essay about mesopotamia

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Mesopotamia

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 24, 2023 | Original: November 30, 2017

HISTORY: Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia is a region of southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river system that benefitted from the area’s climate and geography to host the beginnings of human civilization. Its history is marked by many important inventions that changed the world, including the concept of time, math, the wheel, sailboats, maps and writing. Mesopotamia is also defined by a changing succession of ruling bodies from different areas and cities that seized control over a period of thousands of years.

Where is Mesopotamia?

Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as the Middle East, which includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It is part of the Fertile Crescent , an area also known as “Cradle of Civilization” for the number of innovations that arose from the early societies in this region, which are among some of the earliest known human civilizations on earth.

The word “mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river. Situated in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria .

Map of Mesopotamia

Mesopotamian Civilization

Humans first settled in Mesopotamia in the Paleolithic era. By 14,000 B.C., people in the region lived in small settlements with circular houses.

Five thousand years later, these houses formed farming communities following the domestication of animals and the development of agriculture, most notably irrigation techniques that took advantage of the proximity of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Agricultural progress was the work of the dominant Ubaid culture, which had absorbed the Halaf culture before it.

Ancient Mesopotamia

These scattered agrarian communities started in the northern part of the ancient Mesopotamian region and spread south, continuing to grow for several thousand years until forming what modern humans would recognize as cities, which were considered the work of the Sumer people.

Uruk was the first of these cities, dating back to around 3200 B.C. It was a mud brick metropolis built on the riches brought from trade and conquest and featured public art, gigantic columns and temples. At its peak, it had a population of some 50,000 citizens.

Sumerians are also responsible for the earliest form of written language, cuneiform, with which they kept detailed clerical records.

Sumerian Pottery

By 3000 B.C., Mesopotamia was firmly under the control of the Sumerian people. Sumer contained several decentralized city-states—Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish and Ur.

The first king of a united Sumer is recorded as Etana of Kish. It’s unknown whether Etana really existed, as he and many of the rulers listed in the Sumerian King List that was developed around 2100 B.C. are all featured in Sumerian mythology as well.

Etana was followed by Meskiaggasher, the king of the city-state Uruk. A warrior named Lugalbanda took control around 2750 B.C.

essay about mesopotamia

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Gilgamesh, the legendary subject of the Epic of Gilgamesh , is said to be Lugalbanda’s son. Gilgamesh is believed to have been born in Uruk around 2700 B.C.

The Epic of Gilgamesh is considered to be the earliest great work of literature and the inspiration for some of the stories in the Bible. In the epic poem, Gilgamesh goes on an adventure with a friend to the Cedar Forest, the land of the Gods in Mesopotamian mythology. When his friend is slain, Gilgamesh goes on a quest to discover the secret of eternal life, finding: "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death be his share, and life withheld in their own hands."

King Lugalzagesi was the final king of Sumer, falling to Sargon of Akkad, a Semitic people, in 2334 B.C. They were briefly allies, conquering the city of Kish together, but Lugalzagesi’s mercenary Akkadian army was ultimately loyal to Sargon.

Sargon and the Akkadians

The Akkadian Empire existed from 2234-2154 B.C. under the leadership of the now-titled Sargon the Great. It was considered the world’s first multicultural empire with a central government.

Little is known of Sargon’s background, but legends give him a similar origin to the Biblical story of Moses. He was at one point an officer who worked for the king of Kish, and Akkadia was a city that Sargon himself established. When the city of Uruk invaded Kish, Sargon took Kish from Uruk and was encouraged to continue with conquest.

Sargon expanded his empire through military means, conquering all of Sumer and moving into what is now Syria. Under Sargon, trade beyond Mesopotamian borders grew, and architecture became more sophisticated, notably the appearance of ziggurats, flat-topped buildings with a pyramid shape and steps.

The final king of the Akkadian Empire, Shar-kali-sharri, died in 2193 B.C., and Mesopotamia went through a century of unrest, with different groups struggling for control.

Among these groups were the Gutian people, barbarians from the Zagros Mountains. The Gutian rule is considered a disorderly one that caused a severe downturn in the empire’s prospects.

In 2100 B.C. the city of Ur attempted to establish a dynasty for a new empire. The ruler of Ur-Namma, the king of the city of Ur, brought Sumerians back into control after Utu-hengal, the leader of the city of Uruk, defeated the Gutians.

Under Ur-Namma, the first code of law in recorded history, The Code of Ur-Nammu, appeared. Ur-Namma was attacked by both the Elamites and the Amorites and defeated in 2004 B.C.

The Babylonians

Choosing Babylon as the capital, the Amorites took control and established Babylonia .

Kings were considered deities and the most famous of these was Hammurabi , who ruled 1792–1750 B.C. Hammurabi worked to expand the empire, and the Babylonians were almost continually at war.

Hammurabi’s most famous contribution is his list of laws, better known as the Code of Hammurabi , devised around 1772 B.C.

Hammurabi’s innovation was not just writing down the laws for everyone to see, but making sure that everyone throughout the empire followed the same legal codes, and that governors in different areas did not enact their own. The list of laws also featured recommended punishments to ensure that every citizen had the right to the same justice.

In 1750 B.C. the Elamites conquered the city of Ur. Together with the control of the Amorites, this conquest marked the end of Sumerian culture.

