has provided a moral framework and guidance for Cambodians to live by. Buddhist values such as compassion, generosity, honesty, humility, patience, tolerance, and non-violence are embedded in Cambodian culture and society. Buddhist teachings such as the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, the Five Precepts, and the Law of Karma are widely accepted and followed by Cambodians. Buddhist rituals such as offering food and alms to monks, visiting temples, meditating, chanting, etc. are practiced regularly by Cambodians to cultivate their morality and spirituality.
Identity: Buddhism has been a source of identity and pride for Cambodians since ancient times. Buddhism has helped Cambodians to preserve and promote their culture and heritage in the face of foreign invasions, colonialism, and genocide. Buddhism has also helped Cambodians to cope with and overcome the trauma and suffering caused by war, violence, and poverty. Buddhism has also helped Cambodians to unify and reconcile their differences and conflicts among themselves and with their neighbors. Buddhism has also helped Cambodians to express and celebrate their diversity and uniqueness as a nation.

List of references:

• [1]: A History of Buddhism in Cambodia by Ian Harris

• [2]: The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia by Donald K. Swearer

• [3]: Buddhism in Cambodia: Rupture and Continuity by John Marston

• [4]: The Theravada Buddhist Encounter with Modernity by Juliane Schober

• [5]: Buddhism in Contemporary Cambodia: Continuity and Change by Alexandra Kent

The Customs and Etiquette of Khmer People: How to Respect and Appreciate Their Culture

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PHNOM PENH: THE PEARL OF ASIA

Cambodia National Religion: Buddhism

Cambodia, a Southeast Asian country known for its rich cultural heritage and ancient temples, has a strong association with Buddhism. Buddhism is the Cambodia National Religion, and its influence permeates various aspects of Cambodian society. In this article, we will explore the history, traditions, cultural impact, and significance of Buddhism in Cambodia, shedding light on the role it plays in shaping the nation’s identity.

Table of Contents

History of Cambodia National Religion

Buddhism arrived in Cambodia during the 3rd century BCE, introduced by Indian traders and missionaries. Over the centuries, it gradually blended with indigenous beliefs and practices, forming a unique Cambodian variant of Buddhism. The religion faced periods of decline and revival due to political shifts and external influences, but it remained an integral part of Cambodian culture.

Influence of Buddhism on Cambodian Culture

Buddhism has had a profound impact on Cambodian culture, influencing various aspects such as art, architecture, literature, and morality. The Angkor temples, including the iconic Angkor Wat, are magnificent examples of the fusion between Hinduism and Buddhism. Cambodian traditional dances, music, and visual arts often draw inspiration from Buddhist narratives and symbols, showcasing the deep connection between religion and culture.

Cambodian Buddhist Traditions and Practices

Cambodian Buddhism follows the Theravada tradition, emphasizing the importance of individual spiritual development and the pursuit of enlightenment. The Sangha, the community of monks, holds a revered position in society and plays a crucial role in preserving and disseminating Buddhist teachings. Daily rituals, meditation, and the observance of ethical precepts are key aspects of Cambodian Buddhist practice.

Buddhist Temples and Monasteries in Cambodia

Throughout Cambodia, Buddhist temples and monasteries dot the landscape, serving as spiritual sanctuaries and centers of learning. These architectural marvels showcase intricate designs and craftsmanship, with each temple having its unique history and significance. Prominent temples like Wat Phnom in Phnom Penh and Wat Preah Keo Morokat (Silver Pagoda) within the Royal Palace complex attract both locals and visitors seeking spiritual solace.

Importance of Cambodia National Religion in Society

Buddhism holds immense significance in Cambodian society. It provides a moral compass and a sense of belonging, guiding individuals in their daily lives. Monks are revered as spiritual leaders and advisors, often sought after for blessings, guidance, and conducting religious ceremonies. Buddhism’s teachings promote compassion, harmony, and respect, fostering a cohesive social fabric within the Cambodian community.

Buddhist Festivals and Celebrations in Cambodia

Cambodia celebrates several Buddhist festivals throughout the year, reflecting the nation’s deep-rooted religious traditions. The most significant festival is Bon Om Touk (Water Festival), which marks the reversal of the Tonle Sap River’s flow. Other notable celebrations include Visak Bochea, commemorating the birth, enlightenment, and passing of Gautama Buddha, and Pchum Ben, a festival honoring ancestors.

The Role of Monks in Cambodian Buddhism

Monks play a pivotal role in Cambodian Buddhism, serving as spiritual guides and custodians of religious knowledge. They devote their lives to the pursuit of enlightenment and act as intermediaries between the lay community and the teachings of the Buddha. Monks also actively engage in charitable activities, providing education, healthcare, and social support to disadvantaged communities.

Buddhism and Education in Cambodia

Education is highly valued in Cambodian society, and Buddhist monastic institutions have historically played a crucial role in providing education and promoting literacy. Monastic schools known as “wat schools” have been instrumental in imparting knowledge and preserving traditional Khmer language and culture. Today, both secular and monastic education coexist, contributing to the intellectual and spiritual development of the Cambodian people.

Buddhism and Social Welfare in Cambodia

Buddhism in Cambodia extends beyond spiritual matters and actively addresses social welfare concerns. Buddhist organizations and charitable initiatives work towards alleviating poverty, supporting healthcare, and promoting sustainable development. These efforts reflect the compassionate and humanitarian values espoused by Buddhism, aiming to uplift the lives of Cambodian citizens.

Challenges and Modern Developments in Cambodia National Religion

Cambodian Buddhism faces various challenges in the modern era. Rapid urbanization, globalization, and the influence of technology present new opportunities and threats. The younger generation’s shifting priorities and exposure to different cultures also pose challenges to the continuity of traditional Buddhist practices. However, efforts are underway to adapt and preserve Buddhist values while embracing the changing times.

Buddhist Pilgrimage Sites in Cambodia

Cambodia is home to numerous sacred sites that attract Buddhist pilgrims and tourists alike. Preah Vihear, located atop a mountain, offers breathtaking vistas and a profound spiritual experience. The reclining Buddha statue at Wat Preah Prom Rath in Siem Reap is another revered pilgrimage destination. These sites provide a connection to Cambodia’s religious heritage and offer visitors a glimpse into the country’s spiritual significance.

Interactions between Buddhism and other Religions in Cambodia

While Buddhism is the national religion, Cambodia is a culturally diverse country that respects religious freedom. Buddhism peacefully coexists with other religions such as Islam, Christianity, and animism. Interfaith dialogue and cooperation promote mutual understanding, tolerance, and contribute to the nation’s multicultural fabric.

Conservation and Preservation of Cambodia National Religion

Preserving Cambodia’s rich Buddhist heritage is of utmost importance. Government bodies, NGOs, and international organizations work together to conserve and restore ancient temples, sculptures, and manuscripts. Efforts to safeguard these cultural treasures ensure their availability for future generations and maintain the spiritual and historical legacy of Buddhism in Cambodia.

Buddhism holds a central place in Cambodian society, shaping its cultural, spiritual, and social landscape. The enduring influence of Buddhism, evident in temples, traditions, and the daily lives of the Cambodian people, underscores its significance. As Cambodia progresses, embracing modern developments while cherishing its spiritual heritage, Buddhism continues to guide and inspire, offering a profound sense of meaning and unity.

FAQs about Buddhism in Cambodia

1. Is Buddhism the only religion in Cambodia?

No, while Buddhism is the national religion, Cambodia embraces religious diversity and respects the freedom to practice different faiths.

2. Are Cambodian monks allowed to marry?

In the Theravada Buddhist tradition followed in Cambodia, monks are expected to observe celibacy and abstain from romantic or sexual relationships.

3. What is the significance of offering alms to monks in Cambodia?

Offering alms to monks is a common practice in Cambodia and is seen as a way to accumulate merit and support the monastic community.

4. Are there any famous Cambodian Buddhist monks?

Cambodia has produced notable Buddhist monks, including the revered Maha Ghosananda, who played a significant role in promoting peace and reconciliation during the country’s turbulent times.

5. Can tourists visit Buddhist temples in Cambodia?

Yes, many Buddhist temples in Cambodia welcome visitors. It is advisable to dress modestly and respect the sacredness of the surroundings when visiting these sites.

References:

Chandler, D. P. (1992). A History of Cambodia (3rd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Harris, I. (2008). Buddhism and Politics in Twentieth-Century Asia. London, UK: Continuum.
Kiernan, B. (2008). The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979 (3rd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Mak, P. (2013). Buddhist Monastic Education in Cambodia: Changes and Challenges. International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture, 23, 217-241.

Cambodian Buddhism

History and practice.

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Language: English
Publisher: University of Hawaii Press
Copyright year: 2005
Audience: Professional and scholarly;
Main content: 368
Published: March 11, 2008
ISBN: 9780824861766

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How to Behave: Buddhism and Modernity in Colonial Cambodia, 1860–1930 . By Anne Ruth Hansen

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Holly Gayley, How to Behave: Buddhism and Modernity in Colonial Cambodia, 1860–1930 . By Anne Ruth Hansen, Journal of the American Academy of Religion , Volume 76, Issue 4, December 2008, Pages 1002–1004, https://doi.org/10.1093/jaarel/lfn077

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Amid a nexus of religious modernist movements in Southeast Asia at the turn of the last century, Anne Hansen examines the contours of emergent Buddhist modernism in Cambodia. How to Behave: Buddhism and Modernity in Colonial Cambodia, 1860–1930 focuses on the modernist Khmer movement that promoted ethical purification and fostered renewed interest in the Vinaya , or Buddhist monastic code, in the midst of rapid social change under French colonial rule. While attuned to the ways that colonial policies and print technologies enabled the spread of modernist ideas, Hansen is careful to trace the origins of the “modern Dhamma” movement that crystallized in the 1920s to pan-regional Theravādin discourses and practices, particularly the mid-nineteenth-century reforms initiated by Mongkut in Siam (present-day Thailand). As such, her study underscores the regional dimensions of Buddhist modernism in Southeast Asia while focusing on the historical contingencies of the Cambodian context and specific expressions of Khmer modernism.

In line with recent developments in the study of colonialism, Hansen succeeds in complicating the picture of emergent Buddhist modernism beyond a stimulus–response model, whereby local intellectual developments are deemed to be principally derivative of colonial policies, western scientific discourses, and orientalist academic methods. Instead, How to Behave explores the confluence of multiple factors that shaped this intellectual movement among Theravādin monks and its focus on ethical purification. In successive chapters, Hansen examines classical Theravādin ideals of a moral cosmos and the longstanding role of ethical purification in reform (chapter 1); the turbulent political forces that weakened the Khmer monarchy as moral epicenter for society in the nineteenth century (chapter 2); the influence of Siamese modernist reforms and intellectual trends on Khmer monks, spawning a renewed interest in Pali canonical literature (chapter 3); colonial support for founding Buddhist libraries and research institutes to bolster new rationalist strains of Buddhism (chapter 4); and a proliferation of ethical treatises by Khmer modernists in the 1920s alongside new vernacular translations of Pali scriptures (chapter 5).

Hansen begins by tracing the origins of Khmer modernist discourse within the Theravādin imaginaire and the contingencies of Cambodian history. Chapter 1 explores the connection between royal and moral authority through Buddhist ideals of kingship and narratives of moral development in vernacular renderings of the Buddha's life story and jātaka tales of his past lives. Here Hansen draws attention to the prominence in Southeast Asia of classical Buddhist notions of a morally constituted universe in which the righteous rule of kings leads to collective prosperity. Chapter 2 discusses the historical backdrop of Cambodia—its ensnarement between regional powers, Vietnam and Siam, and its incorporation as a French protectorate in 1863. Hansen presents the antecedents of Buddhist modernism in the late nineteenth-century millenarian movements that deemed rapid social change to be the result of moral degradation and spawned anti-colonial rebellions. Together, these chapters set the stage for her later analysis by demonstrating the importance of morality in nineteenth-century discourse and its connection to social welfare in the Theravādin imaginaire.

Chapter 3 turns to the pan-regional dimensions of the emergence of Buddhist modernism in Cambodia, particularly the impact of intellectual trends in neighboring Siam on Khmer modernists, many of whom traveled to Bangkok to study Pali during their youth. Hansen discusses the “reformist zeal” (99) of educated monks returning from Siam and the resultant factionalism. Tensions between modernist and traditionalist camps within the dominant Mahānikāy sect had to do with new philological methods for textual study and the privileging of Pali scripture as authoritative over customary Khmer practice, a tendency consonant with the orientalist construction of “original Buddhism.” So threatening were these new ideas about textuality, authority, and canonicity that modernist Khmer monks were forced to form “clandestine Vinaya study groups” (102) under prohibitions by high-ranking traditionalists in a newly centralized saṇgha hierarchy.