The Hittites

The Hittites, who were centered around Anatolia and Syria, conquered the Babylonians around 1595 B.C.

Smelting was a significant contribution of the Hittites, allowing for more sophisticated weaponry that lead them to expand the empire even further. Their attempts to keep the technology to themselves eventually failed, and other empires became a match for them.

The Hittites pulled out shortly after sacking Babylon, and the Kassites took control of the city. Hailing from the mountains east of Mesopotamia, their period of rule saw immigrants from India and Europe arriving, and travel sped up thanks to the use of horses with chariots and carts.

The Kassites abandoned their own culture after a couple of generations of dominance, allowing themselves to be absorbed into Babylonian civilization.

The Assyrians

The Assyrians, Mesopotamia

The Assyrian Empire under the leadership of Ashur-uballit I rose around 1365 B.C. in the areas between the lands controlled by the Hittites and the Kassites.

Around 1220 B.C., King Tukulti-Ninurta I aspired to rule all of Mesopotamia and seized Babylon. The Assyrian Empire continued to expand over the next two centuries, moving into modern-day Palestine and Syria.

Under the rule of Ashurnasirpal II in 884 B.C., the empire created a new capitol, Nimrud, built from the spoils of conquest and brutality that made Ashurnasirpal II a hated figure.

His son Shalmaneser spent the majority of his reign fighting off an alliance between Syria, Babylon and Egypt, and conquering Israel . One of his sons rebelled against him, and Shalmaneser sent another son, Shamshi-Adad, to fight for him. Three years later, Shamshi-Adad ruled.

A new dynasty began in 722 B.C. when Sargon II seized power. Modeling himself on Sargon the Great, he divided the empire into provinces and kept the peace.

His undoing came when the Chaldeans attempted to invade and Sargon II sought an alliance with them. The Chaldeans made a separate alliance with the Elamites, and together they took Babylonia.

Sargon II lost to the Chaldeans but switched to attacking Syria and parts of Egypt and Gaza, embarking on a spree of conquest before eventually dying in battle against the Cimmerians from Russia.

Sargon II’s grandson Esarhaddon ruled from 681 to 669 B.C. and went on a destructive campaign of conquest through Ethiopia, Palestine and Egypt, destroying cities he rampaged through after looting them. Esarhaddon struggled to rule his expanded empire. A paranoid leader, he suspected many in his court of conspiring against him and had them killed.

His son Ashurbanipal is considered to be the final great ruler of the Assyrian empire. Ruling from 669 to 627 B.C., he faced a rebellion in Egypt, losing the territory, and from his brother, the king of Babylonia, whom he defeated. Ashurbanipal is best remembered for creating Mesopotamia’s first library in what is now Nineveh, Iraq. It is the world’s oldest known library, predating the Library of Alexandria by several hundred years.

Nebuchadnezzar

In 626 B.C. the throne was seized by Babylonian public official Nabopolassar, ushering in the rule of the Semitic dynasty from Chaldea. In 616 B.C. Nabopolassar attempted to take Assyria but failed.

7 Wonders of the Ancient World: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

His son Nebuchadnezzar reigned over the Babylonian Empire following an invasion effort in 614 B.C. by King Cyaxares of Media that pushed the Assyrians further away.

Nebuchadnezzar is known for his ornate architecture, especially the Hanging Gardens of Babylon , the Walls of Babylon and the Ishtar Gate. Under his rule, women and men had equal rights.

Nebuchadnezzar is also responsible for the conquest of Jerusalem , which he destroyed in 586 B.C., taking its inhabitants into captivity. He appears in the Old Testament because of this action.

The Persian Empire

Persian Emperor Cyrus II seized power during the reign of Nabonidus in 539 B.C. Nabonidus was such an unpopular king that Mesopotamians did not rise to defend him during the invasion.

Babylonian culture is considered to have ended under Persian rule, following a slow decline of use in cuneiform and other cultural hallmarks.

By the time Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in 331 B.C., most of the great cities of Mesopotamia no longer existed and the culture had been long overtaken. Eventually, the region was taken by the Romans in A.D. 116 and finally Arabic Muslims in A.D. 651.

Mesopotamian Gods

Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, with followers worshipping several main gods and thousands of minor gods. The three main gods were Ea (Sumerian: Enki), the god of wisdom and magic, Anu (Sumerian: An), the sky god, and Enlil (Ellil), the god of earth, storms and agriculture and the controller of fates. Ea is the creator and protector of humanity in both the Epic of Gilgamesh and the story of the Great Flood. 

In the latter story, Ea made humans out of clay, but the God Enlil sought to destroy humanity by creating a flood. Ea had the humans build an ark and mankind was spared. If this story sounds familiar, it should; foundational Mesopotamian religious stories about the Garden of Eden, the Great Flood, and the Creation of the Tower of Babel found their way into the Bible, and the Mesopotamian religion influenced both Christianity and Islam.

Each Mesopotamian City had its own patron god or goddess, and most of what we know of them has been passed down through clay tablets describing Mesopotamian religious beliefs and practices. A painted terracotta plaque from 1775 B.C. gives an example of the sophistication of Babylonian art, portraying either the goddess Ishtar or her sister Ereshkigal, accompanied by night creatures.

Mesopotamian Art

While making art predates civilization in Mesopotamia, the innovations there include creating art on a larger scale, often in the context of their grandiose and complex architecture, and frequently employing metalwork.