In the final chapters, Hansen charts the rise of Khmer modernism in the early decades of the twentieth century. Chapter 4 treats the influence of French colonial policies and discourses on this process, illuminating the colonial impetus to foster a rationalized and demythologized Buddhism within the Mahānikāy sect in order to stave off Vietnamese-inspired millenarianism and to stem the influence of the Siam-based Dhammayut sect. Hansen describes in considerable detail the collusions between French colonial administrators, academics from l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, and Khmer intellectuals that resulted in the founding of Sālā Pali in 1914, the Royal Library in 1921, and the Buddhist Institute in 1930. These institutions introduced new pedagogical methods and provided crucial support for the publication of modernist works. Chapter 5 looks more closely at the burgeoning of modernist writings by Khmer monks in the 1920s and 1930s, particularly ethical works that prescribe “how to behave” in “the temptation and confusion of the modern world” (148). These works consisted of new literary genres, which distilled verses of Buddhist scriptures into compendia for handy reference in preaching, offered vernacular translations of Pali texts with commentaries for popular edification, and integrated Buddhist narratives with Khmer folklore to localize ethical messages. These literary works, Hansen argues, represented a dramatic shift from previous concerns with the righteousness of kings and purification of monks to a new “locus of moral development” (164), the ethical self-cultivation of ordinary people in daily life.

How to Behave represents a significant contribution to the study of religious modernism in the colonial period. Hansen's focus on the Theravāda milieu of Southeast Asia is well informed by wide-ranging research in vernacular Buddhist literature, biographies of prominent monks, Khmer historical chronicles, and accounts by French colonial officers and researchers. Straddling intellectual and social history, she illuminates the conjunctures of complex historical forces and emergent intellectual trends. In lucid prose accessible to specialists and non-specialists alike, Hansen provides a sophisticated and multifaceted account of the early twentieth-century transformation of Buddhist discourse and pedagogical practices that should be of interest to any scholar or student of religious modernism.

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Deathpower: Buddhism's Ritual Imagination in Cambodia

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John Clifford Holt; Deathpower: Buddhism's Ritual Imagination in Cambodia. Journal of Asian Studies 1 November 2017; 76 (4): 1143–1144. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021911817001218

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In my own study of the annual rites constituting pchum ben , a fifteen-day period of ritually caring for the dead (usually one's own recently deceased kin), I found that the popularity of this Cambodian Buddhist rite had soared dramatically following the severe tragedies that beleaguered Khmer society during the 1970–90 period of civil war, the coming to power of the Khmer Rouge, and the ensuing occupation of the Vietnamese. 1 I was quite surprised, then, to find Erik Davis claiming, in the introductory essay of his new book Deathpower , that Buddhist funeral rites had remained fundamentally unchanged during the past fifty years or so of Khmer social history. Why this is so leads Davis into a careful consideration of Khmer ritual imagination and becomes one of the primary burdens of his ensuing discussions forming the heart of his book. The cue for his answer is rooted in his...

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Buddhism survived the khmer rouge to give hope to cambodia.

By: Bonnie Duncan

December 9, 2011

Along the side of the path was a single palm tree with green palms that looked beautiful against the sky's blue backdrop. I then learned that such beautiful palms were once used to silence people’s screams by slitting their throats with the leaf’s sharp edge. The soil I was standing on had once held the final moments of thousands of Cambodians. Along the edges of the fields, there were still bones and articles of clothing that remain untainted some 35 years later.

Thousands of people (including women and children) en route from S-21 and other torture prisons entered the fields and never left. A memorial building with a combination of Buddhist and Hindu architecture holds the skulls and bones of many of the victims. Today, it serves to honor the memory of the estimated 2.5 million people, one-fifth of Cambodia’s population, who were killed under Pol Pot’s regime.

The Khmer Rouge regime arrested and eventually executed almost everyone suspected of connections to the former government or foreign governments. Anyone who spoke a foreign language or who was well educated was killed along with his or her family in order to eliminate the possibility of revenge. I heard a testimony today from one man who claimed to have seen a woman murdered because she stole two bananas for her starving children.

The death tolls climbed into the millions, as the Khmer Rouge believed it was “better to kill ten innocent people than to let one enemy escape.”

Despite being guilty of genocide and crimes against humanity, the regime’s primary leader, Pol Pot, lived a comfortable life until his death in 1998. The other leaders responsible for the genocide are being tried in the Khmer Rouge Tribunals international court. Despite the fact that the country and its people were nearly destroyed by this brutal regime, the Khmer people find peace and refuge in their spiritual roots.

Throughout Cambodia’s history, the cultural fabric of popular Buddhist traditions has played a pivotal role in establishing political and moral order, shaping Khmer ethnic and national identity, and nourishing solidarity among Cambodian villagers. Much of Cambodia’s cultural identity is ingrained in the camaraderie that accompanies Khmer Buddhism. Under the Khmer Rouge, however, religion and any form of civil society were outlawed.

In 1975, when the Khmer Rouge first took control of Phnom Penh, they tried to completely destroy Buddhism and very nearly succeeded. By the regime’s end in 1979, nearly every monk and religious intellectual had been either murdered or driven into exile, and nearly every temple and library had been destroyed or used as a prison.

Pagoda committees were the first form of social institutions to spontaneously re-emerge after the Khmer Rouge. Despite the vast social devastation left in the wake of Pol Pot’s regime, a large part of Cambodia’s post-conflict development is attributed to the reconstruction of Khmer Buddhism. This alone testifies to the resilience of the Cambodian people and—more specifically—expresses the importance of religious community for rural villagers.

While still very much shaped by the horrors of the past, present-day Cambodia possesses the characteristics of a serious developing country, where loads of traditional monks in orange robes mix together with the bustling motorbikes and tuk-tuks that characterize the streets. The culture is shifting, as a majority of the population now never knew the Khmer Rouge era. In Phnom Penh, the Khmer people tend to business as usual, while just 15 kilometers away the former leaders of the Khmer Rouge are being tried by an international court for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Cambodia is a nation at the crossroads, seeking to both confront its history and pursue justice for a conflict that left no one unaffected. Buddhist teachings reinforce the importance of forgiveness and emphasize the value of living in the present. While the older generation’s experience of the Khmer Rouge is still present in Cambodia’s public memory, there is also a strong sense of solidarity among those who are looking to take the next step forward.

About the Author

Bonnie Duncan

Public. Policy. Forward.

Working paper, a discussion on the role of buddhism in contemporary cambodian gender roles.

This paper discusses how the current practice of Buddhism shapes the concept of womanhood in contemporary Cambodian society. Interviews are used as the primary research method employed to understand this question. Specifically, three women are interviewed across three generations to gain insight on their perception between the practice of Buddhism and female roles in society. Additional methods include the use of field observations at Pagoda’s within Phnom Penh, and the content analysis of online preaching materials. Primarily, this paper finds that female (and male) roles continue to be shaped by the current teaching and practice of Buddhism. Characteristics such as softness and subordination continue to remain prevalent within the self-identified perceptions of the females interviewed. Considering these findings as a baseline for continued study, further research is needed to understand the particular features of Buddhist practice that influence contemporary Cambodian ideals.

About the Author

CHIN Leabphea

Leabphea holds a bachelor degree in international relations from the Institute of Foreign Languages. She joined Cambodian Rehabilitation and Development Board of Council for the Development of Cambodia (CRDB/CDC) in 2020 as a policy officer in charge of national policy. Prior to CRDB/CDC, she was a part of Young Research Fellows 2019 at Future Forum and an intern of the Education Unit at Cambodia Development Resource Institute (CDRI). During her time at Future Forum, she had developed her research interest in gender equality and done her research on “A Discussion on the Role of Buddhism in Contemporary Cambodian Gender Roles”. The paper discusses how the current practice of Buddhism shapes the concept of womanhood in contemporary Cambodian society.

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Southeast Asia Research Guide: Buddhism in Southeast Asia

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ON BUDDHISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

* BRUNEI * BRUNEI: JOURNAL ARTICLES Harrisson, Tom (1955), Indian pioneers in Borneo: c.500 A.D. on … Sarawak Museum Journal (Kuching) 6, no.6 (new series), no.21 (old series) (Dec) 511-517, 2p. of plates

* BURMA * BURMA: JOURNAL ARTICLES Aye Kyaw (1984) The Sangha organization in nineteenth century Burma and Thailand Journal of the Siam Society (Bangkok) 72: 166-196

Bechert, Heinz (1989), “The recent attempt at a reform of the Buddhist Sangha in Burma and its implications,” Internationales Asienforum = International Quarterly for Asian Studies (Munchen) 20, nos.3-4 (Nov) 303-323

Becka, Jan (1990) The ideological aspects of Buddhist revival in Burma (1948-1962) Archiv Orientalni (Prague) 58, no.4 337-353

Becka, Jan (1991) The role of Buddhism as a factor of Burmese national identity in the period of British rule in Burma (1886-1948) Archiv Orientalni (Prague) 59, no.4 389-405

Brohm, J (1963), “Buddhism and animism in a Burmese village,” Journal of Asian Studies, 22: 155-167

Ciochon, R L, J James (1992). The power of Pagan Archaeology. 45(5): 34-41, 90

Guillaume Rozeberg (2002). Vegetarianism et saintete dans le bouddhisme du Threavada: pour une lecture des sources anciennes a la lumiere de la realite contemporaine [English and Spanish summaries] [French] Archives de sciences sociales des religions. 120 pp 5-31

Hayami, Yoko (1992). Power in the periphery and socio-religious change among the Karen: from nineteenth century Burma to Thailand today [English summary] [Japanese] Japanese journal of ethnology. 57(3): 271-96

Hla Myo Nwe (1997) The Myanmar Buddhist 'hsoon laung' tradition (providing sustenance to the Sangha) Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) 2, no.4 33-36

Hooker, M.B. (1990), The Chinese Confucian and the Chinese Buddhist in British Burma, 1881-1947 Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (Singapore) 21, no.2 (Sep) 384-401

Krishan, Y (1998), Buddhism and caste system East and West (Rome) 48, nos.1-2 (Jun) 41-55

Leach, Edmund (1973) Buddhism in the post-colonial political order in Burma and Ceylon Daedalus (Cambridge, MA) 102, no.1 (Win 29-54

Min Zin (2000), “Beyond dichotomies: a Buddhist perspective on Burmese politics,” Burma Debate (New York) , 7, no.3 (Fall, 2000), 14-17

U Myat Saw (1978), “Sangha and the threefold Buddhist practice,” Maha Bodhi (Calcutta) , 86, nos.6-7 (Jun-Jul, 189-192

Myo Htin Kyaw (1985), The Burmese traditional enshrinement ceremony Forward (Rangoon) , 23, no.4, 31-35

Nandisena (1978), “Oh come and see,” Maha Bodhi (Calcutta) , 86, nos.6-7 (Jun-Jul,), 193-196

Elizabeth K Nottingham (1972), “Buddhist meditation in Burma,” Maha Bodhi (Calcutta) , 80, no.4 (Apr,), 95-98

Nyan Chit (1975), “Bogyoke Aung San on Buddhism,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 22, no.2 (Feb,), 25-26

Thein Kyipwayay Oo (1978), “Buddhist traditional medical practice,” Maha Bodhi (Calcutta) , 86, nos.11-12 (Nov-Dec,), 290-292

Bikkhu U Ottama (1978), “Two origins of life or Paticca Samupadda,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 25 (, 1978), 21-28

Robin Paynter (1995), “Burmese Buddhism,” CORMOSEA Bulletin (Ann Arbor, MI) , 24, no.1 (Jun, 1995)

Pe Than (2000), “A trip to Zalun to pay homage to country-returning Buddha,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 47, no.2 (Feb,), 22-24

Pe Than (2000), “Ceremonial conveyance of twenty-eight Buddha images,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 47, no.9 (Sep, 2000), 15-16

Pe Than (2000), “Consecration ceremonies,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 47, no.4 (Apr), 22-23

Pe Than (1995), Counterpart of the Greek Sphinx,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 42, no.9 (Sep, 19-21

Pe Than (1994), “Data collection method of the ancient Myanmar,” Guardian (Rangoon), 41, no.10 (Oct), 13-14

Pe Than (1995), “Divine cure,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 42, no.8 (Aug), 21-23

Pe Than (1995), “Offering oil lamps in the river,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 42, no.10 (Oct), 21-23

Pe Than (1997& 1998), “Paintings and sculptures depicting Buddha's birth stories,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 44, no.12 (Dec) 15-17 to 45, no.8 (Aug), various pagings

Pe Than (1999), “Paintings and sculptures depicting Buddha's birth stories (continued) Guardian (Rangoon) , 46, no.9 (Sep, 1999), 18-20

Pe Than (1995), “Replica of the Lord Buddha,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 42, no.5 (May) 30-31; no.6 (Jun, 1995), 24-26

Pe Than (1999), “Time to pay respects to elders,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 46, no.10 (Oct), 16-18

Pfanner, David E. and Jasper C. Ingersoll (1962) “Therevada Buddhism and Village Economic Bahavior: a Burmese and Thai Comparison,” Journal of Asian Studies, 21: 341-366

Pollak, Oliver B. (1988), “The Saya San rebellion (1930-1932): Buddhism, anti-colonialism and nationalism in Burma,” Indo-British Review (Madras) , 15, no.1, (1988), 67-76

Rutledge, Paul James and Sue Stivers, (1991), Keepers of the precepts: Thilashins and Burman Buddhist women's religious participation and status, Asian Culture Quarterly (Taipei) , 19, no.3 19-29

Sadler, A.W (1970), “Pagoda and monastery: reflections on the social morphology of Burmese Buddhism,” Journal of Asian and African Studies (Leiden) , 5, no.4 (Oct,), 282-292

Sao Saimong (1980), “The Phaungtaw-u Festival,” Journal of the Siam Society (Bangkok) , 68, pt.2 (Jul), 70-81

San Lwin (1996), “Kahson: the month for pouring water on the Bo tree,” Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) , 3, no.6, 46-48

San Shwe Bu (1919), “The story of Mahamuni,” Journal of the Siam Society (Bangkok) , 13, pt.1, I-VI

Saw Tun (2002), “A preliminary study of Burmese prophetic sayings,” Journal of Burma Studies (DeKalb, IL) , 7, 70-83

Schober, Juliane (1997), “Buddhist just rule and Burmese national culture: state patronage of the Chinese tooth relic in Myanmar,” History of Religions (Chicago), 36, no.3 (Feb), 218-243

Schober, Juliane (1988), “The path to buddhahood: the spiritual mission and social organization of mysticism in contemporary Burma,” Crossroads (DeKalb, IL) , 4, no.1 (Fall), 13-30

Schober, Juliane (2001), “Venerating the Buddha's remains in Burma: from solitary practice to the cultural hegemony of communities,” Journal of Burma Studies (DeKalb, IL) , 6, 111-139

Sein Tu (1998), “Traditional Myanmar attitudes towards learning,” Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) , 3, no.3, 40-43

Siemers, Gèunter (1990), “Buddhism and politics--the case of Burma,” Asien (Hamburg), no.35 (Apr), 66-74

Silber, Ilana Friedrich (1981), “Dissent through holiness: the case of the radical renouncer in Theravada Buddhist countries [Burma, Thailand, Ceylon],” Numen: International Review for the History of Religions (Leiden) , 28, no.2, 164-193

Soe Naung (1999),Branch of Pa-auk Tawya (Forest) Meditation Center in Thanlyin Guardian (Rangoon) , 46, no.6 (Jun), 22-26

Soe Naung (2000), “Traditional offering of soon (alms),” Guardian (Rangoon) , 47, no.5 (May,), 22-23

Stadtner, Donald M. (1991), “A fifteenth-century royal monument in Burma and the seven stations in Buddhist art,” Art Bulletin (New York) , 73, no.1 (Mar), 39-52

Takatani, M (1982). Buddhism and society in Burma: an essay through a comparison of Buddhism [English summary] [Japanese] Japanese Journal of ethnology. 47(1): 51-71.

Taung Goe (2000), “The dagun-pole, mark of a peaceful sanctuary,” Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) , 5, no.2, 31-32

Tekkatho Tin Kha (2000), “A novitiation ceremony that involves 1,000 local youths,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 47, no.1 (Jan), 9-11

Thabye Khin (1999), “The Jivitadana Sangha Hospital,” Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) , 4, no.2, 24-28

Than Tun (1978), “History of Buddhism in Burma A.D. 1000-1300 ,” Journal of the Burma Research Society (Rangoon) , 61 (Dec), 1-264

Thanlyin Myint Aye (1993), “A pilgrimmage to Thamanya,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 40, no.7 (Jul), 32-33

Thaw Kaung (1999), “Offering of Thin-bok Swoon, a Rakhine Buddhist festival,” Myanmar Perspectives (Yangon) , 4, no.2, 36-39

Tin Maung; Muang Than (1988), “The sangha and sasana in socialist Burma,” Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia (Singapore) , 3, no.1 (Feb) , 26-61

Than. Tun (1984), “The Buddha's Footprints in Burma,” Journal of Asian and African Studies = Ajia Afurika gengo bunka kenkyu (Tokyo) , no.28, (1984), 119-137

Wijeyewardene, Gehan (1987) The Theravada compact and the Karen Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia (Singapore) 2, no.1 (Feb) 31-54

Win Pe (1978), “ The intellect in Buddhism,” Guardian (Rangoon) , 25 (Nov), 21-24

Woodward, Mark R. (1988), “When one wheel stops: Theravada Buddhism and the British Raj in upper Burma,” Crossroads (DeKalb, IL) , 4, no.1 (Fall, 1988), 57-90

Chao-Tzang Yawnghwe (2000), The orientalizing of Burmese politics? A research agenda Burma Debate (New York) , 7, no.3 (Fall, 2000), 10-13

BURMA: BOOKS, OR BOOK CHAPTERS

Abdul Mabud Khan (1999), Bangladesh indebtedness to Myanmar: a study of reformation movement in the Buddhist Sangha of Bangladesh (1856-1971) In: Papers from the Myanmar Two Millennia Conference, Yangoon [sic], Myanmar, December 15-17, 1999. Yangon: s.n.,. 1999 1-10 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .M93 1999

Anonymous (1998), International Therav¯ada Buddhist Missionary University, Yangon, the Union of Myanmar : inauguration ceremony, 9 December 1998 souvenir, a commemorative publication, [Rangoon] : Ministry of Religious Affairs Hamilton Asia Folio BQ20 .I584 1998

Appleton, George (1943), Buddhism in Burma [London, Calcutta, etc.] Longmans, Green & co., ltd Hamilton BL1445.B95 A6

Aye Kyaw, U (1994), “Religion and family law in Burma,” In: Gartner, Uta; Lorenz, Jens, eds. Tradition and modernity in Myanmar: proceedings of an international conference held in Berlin from May 7th to May 9th, 1993. Munster: Lit, 1994. 2v. 1994 v.2, 237-250 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .T74 1994

Banerjee, Dilip Kumar (2001), “Influence of Pali and Theravada Buddhism on the life and culture of Burmese people,” In: Ahir, D.C., ed. Buddhism in South-East Asia: a cultural survey. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2001. 252p. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series no.207) 68-80 Hamilton Asia BQ408 .B83 2001

Bautze-Picron, Claudine (2003), The Buddhist murals of Pagan : timeless vistas of the cosmos / with photography by Joachim K. Bautze. Trumbull, CT : Weatherhill Hamilton Asia ND2832.6.Z9 P343 2003

Bechert, Heinz (1995), “'To be a Burmese is to be a Buddhist': Buddhism in Burma,” In: Heinz, Bechert; Gombrich, Richard Francis, eds. The world of Buddhism: Buddhist monks and nuns in society and culture. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995. 308p. 147-158 Hamilton Folio BQ4012 .W67 1984

Bechert, Heinz (1980), “The structure of the Sangha in Burma: a comparative view,” In: Narain, A.K., ed. Studies in history of Buddhism: papers presented at the International Conference on the History of Buddhism at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, August 19-21, 1976. Delhi: B.R. Pub., 33-42 Hamilton Asia BQ266 .I57 1976

Bigandet Paul Ambroise (1866), The life, or legend, of Guadama, the Buddha of the Burmese. With annotations. The ways to neibban, and Notice on the phongyies, or Burmese monks Rangoon, American Mission Press Hamilton BL1445.B95 B5

Bisch, Jorgen (1997), “A Dane becomes a novice monk,” In: Abbott, Gerry, ed. Inroads into Burma: a travellers' anthology. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1997. 322p. 150-159 Hamilton Asia DS527.9 .A22 1997

de Silva, K.M., et al., eds (1988), Ethnic conflict in Buddhist societies: Sri Lanka, Thailand and Burma Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press Hamilton Asia DS489.2 .E83 1988b

Ferguson, John Palmer (1975), The symbolic dimensions of the Burmese Sangha [microform] / Thesis--Cornell University Hamilton Asia Library use only MICROFILM 926 item 5

Frasch, Tilman (1996) An eminent Buddhist tradition: the Burmese Vinayadharas In: Traditions in current perspective: proceedings of the Conference on Myanmar and Southeast Asian Studies, 15-17 November 1995, Yangon. Yangon: Universities Historical Research Centre, 1996. 363p. 115-144 Hamilton Asia DS 527.9 .C66 1995

Fraser-Lu, Sylvia (2001), Splendour in wood : the Buddhist monasteries of Burma / Trumbull, CT : Weatherhill, Hamilton Asia NA6012 .F73 2001

Galloway, Charlotte (1999), “Changing times--changing visions: the evolution of the Buddha image in Myanmar,” In: Papers from the Myanmar Two Millennia Conference, Yangoon [sic], Myanmar, December 15-17, 1999. Yangon: s.n., 1999. various pagings. 1999 1-13 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .M93 1999

Hasson, Haskia (1993), Ancient Buddhist art from Burma / Bangkok : White Lotus, Hamilton Asia N8193.B93 H37 1993

Hla Pe (1985), Burma: literature, historiography, scholarship, language, life, and Buddhism Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS), Hamilton Asia DS527.9 .H57 1985

Karow, Otto (1991), Burmese Buddhist sculpture: the Johan Moger collection Bangkok: White Lotus, Hamilton Asia NB1012 .K37 1991

King, Winston L. (1993), “Burma,” In: Takeuchi Yoshinori. Buddhist spirituality: Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, and early Chinese. Crossroad, N.Y.: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1993. 428p. 102-108 Hamilton Asia BQ266 .B834 1993

King, Winston L. (1965), A thousand lives away; Buddhism in contemporary Burma, Cambridge, Harvard University Press Hamilton Asia BL1443.2 .K5

Ling, Trevor (1979) Buddhism, imperialism and war: Burma and Thailand in modern history London; Boston: George Allen & Unwin, Hamilton Asia BQ420 .L56

Matthews, Bruce (1981), “Buddhist attitudes toward social change in Burma and Thailand,” In: Hainsworth, Geoffrey B., et al., ed. Southeast Asia: women, changing social structure and cultural continuity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1981. 135-149 Hamilton Asia HN690.8.A8 C36 1979

Mendelson, E. Michael (1975), Sangha and state in Burma : a study of monastic sectarianism and leadership /; edited by John P. Ferguson. Ithaca, N.Y. : Cornell University Press, Hamilton Asia BQ6160.B93 M46

Okudaira, Ryudi (1996), “A hypothetical analysis on 'Therada Buddhist state at its height' under King Badon with special reference to Manugye Dhammathat (1782 manuscript),” In: Traditions in current perspective: proceedings of the Conference on Myanmar and Southeast Asian Studies, 15-17 November 1995, Yangon. Yangon: Universities Historical Research Centre, 363p. 30-42 Hamilton Asia DS 527.9 .C66 1995

Okudaira Ryuji (1989), Note on the Burmese Dhammathats or law texts and Buddhist polity in Burma / In Yoshihiro Tsubouchi (ed) The formation of urban civilization in Southeast Asia / Kyoto : Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Hamilton Asia HT147.A785 F67 1989

'On` So` (1972), Historical sites in Burma [Rangoon] Ministry of Union Culture, Govt. of the Union of Burma, Hamilton Asia DS527.8 .A9

Osipov, Yuri M. (1994), “Buddhistic hagiography in classic literature of Burma (Myanmar) In: Gartner, Uta; Lorenz, Jens, eds. Tradition and modernity in Myanmar: proceedings of an international conference held in Berlin from May 7th to May 9th, 1993. Munster: Lit, 1994. 2v. v.2, 299-303 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .T74 1994

Pecenko, Primoz (1999), “The Tikas on the four Nikayas and their Myanmar and Sinhala sources,” In: Papers from the Myanmar Two Millennia Conference, Yangoon [sic], Myanmar, December 15-17, 1999. Yangon: s.n., 1999. various pagings. 1-22 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .M93 1999