Kneeling bull holding a spouted vessel, Mesopotamia art

One of the earliest examples of metalwork in art comes from southern Mesopotamia, a silver statuette of a kneeling bull from 3000 B.C. Before this, painted ceramics and limestone were the most common art forms.

Another metal-based work, a goat standing on its hind legs and leaning on the branches of a tree, featuring gold and copper along with other materials, was found in the Great Death Pit at Ur and dates to 2500 B.C.

Mesopotamian art often depicted its rulers and the glories of their lives. Also created around 2500 B.C. in Ur is the intricate Standard of Ur, a shell and limestone structure that features an early example of complex pictorial narrative, depicting a history of war and peace.

In 2230 B.C., Akkadian King Naram-Sin was the subject of an elaborate work in limestone that depicts a military victory in the Zagros Mountains and presents Naram-Sin as divine.

Among the most dynamic forms of Mesopotamian art are the reliefs of the Assyrian kings in their palaces, notably from Ashurbanipal’s reign around 635 B.C. One famous relief in his palace in Nimrud shows him leading an army into battle, accompanied by the winged god Assur.

Ashurbanipal is also featured in multiple reliefs that portray his frequent lion-hunting activity. An impressive lion image also figures into the Ishtar Gate in 585 B.C., during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and fashioned from glazed bricks.

Mesopotamian art returned to the public eye in the 21st century when museums in Iraq were looted during conflicts there. Many pieces went missing, including a 4,300-year-old bronze mask of an Akkadian king, jewelry from Ur, a solid gold Sumerian harp, 80,000 cuneiform tablets and numerous other irreplaceable items.

Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization. Paul Kriwaczek . Ancient Mesopotamia. Leo Oppenheim . Ancient Mesopotamia: This History, Our History. University of Chicago . Mesopotamia 8000-2000 B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art . 30,000 Years of Art. Editors at Phaidon . Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses. UPenn.edu .

essay about mesopotamia

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Ancient Origins

Ancient Mesopotamia and the Rise of Civilization

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In ancient times, Mesopotamia, meaning ‘land between two rivers’, was a vast region that lay between the Tigris and Euphrates river systems, and it is where civilization emerged over 7,000 years ago. The first inhabitants, the Sumerians, established an advanced system writing, spectacular arts and architecture, astronomy and mathematics. The Akkadians would follow the Sumerians, borrowing from their culture, producing a new language of their own, and creating the world’s first empire.

Mesopotamia corresponds to what is now Iraq, Kuwait, Eastern Syria, Southeast Turkey, and parts of the Turkish-Syrian and Iran-Iraq borders. The region encompassed some of what is known by historians as the ‘ fertile crescent ’. The conditions in the fertile crescent, which also includes the Levantine coast, the Iranian-Iraqi modern border, and significant ancient sites such as Göbekli Tepe and Jericho, made it ideal for agriculture. All eight of the ‘founder’ crops of Neolithic agriculture (the wild forms of emmer wheat, barley, flax, einkorn, pea, lentil, chickpea, and bitter vetch) were found in abundance along with easily domesticated animals (pigs, sheep, cattle, and goats) with horses nearby.

The Sumerian people who first settled in Mesopotamia were some of the earliest known farmers and they began to settle villages there around 8000 BC. From humble origins the settlements blossomed into the earliest largescale civilizations. The Mesopotamian legacy includes organized government and religion, strategic warfare, the base six method of telling time we still use today, and literature .

Their demise finally came in 539 BC when Babylon fell at the hands of the Achaemenid Empire, marking the end of thousands of years of innovation and cultural growth.

From Tiny Villages to Mighty Cities

There are few moments in human history which mark significant points in our physical, behavioral, and cultural evolution – walking upright, learning to use and create fire, making tools, and beginning to talk are some of the earliest milestones on our journey, but one of the pivotal leaps our ancestors made was from an unstable life as nomadic hunter gatherers to settlers with permanent residences.

Restored ruins in ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia. (juerpa68 / Adobe Stock)

Restored ruins in ancient Babylon, Mesopotamia. ( juerpa68 / Adobe Stock)

The conditions in the region were the perfect melting pot for this change. The number and kinds of animals in Mesopotamia meant that people did not have to follow herds of steppe animals as they migrated. The cereals, grains, and legumes in the fertile crescent could be harvested in enough numbers that they could be stored to provide sustenance over the harsh winter months.

This lifestyle both required and enabled the building of more permanent structures. Caches to store grains and shelter for domesticated animals were needed, and housing followed suit.

As animals and crops were domesticated, harvests grew and the number of people that could be supported also increased. Villages joined or expanded naturally and over time they grew into cities .

Developing Cultures

Mesopotamia was not the first society with a distinct culture. The people of the European Upper Palaeolithic produced exquisite artwork such as painted caves, carved Venus figurines , and personal ornamentation such as pierced ivory beads. With extra time on their hands, the culture and skills in Mesopotamia were able to develop further than ever before, reaching new heights.

While the Venus figurines of the European Upper Palaeolithic are relatively simplistic, statues and carvings produced in Mesopotamia were elaborate and exquisitely detailed. A collection of around 27 statues depicting Gudea, a ruler of an ancient Mesopotamian city, has been found in the south of the region.