Pranke, Patrick (1995), “On becoming a Buddhist wizard,” In: Lopez, Donald S., ed. Buddhism in practice. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995. 608p. (Princeton readings in religions.) 343-358 Hamilton Asia BQ1012 .B83 1995

Ray, Niharranjan (1946) An introduction to the study of Therav¯ada Buddhism in Burma: a study of Indo-Burmese historical and cultural relations from the earliest times to the British conquest / Calcutta : University of Calcutta,. Hamilton BL1445.B95 R3

Ray, Niharranjan, (1936), Sanskrit Buddhism in Burma Amsterdam, H.J. Paris Hamilton Asia BL1445.B95 R33 1936

Reynolds, Frank E.; Clifford, Regina T. (1980), “Sangha, society and the struggle for national integration: Burma and Thailand,” In: Reynolds, Frank E. and Theodore M. Ludwig, eds. Transitions and transformations of the history of religions: essays in honor of Joseph M. Kitagawa. Leiden: Brill, 1980. 56-88 Hamilton Asia BL50 .T72

Saibaba, V.V.S. (1990), “Buddhist devotionalism in Burma,” In: Kuppuram, G.; Kumudamani, K., eds. Researches in Indian history, archaeology, art and religion: Prof. Upendra Thakur felicitation volume. Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 1990. 2v. v.2, 543-549 Hamilton Asia DS423 .R47 1990

Sarkisyanz, Manuel (1965), Buddhist backgrounds of the Burmese revolution. Preface by Paul Mus The Hague, M. Nijhoff, Hamilton Asia DS485.B86 S34

Sao Htun Hmat Win (1986), Initiation of novicehood and the ordination of monkhood in the Burmese Buddhist culture / Rangoon, Burma : Dept. of Religious Affairs, Hamilton Asia BQ6160.B93 S37 1986

Sao Htun Hmat Win (1985), Basic principles of Burmese buddhism /Rangoon, Burma : Dept. of Religious Affairs, Hamilton Asia BQ4990.B93 S3 1985

Schmidt, Amy (2003), Knee deep in grace : the extraordinary life and teachings of Dipa Ma, Lake Junaluska, NC : Present Perfect Books Kauai CC: General Collection BQ950.I63 S36 2003

Schober, Juliane (1997), “In the presence of the Buddha: ritual veneration of the Burmese Mahamuni image,” In: Schober, Juliane, ed. Sacred biography in the Buddhist traditions of South and Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997. 366p. 259-288 Hamilton Asia BQ843 .S23 1997

Schober, Juliane (1989) Sybille Paths to enlightenment [microform] : Theravada Buddhism in upper Burma / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Hamilton Asia-Library Use Only MICROFICHE S30956

Slater, Robert Henry Lawson (1951) Paradox and Nirvana; a study of religious ultimates with special reference to Burmese Buddhism Chicago, University of Chicago Press Hamilton BL1445.B95 S6

Smith, Donald Eugene (1965), Religion and politics in Burma Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, Hamilton DS485.B892 S5

Snodgrass, Judith (1996), “Colonial constructs of Theravada Buddhism: current perspectives on Western writing on Asian tradition,” In: Traditions in current perspective: proceedings of the Conference on Myanmar and Southeast Asian Studies, 15-17 November 1995, Yangon. Yangon: Universities Historical Research Centre, 1996. 363p. 1996 79-98 Hamilton Asia DS 527.9 .C66 1995

Spiro, Melford E. (1982) Buddhism and society: a great tradition and its Burmese vicissitudes Berkeley: University of California Press, Hamilton Asia BQ418 .S65 1982

Stadtner, Donald M. (1999), “The enigma of the Mingun pagoda: is the pagoda really unfinished?,” In: Papers from the Myanmar Two Millennia Conference, Yangoon [sic], Myanmar, December 15-17, 1999. Yangon: s.n., 1999. various pagings. 1-43 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .M93 1999

Than Tun (1988), Essays on the history and Buddhism of Burma / edited by Paul Strachan Whiting Bay, Isle of Arran, Scotland : Kiscadale Publications, Hamilton Asia DS529.2 .T473 1988

Stargardt, Janice (2001), “The great silver reliquary from Sri Ksetra: the oldest Buddhist art in Burma and one of the world's oldest Pali inscriptions,” In: Klokke, Marijke J.; Kooij, Karel R. van, eds. Fruits of inspiration: studies in honour of Prof. J.G. de Casparis. Groningen, Netherlands: Egbert Forsten, 2001. 566p. 487-518, 9p. of plates Hamilton Asia DS338 .F78 2001

Tannenbaum, Nicola (1995), Who can compete against the world? : power-protection and Buddhism in Shan worldview Ann Arbor, Mich. : Association for Asian Studies, Hamilton Asia BL2077 .M34 T36 1995

Than Tun (1988), Essays on the history and Buddhism of Burma / edited by Paul Strachan. Whiting Bay, Isle of Arran, Scotland : Kiscadale Publications Hamilton Asia DS529.2 .T473 1988

Than Tun (2002), Buddhist art and architecture with special reference to Myanma / Yangon: Sein Pan Myaing : Distributed by Mon Ywe, Hamilton Asia N7312 .T53 2002

Tin Maung Maung Than (1993), “Sangha reforms and renewal of sasana in Myanmar: historical trends and contemporary practice,” In: Ling, Trevor, ed. Buddhist trends in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993. 188p. 6-63 Hamilton Asia BQ410 .B8 1993

Totten, George O. (1960), Buddhism and socialism in Japan and Burma, The Hague : Mouton Hamilton HX395.B8 T58

Tun, K.T. (1994), “Authority and freedom of action in the (Burmese) Buddhist tradition,” In: Gartner, Uta; Lorenz, Jens, eds. Tradition and modernity in Myanmar: proceedings of an international conference held in Berlin from May 7th to May 9th, 1993. Munster: Lit, 1994. 2v. v.2, 223-235 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .T74 1994

Yang, Guangyuan (2000), “A cultural interpretation of the religious and sacrificial rites of the Dai personality,” In: Hayashi, Yukio; Yang, Guangyuan, eds. Dynamics of ethnic cultures across national boundaries in Southwestern China and Mainland Southeast Asia: relations, societies and languages. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Lanna Cultural Center, Rajabhat Institute Chiang Mai; Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, 2000. 277p. 106-120 Hamilton Asia DS523.3 .D953 2000

Buddhism in Southeast Asia (2)

* CAMBODIA *

CAMBODIA: JOURNAL ARTICLES Ang, Choulean (1988), “The place of animism within popular Buddhism in Cambodia: the example of the monastery,” Asian Folklore Studies (Nagoya) 47, no.1: 35-41

Bertrand, Didier (1997), “Religious practices of Vietnamese in Cambodia and inter-ethnic relations,” Asian Migrant (Manila) 10, no.3 (Jul-Sep) 90-93

Choulean Ang (1988). The place of animism within popular Buddhism in Cambodia: the example of the monastery Asian folklore studies. 47: 35-41.

Dowling, Nancy (2000), “New light on early Cambodian Buddhism,” Journal of the Siam Society (Bangkok) 88, pts.1-2 : 122-155

Hansen, Anne (2003), “The image of an orphan: Cambodian narrative sites for Buddhist ethical reflection,” Journal of Asian Studies (Ann Arbor, MI) 62, no.3 (Aug 2003) 811-834

Charles F Keyes (1990). Buddhism and revolution in Cambodia Cultural survival Quarterly. 14: 60-3.

Nha Long (1990), “The Khmer Buddhist calendar,” Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.27 79-80

Sahai, Sachchidanand (1997), “The royal consecration (abhiseka) in ancient Cambodia,” South East Asian Review (Bihar, India) 22, nos.1-2 (Jan-Dec) 1-10

Sarin, San (1998) “Buddhism transformed: religious practices and institutional interplay in Cambodia,” Indian Journal of Buddhist Studies (Varanasi) 10: 116-140

Thakur, Vijay Kumar (1983), “From Mahayana to Hinayana: a study in Cambodian Buddhism,” Journal of the Oriental Institute (Baroda) 33, nos.1-2 (Sep-Dec) 123-131

Yukio Hayashi (1994). Political turmoil and the revival of Buddhism in Cambodia [Japanese] Southeast Asian studies. 32(1):139-41.

CAMBODIA: BOOKS OR BOOK CHAPTERS Anonymous (1986) Buddhism and the future of Cambodia,. Rithisen : Khmer Buddhist Research Center, Hamilton Asia DS 554.8 .B826 1986

Keyes, Charles F. (1994), Communist revolution and the Buddhist past in Cambodia In: Keyes, Charles F.; Kendall, Laurel; Hardacre, Helen, eds. Asian visions of authority: religion and the modern states of East and Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994. 366p. 1994 43-73 Hamilton Asia BL1055 .A87 1994

Khmer Buddhist Research Center (1986), Buddhism and the future of Cambodia, Rithisen : Khmer Buddhist Research Center, Hamilton Asia DS 554.8 .B826 1986

Lobo, Wibke (1998), Reflections on the Tantric Buddhist deity Hevajra in Cambodia In: Manguin, Pierre-Yves, ed. Southeast Asian archaeology 1994: proceedings of the 5th international conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Paris, 24th-28th October 1994. Hull, England: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1998. 2v. 1998 v.2, 113-127 Hamilton Asia DS523 .E89 1994

Lobo, Wibke (1997), The figure of Hevajra and Tantric Buddhism In: Jessup, Helen Ibbitson; Zephir, Thierry, eds. Sculpture of Angkor and ancient Cambodia: millenium of glory. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1997. 381p. 1997 71-78 Hamilton Asia NB1015 .S36 1997

Pou, Saveros (1998), Ancient Cambodia's epigraphy: the concept of merit-making and merit-offering In: Manguin, Pierre-Yves, ed. Southeast Asian archaeology 1994: proceedings of the 5th international conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Paris, 24th-28th October 1994. Hull, England: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1998. 2v. 1998 v.2, 97-102 Hamilton Asia DS523 .E89 1994

Thompson, Ashley (2000), Introductory remarks between the lines: writing histories of Middle Cambodia In: Andaya, Barbara Watson, ed. Other pasts: women, gender and history in early modern Southeast Asia. Honolulu: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2000. 347p. 2000 47-68 Hamilton Asia HQ1745.8 .O83 2000

Thompson, Ashley (1998), The ancestral cult in transition: reflections on spatial organization in Cambodia's early Theravada complex In: Klokke, Marijke J.; Bruijn, Thomas de, eds. Southeast Asian archaeology 1966: proceedings of the 6th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Leiden, 2-6 September 1996. Hull, England: Centre for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1998. 318p. 1998 273-295 Hamilton Asia Folio DS523 .E89 1996

Yang Sam (1987), Khmer Buddhism and politics from 1954 to 1984 / Newington, CT : Khmer Studies Institute, Hamilton Asia BQ466 .Y36 1987

Yi Thon (1998), The role of Buddhist wats and NGOs in environmental preservation in Cambodia In: Gyallay-Pap, Peter; Bottomley, Ruth, eds. Toward an environmental ethic in Southeast Asia. Phnom Penh: The Buddhist Institute, 1998. 183p. 1998 77-86 Hamilton Asia Folio GE42 .T69 1998

Yos Hut Khemacaro (1998), Causes and effects of the environmental crisis In: Gyallay-Pap, Peter; Bottomley, Ruth, eds. Toward an environmental ethic in Southeast Asia. Phnom Penh: The Buddhist Institute, 1998. 183p. 1998 77-86 Hamilton Asia Folio GE42 .T69 1998

Zago, Marcello (1976), “Contemporary Khmer Buddhism,” in Heinrich Dumoulin (ed) The Cultural, Political and Religious Significance of Buddhism in the Modern World, London: Collier Macmillan Publishers Hamilton BQ4015 .D8513

* INDONESIA *

INDONESIA: JOURNAL ARTICLES Anonymous (1971), “The Buddhasasana grows in Indonesia,” Visakha Puja (Bangkok) (May) 58-61

Bechert, Heinz (1982-1983) “Renaissance of Buddhism in Indonesia,” Journal of the Department of Pali (Calcutta) 1: 24-30

Brown, Iem (1987), “Contemporary Indonesian Buddhism and monotheism,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (Singapore) 18, no.1 (Mar 1987) 108-117

Chandra, Lokesh (1979), “Yogatantra Buddhism in Indonesia and its bearing on the Borobodur,” Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha (Allahabad) 35, pts.1-2 (Jan-Jun) 1-73