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Gudea a ruler of an ancient Mesopotamian city. (Jastrow / Public Domain)

Gudea a ruler of an ancient Mesopotamian city. (Jastrow / Public Domain )

They are realistic representations of a real person, with details such as the draped fabric of his outfit showing the skill of Mesopotamian carvers. Mesopotamia art is compared to that of Ancient Egypt for its intricacies and grandeur, with beautifully carved Cylinder Seals and the Uruk vase being just two examples of the art people were exposed to on a daily basis.

The original Uruk Vase dated to 3200–3000 BC from Mesopotamia. (पाटलिपुत्र / CC BY-SA 4.0)

The original Uruk Vase dated to 3200–3000 BC from Mesopotamia. ( पाटलिपुत्र  / CC BY-SA 4.0 )

While the Sumerian culture was predominant, there was simple artwork in homes and people could adorn themselves with jewelry. After Mesopotamia was conquered by the Assyrians it became massively wealthy. Large scale public artworks were created, and they were known in particular for carved stone reliefs depicting scenes from wars or hunting. Although many of these have been lost, there are several installed at the British Museum and they are impressive to behold even today.

Mesopotamian Governments

As populations grew, there was a need for stronger leadership. People were needed to protect and distribute stored food and supplies, to determine and enforce laws, to organize labor, to represent their people when trading with other cities, and more.

It was initially the job of priests, who were influential figures in society due to the importance of religion. Priests were the people who mediated between the world of mortals and the gods, who could help protect their livestock and ensure a successful harvest . As the need for governing grew, it was priests who filled the power vacuum.

Over time, the growing cities needed further organization and secular leaders joined the priests in governing the city, and in particularly the division of labor. The main secular leader was called a lugal and his role eventually became that of a monarch with a great deal of power and influence.

Mesopotamia evolved into city-states under the Sumerians. Each city was ruled by its own king, although they all co-operated. They needed a complex system of government to help manage inter-city affairs, taxes, and scribes to help things run smoothly and cohesively.

Mesopotamians Created Cuneiform

Governing and advancing such a complex network of cities and making trade deals across long distances meant another great leap was made – it was just the catalyst needed for the invention of writing.

Mesopotamians had their own special writing form called cuneiform which was first used around 4000 BC by the Sumerians. The name means ‘wedge shaped’ which comes from the distinctive shape of the symbols, which are pressed into a slab of clay using a stylus.

Mesopotamian relief 865-860 BC, showing cuneiform script. (bennnn / Adobe Stock)

Mesopotamian relief 865-860 BC, showing cuneiform script. ( bennnn / Adobe Stock)

Although cuneiform was initially taught only to a few scribes, there is evidence that literacy was widespread in Mesopotamia after the rule of the Akkadian conqueror Sargon , when the use of cuneiform became commonplace. There was a public library in the city of Babylon and both men and women were taught to read and write.

Although many of the surviving cuneiform texts cover pragmatic subjects such as trade deals there are also works of fiction. The most famous of these is the Epic of Gilgamesh – a tale so incredible it has survived for thousands of years and is still read and enjoyed by many today.

The Akkadian Empire and Sargon the Great

Although early Mesopotamia was founded by the Sumerians, they were eventually conquered by the Akkadian Empire. The empire was founded by Sargon, a man who very little is known about. He believed himself to be the son of a temple priestess, though he did not know who his father was.

As well as conquering Mesopotamia, he was able to take over parts of Syria, Iran, Kuwait, Jordan, Turkey, and some people believe even Cyprus. He is considered to have founded the world’s first successful empire, as it lasted longer than one generation when he died in 2279 BC after a 56 year reign and was replaced by his son, Rimush.

After his death, Sargon was elevated to god-like status. He became known as Sargon the Great, and there were legends about his accomplishments and deeds.

Sargon the Great, ruler of the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia. (Dave LaFontaine / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Sargon the Great, ruler of the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia. (Dave LaFontaine / CC BY-SA 2.0 )

The crown passed from Rimush to his brother Manishtusu and then to Manishtusu’s son, Naram-Sin. Naram-Sin died 110 years after his grandfather first ascended the throne, and his death marked the end of the first true dynastic empire which fell to the Amorites as a result of unrest and famine.

Under the Akkadians, Mesopotamia had achieved many significant things. There were roads built between cities, a postal system was implemented as a result of greater levels of literacy and ties between cities, and there were improvements in farming techniques.

Riches were regained, rebellions were crushed, and spectacular buildings like the Ishtar Temple in Ninevah were constructed. The Akkadians helped push Mesopotamian culture from interesting to legendary.

Mesopotamian Law - An Eye for an Eye and Amorite Rule

Another thing Mesopotamia established was codes of law. The Amorite king Hammurabi officially instigated his Code of Law in 1772 BC. The laws were designed to encompass all the people in Mesopotamia. They were so varied in their lifestyles and beliefs that it was crucial the law code was simple, specific, and easy to interpret. The same laws had to be understood and followed by housewives in large well off cities as well as farmers toiling in villages.

The most famous of the laws in Hammurabi’s codes is the principle of ‘an eye for an eye’ which was at the time a literal law, designed to prevent physical fighting. Anyone who injured another person in a fight would be disfigured or even killed for their crime.

People from different parts of Mesopotamia had been fighting among themselves for hundreds of years, and the law was also intended to put an end to the blood feuds which were causing problems in some parts of Mesopotamia. Although the punishments in the Code of Law seem barbaric, Hammurabi also established the principle that a person was innocent until proven guilty.

The Assyrian Empire

The Assyrian Empire is considered by many historians and archaeologists to be the greatest of the Mesopotamian empires. It was massive, bureaucratically efficient, and dominant on the battlefield. It had its roots in northern Mesopotamia, in the city of Ashur . Ruins unearthed at the site suggest the city was founded in around 1900 BC, but the location was probably inhabited for a long time before this. The city was a thriving center of trade and the wealth accumulated meant the city was a powerful force and able to expand.

The ancient city of Ashur in Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq. (Eric00000007 / CC BY-SA 3.0)

The ancient city of Ashur in Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq. (Eric00000007 / CC BY-SA 3.0 )

Assyrian rule lasted hundreds of years, with sporadic interruptions by other dynasties. And yet the influence and power held by the Assyrians and the city of Ashur meant it was able to keep reclaiming power.

The final Assyrian rule over Mesopotamia is now known as the Neo-Assyrian era. It marked the transition from Bronze Age to Iron Age in Mesopotamia, and the Assyrians utilized new technologies such as iron weapons, giving them a massive advantage in combat against people who were still equipped with inferior bronze.

Their iron weapons and well-trained troops made them almost impossible to defeat and the empire began to spread further. They used war chariots and siege machines and used tactics such as ladders to scale fortified city walls.

But they were more than warmongers and conquerors. Their willingness to include aspects of the cultures they were invading meant their artwork, medicinal practices, and education were all extremely advanced. The Assyrian king Sennacherib moved the capital of Mesopotamia to Nineveh and built an extravagant palace with gardens that were likely the Hanging Gardens of legend.

Ancient Mesopotamia Assyrian sculpture painting. (Andrea Izzotti / Adobe Stock)

Ancient Mesopotamia Assyrian sculpture painting. ( Andrea Izzotti / Adobe Stock)

Sennacherib’s grandson was Ashurbanipal, the last of the mighty Assyrian kings. His kingdom was so rich that artisans created incredible artifacts and ornamentation. Ashurbanipal himself was a ruthless leader, but a very intelligent man who amassed a vast library of cuneiform texts. But Ashurbanipal’s rule ended after 42 long years as cities began to rebel against the high taxes required to keep such a large empire running.

The Religious World of Mesopotamia

With such a rich history and mix of cultures over the years, the Mesopotamian world was a truly fascinating one. The importance of religion at the roots of the empire never lost their significance and religion was at the heart of Mesopotamian life. They may have originally believed the will of the gods meant the success or failure of a harvest or hunt, but this evolved into a belief the gods had a hand in absolutely every aspect of life.

They worshipped a massive pantheon of gods , with thousands of minor deities and many major gods and goddesses. Every city had its own patron god and every situation had a god that could be called upon.

Stepped pyramid like buildings called ziggurats were built in cities to house the patron gods. They were topped with a shrine or alter which was only accessible to priests and religious officials.

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Ancient ziggurat designed to house the gods of Mesopotamia. (GDK / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Ancient ziggurat designed to house the gods of Mesopotamia. (GDK / CC BY-SA 3.0 )

The priests and priestesses of Mesopotamia retained the power they had held for thousands of years, and they were viewed in the same regard as kings. Religion played such an important part in the lives of Mesopotamians that they considered the role of these people awe inspiring.

They were the custodians of the temples and ziggurats and the fate of a city was dependent on the priests and priestesses appeasing the gods. As in many early cultures, they also served as healers and offered both practical and spiritual assistance.

Mesopotamia was truly amazing for countless reasons. From the advances in technology to introducing a complex writing system and a culture spanning thousands of years. It still fascinates many people today - the ruins and artifacts that have survived for so long are both beautiful and historically interesting, appealing to a wide audience – and everything they achieved shows just how important the switch from hunting and gathering to farming was to the future human race.

Top image: Mesopotamian relief of Assyrian warriors. Credit: kmiragaya / Adobe Stock

By Sarah P Young

Updated on January 14, 2021.

British Museum. Date Unknown. Mesopotamia . [Online] Available at: http://www.mesopotamia.co.uk/menu.html Collon, D. 2005. First Impressions, Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East . British Museum Press. Johansen, F. 1978. Statues of Gudea, Ancient and Modern . Akademisk Forlad. Michael, S. Date Unknown. Mesopotamia: Overview and Summary . [Online] Available at: https://www.historyonthenet.com/mesopotamia Pillow, P. 1912. Mesopotamian Archaeology .

The biggest lies are always the first ones, where nobody challenges them and so they hold up and allow subsequent ones to pile on.  But it becomes a house of cards, ...or the camel, with all the accumulated ‘straws’ resting precariously.