Chandra, Lokesh (1985), “Borobudur as a monument of esoteric Buddhism,” Journal of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta) 27, no.4 : 22-77

Chandra, Lokesh; Singhal, Sudarshana Devi (1991), “The Buddhist bronzes of Surocolo,” Indian Journal of Buddhist Studies (Varanasi) 3, no.2: 8-20

Harnish, David (1993-1994), “ The future meets the past in the present: music and Buddhism in Lombok,” Asian Music (New York) 25, nos.1-2: -50

Hobart, Angela (1990), “The enlightened Prince Sutasoma: transformations of a Buddhist story,” Indonesia (Ithaca, NY) no.49 (Apr) 75-102

Hose, G.F. (1880), “The ruins of Boro Budur in Java,” Journal of the Straits Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) 6 (Dec) 203-223, 7p. of plates

Jeto, Phra (1973), “The revival of Buddhism in Indooesia,” Visakha Puja (Bangkok) no.2516 (May 16) 42-45

Jordaan, Roy E. (1998), “The Tara temple of Kalasan in central Java,” Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient (Paris) 85 : 163-183

King, Victor T. (1975), “Saminism, Buddhism and folk beliefs in Java: a reply to Niels Mulder,”Asia Quarterly (Brussels) 1975/1: 91-96

Klokke, Marijke J. (1995), “Borobudur: a Mandala? A contextual approach to the function and meaning of Borobudur,” IIAS [International Institute for Asian Studies] Yearbook (Leiden): 191-219

Legendre, Francoise (1981), “Some decorative motifs at Tjandi Sewu, Central Java,” Arts of Asia (Hong Kong) 11, no.5 (Sep-Oct 1981) 103-109

Lopez y Royo-Iyer, Alessandra (1991), “Dance images of ancient Indonesian temples (Hindu-Buddhist period): the dance reliefs of Borobudur,” Indonesia Circle (London) no.56 (Nov) 3-23

Mulder, Niels (1974), Saminism and Buddhism: a note on a field visit to a Samin community, Asia Quarterly (Brussels) no.3 : 253-258

Nihom, Max (1998), “The Mandala of Candi Gumpung (Sumatra) and the Indo-Tibetan Vajrasekharatantra [Maura Jambi],” Indo-Iranian Journal (The Hague) 41, no.3 (Jul) 245-254

Nilaknata Sastri, A.K. (1941), “Sri Vijaya,” Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient (Paris) 40, no.2 : 239-313

O'Brien, K.P. (1990), “Candi Jago: a Javanese interpretation of the wheel of existence?,” Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs (Sydney) 24 (Win 1990) 23-85

O'Connor, Stanley J. (1975), “A metal mould for the manufacture of clay Buddhist Votive stupas,” Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) 48, pt.2 ( 1975) 60-63 + 3 plates

Royo-Iyer, Alessandra Lopez y (1991), “Dance images of ancient Indonesian temples (Hindu-Buddhist period): the dance reliefs of Borobudur,” Indonesia Circle (London) no.56 (Nov 1991) 3-23

Sarkar, Himansu Bhusan (1977-78) “The philosophical matrix and content of the Vajrayana system as practised by the Sailendra-rulers of Central Java (c. 775-856 A.D.): a search for its origin (a literary and inscriptional approach),” Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (Pune, India) 58-59 : 921-938

Snellgrove, David L. (1996) “Borobudar: stupa or mandala?,” East and West (Rome) 46, nos.3-4 (Dec 1996) 477-483

Sundberg, Jeffrey Roger (2003), “A Buddhist mantra recovered from the Ratu Baka plateau: a preliminary study of its implications for Sailendra-era Java,” Bijdragen Tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Leiden) 159, no.1 : 163-188

Woodward, Hiram W., Jr. (1981), “Borobudur and the mirrorlike mind,” Archaeology (New York) 34, no.6 (Nov-Dec 1981) 40-47

INDONESIA: BOOKS OR BOOK CHAPTERS Bernet Kempers, A.J. (1982), “Barabudur: a Buddhist mystery in stone,” In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. 253p. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) 109-119 Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37

Brown, I.E.M. (1990) Agama Buddha Maitreya: a modern Buddhist sect in Indonesia, In: Tan, Chee Beng, ed. The preservation and adaptation of the tradition: studies of Chinese religious expression in Southeast Asia. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. of Anthropology, 1990. 1v. (Contributions to Southeast Asian ethnography, no. 1990 113-124; also in CONTRIB SE AS ETHNOL no.9 (Dec 1990) 113-124 Hamilton Asia GN635.A75 C66 no.9

de Casparis, J.G. (1982), “The dual nature of Barabudur,” In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. 253p. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) 47-83 Hamilton Asia DS338 .F78 2001

Ensink, Jacob (1978), “Siva-Buddhism in Java and Bali,” In: Bechert, Heinz, ed. Buddhism in Ceylon and studies on religious syncretism in Buddhist countries: report on a symposium in Gottingen. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978. 178-198 Hamilton Asia BQ352 .B83

Fontein, Jan (2001), The sarira of Borobudur, In: Klokke, Marijke J.; Kooij, Karel R. van, eds. Fruits of inspiration: studies in honour of Prof. J.G. de Casparis. Groningen, Netherlands: Egbert Forsten, 2001. 566p. 2001 83-91 Hamilton Asia DS338 .F78 2001

Fontein, Jan (1982), “Notes on the jatakas and avadanas of Barabudur,” In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. 253p. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) 85-108 Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37

Forman, Bedrich(1980), Borobudir; the Buddhist legend in stone, London: Octopus Books Hamilton Asia NA6026.6.B6 F67

Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W., Jr., eds. (1981) Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument Berkeley, Calif.: Asian Humanities Press, Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37

Gomez, Luis O. (1982), “Observations of the role of the Gandavyuha in the design of Barabudur,” In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. 253p. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) 173-194 Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37

Ishii, Kazuko (1991), “Borobudur, the Tattvasamgraha, and the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan,” In: Lokesh Chandra, ed. The art and culture of South-East Asia. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 1991. 430p., 20p. of plates. (Sata-pitaka series, 364.) 151-164 Hamilton Asia NX577 .A78 1991

Jordaan, R.E. (1991), “Text, temple and tirtha,” In: Lokesh Chandra, ed. The art and culture of South-East Asia. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 1991. 430p., 20p. of plates. (Sata-pitaka series, 364.) 165-180 Hamilton Asia NX577 .A78 1991

Lancaster, Lewis R. (1982), “Literary sources for a study of Barabudur,” In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. 253p. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) 195-205 Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37

Magetsari, Noerhadi (1999), “The innerside of Borobudur,” In: Nuryanti, Wiendu, ed. Heritage, tourism and local communities. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 1999. 308p. 74-82 Hamilton Asia G156.5.H47 H475 1999

Mantra, Ida Bagoes (1991), “The cult of Siva-Buddha,” In: Lokesh Chandra, ed. The art and culture of South-East Asia. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 1991. 430p., 20p. of plates. (Sata-pitaka series, 364.) 199-214 Hamilton Asia NX577 .A78 1991

Shukla, M.S. (1990), Art history and central Javanese Buddhism--c. 800-c.1000 A.D.: In: Kuppuram, G.; Kumudamani, K., eds. Researches in Indian history, archaeology, art and religion: Prof. Upendra Thakur felicitation volume. Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan, 1990. 2v. 1990 v.2, 539-542, Hamilton Asia DS423 .R47 1990

Suryadinata, Leo (1998) State and minority religions in contemporary Indonesia: recent government policy towards Confucianism, Tridharma and Buddhism / In Tsuneo Ayabe (ed) Nation-state, identity, and religion in Southeast Asia / Singapore : Singapore Society of Asian Studies Hamilton Asia BL65 .S8 N368 1998

Taylor, James (1998), The changing politico-religious landscape in modernizing Thailand : Buddhist monasticism, the state, and emergent religious hybridities, In Oh Myung-Seok, Kim Hyung-Jun (eds.) Religion, ethnicity and modernity in Southeast Asia / Seoul : Seoul National University Press Hamilton Asia BL2050 .R43 1998

Tsuchiya, Kenji (1989), Batavia in a time of transition / In Yoshihiro Tsubouchi (ed), The formation of urban civilization in Southeast Asia / Kyoto : Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Hamilton Asia HT147.A785 F67 1989

Vijaya Samarawickrama. (1991), “The human being in Buddhism,” In: The human being: perspectives from different spiritual traditions. Penang: Aliran Kesdaran Negara, Aliran, 1991. 220p18-26 Hamilton Asia BZ 911210.61

Wayman, Alex (1982), “Reflections on the theory of Barabudur as a mandala,” In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. 253p. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) 139-172 Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37

Woodward, Hiram W., Jr. (1982), “Barabudur as a stupa,”In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. 253p. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) 121-138 Hamilton Asia BQ6343.B67 B37

* LAOS * LAOS: JOURNAL ARTICLES Anonymous (1986) Marx, Buddha and Laos Asiaweek (Hongkong) 12, no. 36 (Sep 7) 64-65

Condominas, Georges (1999) Folk Bouddhism [sic] in Lao rural environment South East Asian Review (Bihar, India) 24, nos.1-2 : 21-52

Ladwig, Patrice (2002), “The mimetic representation of the dead and social space among the Buddhist Lao,” Tai Culture: International Review on Tai Cultural Studies (Berlin) 7, no.2 (Dec) 120-134

Ladwig, Patrice (2000) “Relics, 'representation' and power: some remarks on stupas containing relics of the Buddha in Laos,” Tai Culture: International Review on Tai Cultural Studies (Berlin) 5, no.1 (Jun) 70-84

Penny, Benjamin (1996), “Buddhism and Daoism in The 180 Precepts Spoken by Lord Lao,” Taoist Resources (Bloomington, IN) 6, no.2 (Aug) 1-16

Sithiphorn Na Nakhorn Phanom (1998), “Phajaa naak: the creator and the destroyer,” Tai Culture: International Review on Tai Cultural Studies (Berlin) 3, no.2 (Dec) 119-136

Stuart-Fox, Martin (1983), “Marxism and Theravada Buddhism: the legitimation of political authority in Laos,” Pacific Affairs (Vancouver, B.C.) 56, no.3 (Fall) 428-454

Stuart-Fox, Martin and R. Buckneal (1982), “Politicization of the Buddhist Sangha in Laos,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies,” 13(1):70-71

Vongsavanh Boutsavath; Chapelier, Georges (1973), “Lao popular Buddhism and community development,” Journal of the Siam Society (Bangkok) 61, pt.2 (Jul) 1-38

LAOS: BOOKS, OR BOOK CHAPTERS A Lao Buddhist (2001), “Laos: in praise of Lord Buddha,” In: Ahir, D.C., ed. Buddhism in South-East Asia: a cultural survey. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2001. 252p. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series no.207) 87-90 Hamilton Asia BQ408 .B83 2001

Cohen, Paul T.(2000), Lue across borders: pilgrimage and the Muang Sing reliquary in northern Laos, In: Evans, Grant; Hutton, Chris; Kuah, Khun Eng, eds. Where China meets Southeast Asia: social & cultural change in the border regions. New York: St. Martin's Press; Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2000. viii, 346p. 2000 145-161 Hamilton Asia HF1604.Z4 I489 2000

Evans, Grant (ed) (1999), Laos : culture and society, Chiang Mai, Thailand : Silkworm Books Hamilton Asia DS555.3 .L343 1999

Evans, Grant (1998), Secular fundamentalism and Buddhism in Laos / Religion, ethnicity and modernity in Southeast Asia / In Oh Myung-Seok, Kim Hyung-Jun. (eds) Seoul : Seoul National University Press. Hamilton Asia BL2050 .R43 1998

Hayashi, Yukio (2000), “Spells and boundaries in regional context: 'wisa' and 'thamma' among the Thai-Lao in Northeast Thailand,” In: Hayashi, Yukio; Yang, Guangyuan, eds. Dynamics of ethnic cultures across national boundaries in Southwestern China and Mainland Southeast Asia: relations, societies and languages. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Lanna Cultural Center, Rajabhat Institute Chiang Mai; Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, 2000. 277p. 169-188 Hamilton Asia DS523.3 .D953 2000

Huxley, Andrew, ed (1996) Thai law, Buddhist law: essays on the legal history of Thailand, Laos and Burma Bangkok: White Orchid, 1996