Just understand what Sumer really was – a colony on a planet of ruins, decimated by the global nuclear war and coming out of a 100k year long Ice Age that it spawned.  Miraculously, some Atlantean-era, fair-haired people survived (the great untold story).  But even though Plato described it – referring to earthquakes and volcanoes vice bombs (because they didn't know the difference), a zero was certainly deviously removed from the original text (tp place the event at 11,500 BC, and out of sync with the sudden start of the Ice Age circa 115,000 BC).  Before the Ice Age, seas were hundreds of feet higher, and the Richat Structure/Atlantis was, like most of Mesopotamia, a lush estuary.  But by the time, the self-described ‘black-headed people’ (meaning black haired) arrived in Sumer, the entire region was like it is today, dry and still littered with ruins containing the bones of the fair-haired Atlantean-era people.  Accurate dating and DNA analysis could confirm this, but they know the house of cards would fall at that moment, and all the biblical texts would have to be re-interpreted.  So they remain Sumerian-centric, calling it ‘the dawn of civilization’, the Sumerian settlement of the stone ruins, their laying of mud bricks (as per ancient texts) overtop broken stone foundations, and creating by force new political structures with the black-haired people dominating over and supplanting the fair-haired by invasions and warring/enslavement.  So if it is a dawn, it is NOT the dawn of 'civilization', but the dawn of the black-headed people on Earth, and what that all meant to the fair-haired Atlantean-era survivors who would lose in the struggle, and see their freedom and ownership of the war-battered lands, fade away.

Nobody gets paid to tell the truth.

Did you know that are actually two Gilgamesh that walked the Earth? Gilgamesh was identified as an Nephilim Giant which meant if one were familiar with Enoch and Genesis chapter 6; that his Father was an Fallen Angel from out of the 200 Watcher Angel's therefore I view not the Epic of Gilgamesh as Myth.

I do think that because there were two Gilgamesh that somehow the writers mixed up these two Being's. Confusing the exploits of one Gilgamesh and placing it at the Feet of the other.

It was after the days of the Great Deluge according to Genesis and Jubilees Noah's Family were witnesses too the World previous they knew the people, the Kingdom's, The Warriors of Old and re-known they knew these individuals name's.

The events at The Tower of Babel with the One Language everyone spoke, thus this language is then changed to many different language's, then those name's, of People that had lived before The Deluge; subsequently are changed too.

After, the Deluge Noah's Son's save for one Grandson I believe name their Children after the people who lived before; it's persistent trait among people too name people after Heroes.

Today in the God fearing World People name their Children after people in The Bible. Other people name their Children after people from within The Family such as Grandparents or Mom's and Dad's.

This is what I believe occurred with The name of Gilgamesh. I also felt from constant reading of my Bible that Gilgamesh could have been one and the same person in reference too Genesis chapter 11; when the Sacred Text mentions Nimrod the Mighty Hunter Before The Lord after hearing of The Epic of I thought that Gilgamesh Nimrod is one of the same person.

This Gilgamesh Nimrod was a Grandson of Ham, His Father is Cush or Kush (Ethiopia) where it is felt in some Biblical Scholars that He's the Father of Everybody throughout All of Africa.

More evidence may have been uncovered that The Kushites did settle Mesopotamia but, then the question remains why did Kush move? The answer is in Jubilees Scholars often referred to this Biblical Book as The Lesser Genesis.

Jubilees say that Noah summoned his 3 Son's Shem, Ham, Japheth, right before He Died for Noah was instructed of God to Divide the World up with his Son's for the places that were divided would go too His Son's Ancestors forever neither Bloodline was ever to invade or steal from the brothers Ancestors their Land.

Remember the Greek Stories of those 3 Brother's dividing up the Universe Zeus got the Sky, Poseidon got the Ocean, Hades got the Underworld. Up until my reading of Enoch, I thought this with Noah and his Son's is where the story originated.

Shem was given Asia/Asia Minor, Ham got Africa, and Japheth Father of The Aryan Race/Indus Aryan got all of Europe.

Shem receiving Mesopotamia he took up residence in the cities and mini-Empires that had been developed by Hams grandchildren and Shems children combined but, it came time for Ham to leave for Africa with his Family.

Cush or Kush-Ethiopia Mizriam-Egypt Phut-Libya Canaan-Father of the Canaanites.

Clearly Canaan did not stake claim anywhere in Africa but, rather present day Israel/Palestine. I thought mistakenly that the Canaanites were extinct; till Jeopardy or rather Alex Trebek, informed me; that The Canaanites, today dwell in present day Lebanon.

Japheth of course moved off too Jaffa which now I know that Jaffa is Joppa Jonah went to runaway too Tarshish coincidentally Japheth grandson Javan moved to Tarshish where He discovered Hot Spring's a result of the Great Deluge. Tarshish is present day Spain.

At some point Shem's Ancestors and Japheth Ancestors the Indus Aryans Shared India but, it wasn't easy for Shem's Ancestors to live side by side in India, according to India's History and Historians who've studied these moments in Time, it was the Indus Aryans that instigated the Nightmare Cast System The Untouchables.

Well these are my thoughts on Mesopotamia and The Ancient Civilizations past articles here at Ancient Origins has indicated that Turkey, Mesopotamia developed and was Cultivated at the same time as Assyria, and Syria for archeological evidence were uncovered that backed up the articles claims.

This is all I wanted to say on the subject of Mesopotamia History of a Civilization an Gilgamesh Nimrod.

Freethinker's picture

With early morning coffee, this was a fascinating article about the ancient Sumerians and cuneiform writing, along with stunning stone carvings! Amazing attention to detail, just like the Egyptians! I love ancient history and the ever evolving story of our species! Thank-you Sarah.

Freethinker

Sarah P Young's picture

Sarah P Young is undertaking her masters in archaeology, specializing in early human behavior and in particular evidence of interaction between humans and Neanderthals. She hopes to continue her studies further and complete a doctorate.