Lafont, Pierre-Bernard (1982) Buddhism in contemporary Laos, In: Stuart-Fox, Martin, ed. Contemporary Laos: studies in the politics and society of the Lao People's Democratic Republic. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982. 345p. 1982 148-162 Hamilton Asia DS555.84 .C66 1982

* MALAYSIA *

MALAYSIA: JOURNAL ARTICLES Blagden, C.O. (1918), “The cannibal king in the 'Kedah Annals'” Journal of the Straits Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Singapore) 79 (Sep) 47-48

Cheu, Hock Tong (1995) ,“Spiritual perspectives on the protection of the environment with special reference to Chinese Buddhist ethics [in Malaysia],” Jurnal Antropologi dan Sosiologi (Kuala Lumpur) 22 129-144

Farrer, R.J. (1933), “A Buddhistic purification ceremony,” Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Kuala Lumpur) 11, pt.2 (Dec) 261-263

Ismail, Mohamed Yusof (1987), “Buddhism and ethnicity: the case of the Siamese Kelantan,” Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia (Singapore) 2, no.2 (Aug) 231-254

Ling, Trevor O. (1992), “Revival without revivalism: the case of the Buddhists of Malaysia,” Sojourn: Social Issues in Southeast Asia (Singapore) 7, no.2 (Aug) 326-335

Liow, Woon Khin Benny (1989) Buddhist temples and association in Penang, 1845-1948 Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (Kuala Lumpur) 62, no.1 57-87

Mohamed Yusoff Ismail (1990), “Buddhism among the Siamese of Kelantan: minority religion in a Muslim state,” Jurnal Antropologi dan Sosiologi (Kuala Lumpur) 18 55-69

Muhammad Kamal Hassan (1977) A brief survey of Buddhist ascetic practices Akademika (Kuala Lumpur) no.10 (Jan) 67-76

Vijaya Samarawickrama (2001) Bar Council Malaysia seminar on freedom of religion: the Buddhist view, INSAF: The Journal of the Malaysian Bar (Kuala Lumpur) Special issue 43-54

MALAYSIA : BOOKS, OR BOOK CHAPTERS Mohamed Yusoff Ismail (1993), “Two faces of Buddhism: Chinese participation in Thai Theravada temples in Kelantan,” In: Cheu, Hock Tong, ed. Chinese beliefs and practices in Southeast Asia: studies on the Chinese religion in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia. Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications, 1993. 393p. 165-183 Hamilton Asia BL1950.A785 C445 1993

Mohamed Yusoff Ismail (1993) Buddhism and ethnicity : social organization of a Buddhist temple in Kelantan / Singapore : ISEAS, Hamilton Asia BQ549.K35 M69 1993

Nagata, Judith (1995), Limits to the indigenisation of Buddhism in Malaysia, with a focus on the religious community in Penang, In: Rokiah Talib; Tan, Chee-Beng, eds. Dimensions of tradition and development in Malaysia. Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications, 1995. 557p. 1995 307-345 Hamilton Asia HN700.6 .A8 D55 1995

Nagata, Judith (2001), “World religions as a source of power among Chinese women in Malaysia,” In: Armstrong, M. Jocelyn; Armstrong, R. Warwick; Mulliner, Kent, eds. Chinese populations in contemporary Southeast Asian societies. Richmond, Surrey, England: Curzon Press, 2001. 268p. 2001 151-187 Hamilton Asia DS523.4.C45 C45 2001

Pracha Hutanuwatra; Sulak Sivaraksa (1991), “Aids and impediments to the realization of humanity according to Buddhism,” In: The human being: perspectives from different spiritual traditions. Penang: Aliran Kesdaran Negara, Aliran, 1991. 220p. 72-79 Hamilton Asia BZ 911210.61

Tan Teik Beng (1988) Beliefs and practices among Malaysian Chinese Buddhists, . Kuala Lumpur : Buddhists Missionary Society, Hamilton Asia DS595.2.C5 T36 1988

Buddhism in Southeast Asia (3)

Buddhism in southeast asia (4), buddhism in southeast asia (5), buddhism in southeast asia (6).

Nguyen The Anh (2002), “From Indra to Maitreya: Buddhist influence in Vietnamese political thought,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (Singapore) 33, no.2 (Jun) 225-241

Nhat Hanh, Thich (1976), “The miracle of being awake,” Visakha Puja (Bangkok) 2519 58-92

Pelzer, Kristin (1992), “On defining 'Vietnamese religion': reflections on Bruce Matthews' article [Matthews' article The Place of Religion in Vietnam Today],” Buddhist-Christian Studies (Honolulu) 12 (1992) 75-79

Pelzer, Kristin (1993), “United States and Vietnam: on the need for spiritual reconciliation,” Buddhist-Christian Studies (Honolulu) 13: 247-257

Phong T. Nguyen (2002). Music and movement in Vietnamese Buddhism [in special issue 'Body and ritual in Buddhist musical culture'; with preface by PD Green, 9-16] The World of Music. 44(2): 57-71

Quang Do (1974), “A summary of the history of Vietnamese Buddhism,” Van Hanh Bulletin (Saigon) 6, no.2 (Jun) 3-28

Soucy, Alexander (1996). The dynamics of change in an exiled pagoda: Vietnamese Buddhism in Montreal Canberra anthropology. 19(2): 29-45

The major teachlngs of Vietnamese Buddhism (1972), “Vietnam Magazine (Saigon),” 5, nos.1-2 (Jan-Feb) 11-15

The, Hung (1979), “Thien Buddhist school,” Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.56 : 30-56

Thich Thien Chau (1990), “Bioethics as seen by Buddhists,” Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.25 : 83-102

Thich Thien Chau (1993), “Prominent figures of Vietnamese Buddhism,” Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.38 : 35-55

Topmiller, Robert (1997), “Confrontation in Danang: III MAF and the Buddhist struggle movement in South Vietnam, 1966 [Third Marine Amphibious Force],” Journal of American-East Asian Relations (Chicago) 6, nos.2-3 (Sum-Fall) 207-234

Tran Thi Bang Thanh (1993), “The two Buddhist literary tendencies of Vietnam's Middle Ages,” Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.38: 26-34

Trian Nguyen (1995), “Contemporary Vietnamese publications on Buddhism: a bibliographic review,” CORMOSEA Bulletin (Ann Arbor, MI) 24, no.1 (Jun) 8-13

Van Nhan (1974), “Buddhism in Vietnam: the middle path,” Vietnam Magazine (Saigon) 7, no.5 : 7-9

Vu Van Vinh (1999), “Development of Confucianism in the Tran dynasty and the struggle of Confucian scholars against Buddhism at the end of the XIV century,” Vietnam Social Sciences (Hanoi) no.2 (70) : 55-60

VIETNAM: BOOKS, OR BOOK CHAPTERS Anonymous (2001), In: Buddhism in Vietnam Ahir, D.C., ed. Buddhism in South-East Asia: a cultural survey. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 2001. 252p. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series no.207) 2001 120-126 Hamilton Asia BQ408 .B83. 2001

McHale, Shawn Frederick (2004), Print and power : Confucianism, communism, and Buddhism in the making of modern Vietnam /. Honolulu : University of Hawai`i Press, Hamilton Asia DS556.8 .M387 2004

Minh Chi, et al.; Nguyen Tai Thu, ed. (1992), History of Buddhism in Vietnam Citation: Hanoi: Social Sciences Pub. House, 1992 427 p., 13 leaves of plates At head of title: National Centre for Social Sciences of Vietnam, Institute of Philosophy, Hamilton Asia BQ492 .L5313 1992

Minh, Chi; Ha, Van Tan; Nguyen, Tai Thu (1993), Buddhism in Vietnam: from its origins to the 19th century,” Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 1993 Hamilton Asia BQ492 .M66 1993

Nguy~ên Long Thành Nam (2003), Hoa Hao Buddhism in the course of Vietnam's history; abridged translation by Sergei Blagov, New York : Nova Science Publishers Hamilton Asia BQ9800.P452 N49 2003

Nhat Hanh, Thich (1992), “ The diamond that cuts through illusion: commentaries on the Praj naparamita Diamond Sutra, Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 115 p. Hamilton Asia BQ1997 .N4413 1992

Nhat Hanh, Thich (1993), Love in action: writings on nonviolent social change, Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 1993 154 p., Hamilton Asia, BQ4570.S6 N47 1993

Phan Cu De (1999) Religion, philosophy and literature in Vietnam, In: Mallari-Hall, Luisa J.; Tope, Lily Rose R., eds. Texts and contexts: interactions between literature and culture in Southeast Asia. Papers presented at the International Conference on Southeast Asian Literatures, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, 19-21 May 1997. Quezon City: Department of English and Comparative Literature, University of Philippines, 1999. 178p. 1999 104-112 Hamilton Asia PL493 .I58 1997

Quinn, Charles Underhill (Translated) (1970) The cross and the Bo-tree; Catholics and Buddhists in Vietnam. New York, Sheed and Ward Hamilton & Hamilton Asia DS557.A6 G4513

Tai, Hue-tam Ho (1988), “Perfect world and perfect time: Maitreya in Vietnam,” In: Sponberg, Alan; Hardacre, Helen, eds. Maitreya, the future Buddha. Cambridge, Eng.; New York: Cambridge UP, 1988. 304p. 154-170 Hamilton Asia BQ4690.M3 M34 1988

Thien Tam, Thich (1991), “ Buddhism of wisdom and faith: Pure Land principles and practice,” : Sepulveda, Calif.: International Buddhist Monastic Institute, 1991 340 p. Hamilton Asia, BQ8515.6 .T5 1991

Topmiller, Robert J. (2002), The lotus unleashed : the Buddhist peace movement in South Vietnam, 1964-1966, Lexington, Ky. : University Press of Kentucky Hamilton Asia DS557.62 .T66 2002

Topmiller, Robert (1996), The Buddhist crisis of 1964, Western Conference of the Association for Asian Studies, Hamilton Asia DS 559.62 .V5 T67 1996

* SOUTHEAST ASIA *

SOUTHEAST ASIA: JOURNAL ARTICLES Andaya, Barbara Watson (2002), “Localising the universal: women, motherhood and the appeal of early Theravada Buddhism,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (Singapore) 33, no.1 (Feb) 1-30

Houtart, Francois (1976) “Buddhism and politics in Southeast Asia,” Social Scientist (New Delhi) 5, no.3 (Oct) 3-23 and 5, no.4 (Nov) 30-45

Prem, Purachatra (1972) The influence of Buddhist literature in South East Asia Asian Pacific Quarterly of Cultural and Social Affairs (Seoul) 4, no.2 (Aug) 85-87

Ray, Niharranjan (1973) Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Indian and Foreign Review (New Delhi) 10, no.7 (Jan 15 1973) 19-

Rutledge, Paul (1986) Southeast Asian religions: a perspective on historical Buddhism within the developing states of Southeast Asia, East Asia Journal of Theology (Singapore) 4, no.2 (Oct) 138-169

Schober, Juliane (1995) The Theravada Buddhist engagement with modernity in Southeast Asia: whither the social paradigm of the galactic polity?, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (Singapore) 26, no.2 (Sep) 307-325

Siraporn Nathalang (1999) Conflict and compromise between the indigenous beliefs and Buddhism as reflected in Tai-Thai rice myths Tai Culture: International Review on Tai Cultural Studies (Berlin) 4, no.2 (Dec 86-95

Skilling, Peter (1997) The advent of Theravada Buddhism to mainland South-East Asia, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (Northfield, MN) 20, no.1 (Sum 93-107

SOUTHEAST ASIA: BOOKS OR BOOK CHAPTERS Ahir, D.C., ed. (2001) Buddhism in South-East Asia: a cultural survey, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications252p Hamilton Asia BQ408 .B83 2001

Amore, Roy C (1981), Have stories will travel: how Buddhism won the Southeast In: Hainsworth, Geoffrey B., et al., ed. Southeast Asia: women, changing social structure and cultural continuity. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1981. 150-155 Hamilton Asia HN690.8.A8 C36 1979

Anacker, Stefan (1995), Introduction of Buddhism to Southeast Asia and subsequent history up to the eleventh century, In: Prebish, Charles S., ed. Buddhism: a modern perspective. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1995. 330p. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica, no.140.) 170-177 Hamilton BQ4012 .P73

Anacker, Stefan (1995), Medieval Buddhism in Southeast Asia In: Prebish, Charles S., ed. Buddhism: a modern perspective. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1995. 330p. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica, no.140.) 178-186 Hamilton BQ4012 .P73