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AP® World History

Mesopotamia: ap® world history crash course review.

  • The Albert Team
  • Last Updated On: March 1, 2022

Mesopotamia - AP® World History Crash Course Review

It’s always difficult to decide on what you are going to focus on when you are studying for your AP® World History Exam. How can you cover thousands of years of global history? It’s a good question, but that’s why we’ve created these AP® World History Crash Course reviews. And trust us, you are going to want to add Mesopotamia to your list of must-know AP® World History concepts .

Mesopotamia has also been called “the Cradle of Civilization,” hence you know you’re going to want to use this AP® World History review during your exam studying. It was a hugely influential place and time in world history. So, stick with this AP® World History review and we will take you through everything you need to know for your AP® World History Exam, covering not only the most important dates and events, but how the concept is most likely to pop up on the exam itself.

Mesopotamia, The Cradle of Civilization

Mesopotamia literally means “between two rivers” in Greek. That’s because the term itself references the ancient civilizations that arose in the regions between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers.

In modern day terms, we’re talking most of Iraq and parts of Iran Syria, and Turkey. And more specifically, it was bounded by the Zagros Mountains in the Northeast and the Arabian Plateau in the Southeast. But why take our word for it? Take a look at the map below for a much easier to understand depiction of the Mesopotamia region.

N-Mesopotamia_and_Syria_english

Map of Mesopotamia Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

You might also know the area as the “Fertile Crescent,” due to the fact that the river sediment and nutrients surrounding the area led to prime civilization territory. The land was primed and ready for food production, water was plentiful, and therefore there were also plenty of animals to both raise and eat.

Why is Mesopotamia Important?

Basically, the rich diversity of the Mesopotamic region allowed for human civilization to thrive. It helped to start the Neolithic and Agricultural Revolutions, which allowed for the development of culture, science, and religion, and helped to give rise of the most influential ancient empires.

There has been evidence of human activity in the region tracking all the way back to 10,000 BCE. These were the peoples who helped to domesticate animals, invented the wheel, planted the first cereal crops, studied the skies, and created written script.

In other words, this is a super important AP® World History Concept. Another reason this term is a must-know for the AP® World History exam is the fact that ancient Mesopotamians created the written word and therefore there is an ancient history to trace. They wrote about actual historical events, when other contemporaries were unable to.

The People of Mesopotamia

People have been present in the Mesopotamic region since the Stone Age and it has been the center of human activity for tens of thousands of years. When hunters and gatherers settled down to tend their crops, they began to create sophisticated tools and social structures as a way to survive, so objects like pottery and farm equipment were developed between 5,000 to 7,000 BCE.

Now, this AP® World History Crash course will get a little more interesting with the introduction of what have been called the Copper and Bronze Ages. This is where you get bigger and highly structured societies, because what does the development of copper and Bronze bring? Weapons.

The Sumerian Civilization was one of the first and most influential societies in all of world history, and therefore you need to know this AP® World History concept. By 3,000 BCE the Sumerian people were mathematically plotting the stars, writing, and working the land.

And the region only thrived from there. The Babylonians arrived on the scene around 2,000 BCE and remained a powerhouse for several thousands of years.

Probably the most significant influences on the region began to emerge around 1,000 BCE and would remain the central empire throughout the Roman Empire. These were the Assyrian and the Persian Civilizations.

It was the Babylonians, the Assyrians, and the Persians that emerged as the three biggest influences on the region, creating advanced and well-armed armies that maintained regional control, traded extensively with the ancient Greeks, Romans, Indians, and even as far east as the Pacific Coast of China.

Mesopotamia’s Contributions to World History

Mesopotamia’s history is so rich and its influences are so vast that it would take several book-length AP® World History reviews to properly cover every detail. But there are definitely some key developments and concepts that they contributed that you will need to know for your upcoming AP® World History exam.

For one, remember this was the “Cradle of Civilization.” This was where humans were born and raised basically. But it’s also the first real evidence of the city-state. Mesopotamian cities were infamous and rather unique with multi-storied buildings, markets, and rules that were enforced. A lot like cities today, right?

Also, their political rule typically revolved around the city. These city-states were relatively independent and operated as political hubs, a lot like ancient Greece. It would take large empires like that of the Assyrians to unify these diverse political cities.

Religiously speaking, this was a sunny, rich area. Since food required the sun to grow, religious deities often centered around one powerful god with other, less powerful ones controlling the natural and mystical worlds. Religion was so central that they created pyramids, or ziggurats, as centers of worship.

Lastly, you can’t really talk about Mesopotamia without mentioning technology and astronomy. Great thinkers hovered around these even greater cities, leading to sometimes odd discoveries. Bronze and copper production led to advances in military technology from spears to armor. But there were other inventions like the world’s first battery.

Thinking also led their eyes upwards. They were astoundingly brilliant astronomers. They were the first peoples to accurately trace the planets movements. They even theorized the rotation of the earth and moon to impressive detail. To this day, we are not entirely sure how they did all this.

Mesopotamia and the AP® US History Exam

So, this AP® World History Crash Course review on Mesopotamia has been a bit of a whirlwind, we know. But to be clear, this term needs to be on your list of must-know AP® World History concepts. Attack those textbooks, this website, and any other tool you can use to study for your AP® World History Exam.