Bechert, Heinz (1978), German studies of Buddhism in Southeast Asia In: Cultures in encounter: Germany and the Southeast Asian nations: a documentation of the ASEAN Cultural Week, Tubingen, Summer 1977. Stuttgart: Institut f&r Auslandsbeziehungen, 1978. 60-63 Hamilton Asia DS501.5 .C84

Blackburn, Anne M. (2003), “Localizing Linage: Importing Higher Ordination in the Theravadin South and Southeast Asia,” in John Clifford Holt, Jacob N. Kinnard, Jonathan S. Walters (eds), Constituting communities : Therav¯ada Buddhism and the religious cultures of South and Southeast Asia, Albany : State University of New York Press, Hamilton Asia BQ4570.S6 C66 2003

Blofeld, John E. (1971), Mahayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Singapore, D. Moore for Asia Pacific, 9, 51p Hamilton Asia BL1445.A8 B55

Bobilin, Robert (1999), Buddhism, nationalism and violence, In: Socially engaged Buddhism for the new millennium: essays in honor of the Ven. Phra Dhammapitaka (Bhikkhu P.A. Payutto) on his 60th birthday anniversary. Bangkok: Sathirakoses-Nagapradipa Foundation; Foundation for Children, 1999. 536p. 297-306 Hamilton Asia BQ4570 .S6 S65 1999

Brown, Robert L. (1988), Bodhgaya and South-East Asia, In: Leoshko, Janice, ed. Bodhgaya: the site of enlightenment. Bombay: Marg Publications, 1988. 156p + plates. 101-124 Hamilton Asia Folio BQ6480 .B63 1988

Bunnag, Jane (1995), The way of the monk and the way of the world: Buddhism in Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, In: Heinz, Bechert; Gombrich, Richard Francis, eds. The world of Buddhism: Buddhist monks and nuns in society and culture. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995. 308p. 159-170 Hamilton Folio BQ4012 .W67 1984

Butr-Indr, Siddhi (1973), The social philosophy of Buddhism / Bangkok, Thailand : Mahamakut Buddhist University, Hamilton Asia BQ4570.S6 S62

Chatsumarn Kabilsingh (1994), The problem of ordination: women in Buddhism In: Fu, Charles Wei-hsun; Wawrytko, Sandra A., eds. Buddhist behavioral codes and the modern world: an international symposium. Westport, Conn.; London: Greenwood, 1994. 333p. (Contributions to the study of religion, no.38.) 161-169 Hamilton Asia BQ5400 .B84 1994

Chatsumarn Kabilsingh (1998), Buddhism and nature conservation, Bangkok, Thailand : Thammasat University Press, Hamilton Asia BQ4570 .N3 C43 1998

Christie, Anthony H. (1989), Buddhism in Southeast Asia: an anecdotal survey, In: Skorupski, Tadeusz, ed. The Buddhist heritage: papers delivered at the symposium of the same name convened at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, November 1985. Tring, U.K.: Institute of Buddhist Studies,. 276p. 1989 55-69 Hamilton Asia BQ100 .B78 1989

De Silva, Padmiri (1998), Buddhist perspectives on the environmental crisis: comprehending the malady and exploring a remedy In: Gyallay-Pap, Peter; Bottomley, Ruth, eds. Toward an environmental ethic in Southeast Asia. Phnom Penh: The Buddhist Institute, 1998. 183p. 14-30 Hamilton Asia Folio GE42 .T69 1998

Gombrich, Richard F. (1989), Buddhist cultic life in Southeast Asia, In: Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo; Cummings, Mark D., eds. Buddhism and Asian history. New York: Macmillan; London: Collier Macmillan, 1989. 414p. (Religion, history, and culture.) 309-315 Hamilton Asia BQ266 .B833 1989

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Adolescence Hamilton, Hamilton Asia HQ35.A1 A3 Akademika (Kuala Lumpur) Hamilton Asia AS486.U54 A13 Aliran Monthly (Pulau Pinang) Hamilton Asia Folio DS591 .A45 American Anthropologist (Arlington, VA) , Hamilton Main GN1 .A5 American Ethnologist (Washington, DC) Hamilton Main GN1 .A53 Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (Pune, India) Hamilton Asia PK101 .B6 Anthropological forum Hamilton Main- GN4 .A5 Anthropos (Fribourg, Switzerland) Hamilton Main GN1 .A7 Archaeology (New York) Hamilton Main GN700 .A725 Archiv Orientalni (Prague) Hamilton Main DS1 .A47 Archives de sciences sociales des religions. Hamilton Main BL60 .A7 Arts of Asia (Hong Kong) Hamilton Main N 8 .A772 Asia (New York) ,Hamilton Asia DS1 .A4712 Asia Journal of Theology (Singapore) Hamilton Asia BR1 .E27 Asia Quarterly (Brussels) Hamilton Asia DS1 .A464 Asian culture quarterly. 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Erik W. Davis. Deathpower: Buddhism's Ritual Imagination in Cambodia (Review)

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H-Buddhism Reviews

Benjamin Baumann

Erik W. Davis’s book Deathpower: Buddhism’s Ritual Imagination in Cambodia is an important and brilliant study that seeks no less than “to represent a portion of the Cambodian religious imaginary through a study of rituals involved in the management of death and spirits” (pp. 8-9). Deathpower is a seminal contribution to the field of Mainland Southeast Asian religious studies as well as a superb ethnography of everyday religious life in contemporary Cambodia.

Buddhist conceptions of the after-life, and prescribed rites in relation to the dead, were modified adaptations of brahmanical patterns of religious culture in ancient India. In this article, I demonstrate how Buddhist conceptions, rites and dispositions have been sustained and transformed in a contemporary annual ritual of rising importance in Cambodia, pchum ben. I analyze phcum ben to determine its funda-mental importance to the sustenance and coherence of the Khmer family and national identity. Pchum ben is a 15-day ritual celebrated toward the end of the three-month monastic rain retreat season each year. During these 15 days, Bud-dhist laity attend ritually to the dead, providing special care for their immediately departed kin and other more recently deceased ancestors. The basic aim of pchum ben involves making a successful transaction of karma transfer to one’s dead kin, in order to help assuage their experiences of suffering. The proximate catalyst for pchum ben’s current p...

GISCA Occasional Paper Series; 24

Paul Christensen

This paper explores the growing demand for spirit rituals in Cambodia over the last two decades. Beginning with the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime in 1979, the author focuses on the revitalisation of “Brahmanism” (brahmaṇya-sāsanā), a term that in Cambodia describes religious practices involving spirits. Brahmanist practices have grown in popularity in parallel with the rapid revitalisation of Buddhism that has taken place since the end of the post-Khmer Rouge Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia in 1989. The author argues that the influence of ideas of pāramī, or spiritual power, is a significant reason for the popularity of Brahmanist rituals. In contrast to Buddhist practice which places emphasis on the accumulation of merit (puṇya), spirits and their human mediums may provide immediate cures, or help in the accumulation of power and money. Hence Brahmanism is appealing to many Cambodians – as the title of the paper suggests – because their offerings are traded for more immediate benefits than Buddhist merit-making. Because of their flexibility, Brahmanist rituals have been easily adapted to the new capitalist market, which was ‘liberalized’ in the 1990s. Unlike the well-documented development of Buddhism, the revitalization of Brahmanism has gone rather unnoticed by scholars of Cambodia. Nonetheless, it has become a modern phenomenon that provides revealing insights into a society that finds itself in politically troubled times.

Journal of Southeast Asian Studies

Erik W Davis

Cambodia Buddhism in a dark age: Cambodian monks under Pol Pot By IAN HARRIS Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2013. Pp. 242. Plates, Notes, Abbreviations and Glossary, Bibliography, Index. Ian Harris passed away in late December of 2014, just as I finished this review. His passing is a loss to Buddhist Studies, and especially to Cambodian Buddhist Studies. Harris's early training was in Buddhist studies; his research into the political aspects of Buddhism led him to realise the dearth of scholarly attention paid to Cambodian Buddhism, and specifically to the impact of the Khmer Rouge revolution on Cambodian Buddhist monks and institutions. This book focuses on that problematic. This book is an important contribution as a resource, collection, and chapter-by-chapter analysis of how Buddhist monks in Cambodia fared under Democratic Kampuchea (Khmer Rouge) and their successor socialist regime, the People's Republic of Kampuchea. The highlights are the painstaking work of collection and narration, rather than a single sustained argument. Undoubtedly this is in part a result of the way in which the book relies on a vertiginous archive of documents of various sorts, from various perspectives, in addition to Harris's own interviews. To the extent that Harris makes an argument throughout the book, it is that 'some elements of Buddhist belief and practice were subsumed into the Khmer Rouge worldview' (p. 139). The finest contributions in the book are those in which Harris sorts through a monumental amount of material to construct several narratives of how Buddhism and Buddhist monks fared before and after Democratic Kampuchea. Although much of this material has been available in other sources, it has been scattered, episodic, and largely in specialist documents, many of which are hard to obtain. As Harris notes in his final chapter, he hopes in part to aid the process of the Khmer Rouge Tribunal (Extraordinary Chambers of the Courts of Cambodia) through this effort. Harris's treatment is excellent, and these chapters will help readers understand the complex and diverse ways in which Cambodian Buddhist monks interacted with --and sometimes were--Cambodian communists. Chapter 3, where the book-length argument is first presented, is less successful. As noted earlier, Harris argues that there was a subsumption of Buddhist beliefs and practices into the Khmer Rouge worldview, but it is unclear what this subsumption means, or what Buddhism Harris refers to. If he means that the previously hegemonic worldview, ritual practices, and moral discourse influenced Khmer communism and its discourse, he makes a good case: certainly the Khmer Rouge leadership employed (a distinctly Buddhist discursive tactic of) redefining words with moral values so that true morality was re-coded to mean the new moral and practical norms of Democratic Kampuchea. …

Anne Hansen

Overview and bibliography on Cambodian Buddhism for the Encyclopedia of Religion

Southeast Asian Studies

Buddhist conceptions of the after-life, and prescribed rites in relation to the dead, were modified adaptations of brahmanical patterns of religious culture in ancient India. In this article, I demonstrate how Buddhist conceptions, rites and dispositions have been sustained and transformed in a contemporary annual ritual of rising importance in Cambodia, pchum ben. I analyze phcum ben to determine its fundamental importance to the sustenance and coherence of the Khmer family and national identity. Pchum ben is a 15-day ritual celebrated toward the end of the three-month monastic rain retreat season each year. During these 15 days, Buddhist laity attend ritually to the dead, providing special care for their immediately departed kin and other more recently deceased ancestors. The basic aim of pchum ben involves making a successful transaction of karma transfer to one’s dead kin, in order to help assuage their experiences of suffering. The proximate catalyst for pchum ben’s current pop...

Courtney Work

In a rapidly modernising Cambodia, dance parties that accompany large temple celebrations and weddings have become violent arenas where young men fight with fists and knives beyond police control. In 2010, this led to a ban on dance parties during the Pchuṃ Biṇḍ celebration. This paper concerns an ad hoc bribe to lift the ban that was collected in the manner of a meritorious temple offering. I suggest that the flexible parameters of Buddhist merit-making in this ritualised context both reconfigured the bribe and palpably brought expectations of moral conduct into the energetically charged dancing arena — but only momentarily.

In Early Theravadin Cambodia: Perspectives from Art and Archaeology, ed. by Ashley Thompson, Singapore: SOAS-NUS Press, pp. 231–268

Nicolas Revire

This essay aims to survey the artistic, epigraphic, textual and premodern ritual evidence for the emergence of the cult of past and future Buddhas in Cambodia proper and its bordering regions. It also briefly compares these lists with material from Sri Lanka and other neighbouring countries, and examines their importance in understanding the advent and uniqueness of Theravada across the region. A recorded lecture on this topic has been given at the Sirindhorn Anthropological Center, Bangkok, in Nov. 22, 2017. It is available online here: http://channel.sac.or.th/th/website/video/detail_news/

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Mahayana Buddhist Art in Cambodia

The Khmer empire of Cambodia, extending from its capital, Angkor to present-day Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, is credited with the creation of extraordinary art and architecture in the sixth to the sixteenth centuries CE. Some of the world’s most glorious traditions of sculpture and architecture are still represented at Angkor and throughout Cambodia to reflect the strong influence of the culture and the religions of India in the bygone days. The Khmer artists demonstrated their technical mastery of stone carving and bronze casting in sculpture, to create deeply spiritual images of Hindu and Buddhist divinities (Ricklefs).

A lot of these works of sculpture were actually made for temples, and range from monumental cult statues to small offerings in bronze, plus narrative reliefs that depict scenes from popular Indian epics such as Ramayana (National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.).Mahayana Buddhism had rooted itself in Cambodia by the fifth century CE. The Khmer kings, ruling Cambodia with Angkor as their capital, considered themselves divine rulers. With the coming of Mahayana Buddhism, the rulers started to identify themselves with particular buddhas or bodhisattvas. The most notable among the Khmer kings was Jayavarman VII (1181-1218), under whom the territory and influence of the Khmer empire reached its zenith (National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.

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King Jayavarman VII is credited with the building of many Buddhist temples. Identifying himself with the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokitesvara; the king left for us understanding of his times only through inscriptions and what the Buddhist temples can explain about this period in the history of Cambodia (About: Buddhism; Chandler).The Bayon Temple is one of the greatest signatures of King Jayavarman VII to help us understand his reign (See photographs in Appendix).

This temple, also referred to as “the magic mountain” is indicative of the king’s devotion to Avalokitesvara. Carved into the north, south, east and west towers of this temple are impressive, smiling faces of this bodhisattva. Tourists from around the world are known to visit the temple. One Cambodian travel agency describes the Bayon Temple thus: A temple-mountain, a forest of 200 gigantic faces in the mysterious glances lookingin all the directions, at enigmatic smiles, at beings of another world, in their smilingserenity.

This 3-storeyed temple, 43m in height, stayed for a long time an enigma.Built in 12th century by Jayavarman VII, first floors are a pantheon dedicated to thegods Khmers of the beginning of its construction, in a time of transition betweenHinduism and Buddhism. The superior floor is dedicated to Buddha. Fabulous lowreliefs, 1200m in length and representing more than 11000 sculptured persons, verylong frescoes telling about the fights and the naval battles between the Khmers and theChams, as well as daily life (Angkor Journey and Tours, a).

King Jayavarman VII also built the Ta Phrom Temple in Angkor (See photographs in Appendix). One of the most romantic temples of Angkor’s site, where nature resumed its rightsand disrupted the work of the men. A magical place which was built in 1186, thisconvent Buddhist was the most gigantic of Angkor’s site. The Conservation of Angkorsaved the main monuments, but did not clean it. The trees and the roots invaded the temple and resumed the rights of the jungle, roots look like snakes which disrupt andwaste statues and walls, and huge trees beating the heads of stupas. A forest whichdoesn’t want to let escape its gods and which either destroys them or protects them… A place loaded with emotion and poetry for meditation. A truly magical temple duringsunset. 12000 persons lived in the surrounding wall of the “Convent of King” morethan 8 centuries ago; its construction was ended at the beginning of the XIIIth century(Angkor Journey, b).

These temples built by Jayavarman VII undoubtedly tell us that Buddhism, and in particular, the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokitesvara, were a central part of the ideology of the people that formed the Khmer civilization. However, history also reveals that the people of the Khmer civilizations followed Hinduism for a long period of time before Mahayana Buddhism was introduced to them. And, after the reign of Jayavarman VII, the people of the region converted to Theravada Buddhism, which is a simpler form of Buddhism appealing more to the common folks, given that its focus is on simplicity as compared to the grandeur of Mahayana Buddhism. The art of Theravada Buddhism is

There is a simple wooden sculpture of a worshipper, also at the Bayon Temple, from the time of Theravada Buddhism (National Gallery; Chandler).King Jayavarman VII had imposed his own religion, Mahayana Buddhism, on his subjects. His magnificent temples clearly reveal that the new religion was to become the central part of his rule. In fact, the temples declared that Mahayana Buddhism had to be accepted as the state religion of the empire of Khmer, regardless of his subjects’ interest in the new faith (Chandler).

Many of the bas-reliefs on the Bayon Temple contain vivid scenes of cruelty. Some of Jayavarman VII’s inscriptions also praise his vengefulness and his skill at political infighting. We gather from this that the subjects of King Jayavarman VII were too afraid of him to oppose him on the issue of making Mahayana Buddhism the state religion. At the same time, the king depicted himself through his portrait statues as an ascetic deep in meditation.

We learn from his inscriptions also that the man suffered from the sicknesses of his subjects more than from his own. To put it another way, he felt spiritual pain whenever he saw his subjects’ bodies inflicted by pain (Mus). He was emulating the Buddha, no doubt, and so his subjects felt mixed emotions with regards to him (Chandler).King Jayavarman VII assured his subjects that suffering to praise the Buddha by working on his temples would most definitely lead to less suffering and greater happiness in another life.

All the same, the temples that he built were highly personalized works of art that his subjects could not easily relate to. Temple (or the Ancestor Brahma) to his mother in the guise of Prajnaparamita, the goddess of wisdom, who is conceived metaphorically as the mother of all Buddhas. In other words, Jayavarman VII was acting as the spiritual leader, or the Buddha of his people (Chandler).Ta Phrom also housed a portrait statue of Jayavarman VII’s Buddhist teacher or guru, surrounded by more than six hundred dependent deities and bodhisattvas.

What is more, the king did not mind giving cells on the temple grounds to Shaivite and Vaisnavite ascetics alongside the cells for Buddhist monks and learned men. History shows that Jayavarman VII was a deeply devoted follower of Buddhism. His own ascetic practices led him to respect all sincere searchers of the right path, or dharma, be they followers of Buddhism or not. Even so, the common folks who were not as deeply devoted to religion, occupied only simple houses with roofs made of thatch (Chandler).

At the center of Angkor was the Bayon Temple (or Ancestor Yantra, yantra being a magical geometric shape) – with its hundreds of gigantic faces, carved in sets of four, and its captivating bas-reliefs that depicted everyday life, wars in Champa, and the behavior of the Indian gods (Chandler). We realize by examining the Bayon Temple that wars were an essential part of the political system of the Khmer empire in Cambodia; and the everyday life depicted on the bas-reliefs was only depicted the way King Jayavarman VII wanted to reveal it. We have already pointed out that the history of Cambodia at the time of Jayavarman VII is only known to us through the inscriptions and the temples of the period.

There is considerable controversy about the symbolism of the Bayon Temple and about what was meant by the causeways that led up to it, with giants and angels engaged in what appears to be a tug of war, grasping the bodies of two gigantic snakes. Paul Mus writes that the causeways are rainbows that lead people of their world into the world of the divinities. Hence, Jayavarman VII becomes the one that would show his people the right path into the world of the deities.The giants also represented the Chams, or the enemies with which the Cambodians often engaged in war. The angels were the Cambodians, who were led by their king-deity, Jayavarman VII, to win each war.

This struggle between the Cambodians and the Champs acted out along the causeways and in the bas-reliefs at the Bayon Temple can be seen as bringing to birth a new and converted nation of Cambodia, in which the Buddha has won over the Hindu gods of Champa. As a matter of fact, this dialectic may very well be the basic message of the Bayon Temple, which has been referred to as the assembly hall of the city of the gods. The half-smiling faces with their half-closed eyes that dominate the temple, relate the story of the victory of Mahayana Buddhism over Hinduism (Woodward). How did the Cambodians who had not by then converted to Mahayana Buddhism feel about this victory? – History provides us very little if not no information to sufficiently address this subject.

We do know, however, the Mahayana Buddhism was not the last religion that the Cambodians converted to. Theravada Buddhism was to follow. David Chandler believes that the half-smiling faces at the Bayon Temple do not represent only one kind of deity, performing one kind of task. Rather, these faces are those of the guardians of the Buddha and his teachings.

These guardians oversee the kingdom of Jayavarman VII to boot, and may perhaps be representing civil and military officials of the time. This tells us that King Jayavarman VII may have looked at everything about him in a spiritual context. Not only do his civil and military officials act as guardians of the Buddha (King Jayavarman VII himself), but the ascetics belonging to other faiths are also recognized as being holy enough to be given a place at the Bayon Temple alongside the Buddhist monks and teachers. The common folks, on the other hand, are the sufferers who must be working hard as artists and builders of the temples in order to gain easy access to an afterlife in which they would be joined with the deities.

An art historian has argued that the half-smiling faces of the Bayon Temple are princely manifestations of Brahma. The tiaras worn by these princely manifestations resemble those worn by the Cham giants along the entrance causeways. This signifies the conversion of the Chams to Buddhism (Chandler).Another feature of the Bayon Temple that art historians and scholars have paid special attention to is found at Banteai Chhmar.

The bas-reliefs defining this structure depict historical Cambodian events rather than incidents in the Ramayana or some other literary work that coincide with or resemble historical events. The battles depicted on the Babyon Temple are fought with recognizable weapons, and other panels here depict ordinary people buying and selling, eating, gambling, raising children, picking fruit. Healing the sick, and traveling on foot or in ox carts. We learn plenty about the culture, customs, and society of the people through these depictions. What is more, nearly all of the customs, artifacts, and costumes depicted in the bas-reliefs particularly found at Banteai Chhmar could still be found in the Cambodian countryside at the end of the Cambodian colonial era.

Nevertheless, the voices of the people are missing from Jayavarman VII’s inscriptions (Chandler).The subjects of King Jayavarman VII move across the bas-reliefs with “unaccustomed freedom.” They are citizens at least of the country that they inhabit, and adorn the king’s temple as they never had before. Chandler writes that “Perhaps the bas-reliefs are intended to show that the people have been converted and saved – which is to say, revolutionized – by Jayavarman’s example.

Moreover, these bas-reliefs exhibit the lowest of the worlds that any person must traverse on the way to enlightenment. In this sense, explains Chandler, “they resemble their counterparts carved on the eighth-century Javanese Buddhist monument, the Borobudur.”It is obvious that King Jayavarman VII had the interests of his subjects at heart, regardless of the extent to which he was interested in their welfare. He did see them as worthy of approaching enlightenment, and hence allowed them to enter the Bayon Temple. The message was clear: the king was their savior.Still, King Jayavarman VII’s reign remains pretty much a mystery to us. We have never heard the voice of his subjects, although we now have a good idea about the society and culture of his time.

He considered himself one of the buddhas after all, and yet actively engaged in war. The mystery also springs in part from the wide-ranging social and ideological changes that characterized the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Cambodia. As mentioned before, soon after his reign, King Jayavarman VII’s subjects converted to Theravada Buddhism.Another source of ambiguity can be traced to the uneasy coexistence in the king’s temples and inscriptions of an overwhelming compassion and an overarching will.

Furthermore, the king tried to impart the Buddhist teaching of detachment from things of the world to his subjects through the symbol of the horse Balaha at the Neak Po’n. At the same time, he developed a detailed program aimed at transforming the physical world of Angkor, which had been badly damaged by the Cham invasion (Chandler). Had Jayavarman VII been solely interested in improving the spiritual condition of his subjects, he would have been expected to perhaps stage nationwide meditation campaigns in order to relieve all from suffering, instead of letting so much energy be consumed by the affairs of this world.Yet another mystery is the silence that followed King Jayavarman VII’s reign, both in terms of buildings and inscriptions.

This silence appears to have begun in his declining years, and in later inscriptions, the king is hardly ever mentioned. According to Chandler: “The patterns of continuity, stressed so often in earlier inscriptions, seem to have been broken or damaged severely by his reign.” It can be inferred from the overemphasis of a particular form of religion in King Jayavarman VII’s reign that his subjects may not have totally agreed with him about the practice of faith. Mahayana Buddhism does not rule out magnificence, and the common folks were poor and simple, unable to digest the grandeur associated with the faith.

Their conversion to Theravada Buddhism soon after the end of King Jayavarman VII’s reign shows that they were not particularly satisfied with Mahayana Buddhism, which was imposed on them by King Jayavarman VII through his grand temples and most likely his edicts. This leads us to believe that all spiritual leaders – even today – may not be as admirable in the eyes of their followers as the evidence sometimes makes us believe they are.

Bibliography

About: Buddhism. “Buddhist Art: Cambodia,” 2007. Available at http://buddhism.about.com/c/a.htm. (30 January 2007). This website gives a background of the Mahayana Buddhist art movement in Cambodia, and provides links to web pages for two Buddhist temples created under Jayavarman VII, the Bayon Temple and the Ta Phrom.
Angkor Journey and Tours (a). “The Bayon Temple.” Available at http://angkorjourney.asievoyage.org/index.html. (30 January 2007). This website provides quite a few excellent photographs of the Bayon Temple besides a brief description of the fabulous temple.
“Ta Phrom Temple in Angkor.” Available at http://angkorjourney. asievoyage.org/index.html. (30 January 2007). This website provides excellent photographs of the Ta Phrom besides a brief description of its existence today and yesterday.
Chandler, David. A History of Cambodia. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000. This book is an excellent source of information about Cambodia under.

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