What do you need to focus on then? Good question. Always keep in mind that Mesopotamia was the “Cradle of Civilization.” This is where human society began as we generally know it today. It was the birthplace of writing, the city-state, agricultural production, and the center for diverse technologies, religions, and societies.

Also, think about the role of nature and the environment here. Would it all have been possible if this was in a barren region? Probably not. How did the surrounding resources actually inform how human civilization developed.

And third, remember the emergence of empire. Powerful societies sprouted here. This meant extreme cultural exchange across a vast amount of space. But it also meant the development of culture and science, especially astronomy.

With that said, take a look at this example essay question from the AP® World History Course and Exam Guide (page 94):

Which of the following occurred as a result of the development of agriculture in societies that previously relied on hunting and gathering?

(A) Conditions for women improved. (B) The incidence of disease declined. (C) Population density increased. (D) Degradation of the environment lessened.

One thing that is nice about studying something as broad as Mesopotamia is that it covers a number of topics and time periods. So, by reading through this AP® World History review on Mesopotamia, you should know quite a bit about the Agricultural Revolution.

As we covered in this AP® World History Crash Course review, better access to nutrient rich land meant better ability to farm and better ability to farm resulted in the consolidation of peoples that led to the emergence of large cities and even empire in the region. In other words, the answer is C.

And now, take what you’ve learned from this AP® World History review and good luck getting that 5 on your upcoming AP® World History Exam!

Let’s put everything into practice. Try this AP® World History practice question:

Mesopotamia Pastoral Developments AP® World History Practice Question

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Check out our other articles on  AP® World History .

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Mesopotamian creation myths.

Ira Spar Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Stories describing creation are prominent in many cultures of the world. In Mesopotamia, the surviving evidence from the third millennium to the end of the first millennium B.C. indicates that although many of the gods were associated with natural forces, no single myth addressed issues of initial creation. It was simply assumed that the gods existed before the world was formed. Unfortunately, very little survives of Sumerian literature from the third millennium B.C. Several fragmentary tablets contain references to a time before the pantheon of the gods, when only the Earth (Sumerian: ki ) and Heavens (Sumerian: an ) existed. All was dark, there existed neither sunlight nor moonlight; however, the earth was green and water was in the ground, although there was no vegetation. More is known from Sumerian poems that date to the beginning centuries of the second millennium B.C.

A Sumerian myth known today as “ Gilgamesh and the Netherworld” opens with a mythological prologue. It assumes that the gods and the universe already exist and that once a long time ago the heavens and earth were united, only later to be split apart. Later, humankind was created and the great gods divided up the job of managing and keeping control over heavens, earth, and the Netherworld.

The origins of humans are described in another early second-millennium Sumerian poem, “The Song of the Hoe.” In this myth, as in many other Sumerian stories, the god Enlil is described as the deity who separates heavens and earth and creates humankind. Humanity is formed to provide for the gods, a common theme in Mesopotamian literature.

In the Sumerian poem “The Debate between Grain and Sheep,” the earth first appeared barren, without grain, sheep, or goats. People went naked. They ate grass for nourishment and drank water from ditches. Later, the gods created sheep and grain and gave them to humankind as sustenance. According to “The Debate between Bird and Fish,” water for human consumption did not exist until Enki, lord of wisdom, created the Tigris and Euphrates and caused water to flow into them from the mountains. He also created the smaller streams and watercourses, established sheepfolds, marshes, and reedbeds, and filled them with fish and birds. He founded cities and established kingship and rule over foreign countries. In “The Debate between Winter and Summer,” an unknown Sumerian author explains that summer and winter, abundance, spring floods, and fertility are the result of Enlil’s copulation with the hills of the earth.

Another early second-millennium Sumerian myth, “Enki and the World Order,” provides an explanation as to why the world appears organized. Enki decided that the world had to be well managed to avoid chaos. Various gods were thus assigned management responsibilities that included overseeing the waters, crops, building activities, control of wildlife, and herding of domestic animals, as well as oversight of the heavens and earth and the activities of women.

According to the Sumerian story “Enki and Ninmah,” the lesser gods, burdened with the toil of creating the earth, complained to Namma, the primeval mother, about their hard work. She in turn roused her son Enki, the god of wisdom, and urged him to create a substitute to free the gods from their toil. Namma then kneaded some clay, placed it in her womb, and gave birth to the first humans.

Babylonian poets, like their Sumerian counterparts, had no single explanation for creation. Diverse stories regarding creation were incorporated into other types of texts. Most prominently, the Babylonian creation story Enuma Elish is a theological legitimization of the rise of Marduk as the supreme god in Babylon, replacing Enlil, the former head of the pantheon. The poem was most likely compiled during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I in the later twelfth century B.C., or possibly a short time afterward. At this time, Babylon , after many centuries of rule by the foreign Kassite dynasty , achieved political and cultural independence. The poem celebrates the ascendancy of the city and acts as a political tractate explaining how Babylon came to succeed the older city of Nippur as the center of religious festivals.

The poem itself has 1,091 lines written on seven tablets. It opens with a theogony, the descent of the gods, set in a time frame prior to creation of the heavens and earth. At that time, the ocean waters, called Tiamat, and her husband, the freshwater Apsu, mingled, with the result that several gods emerged in pairs. Like boisterous children, the gods produced so much noise that Apsu decided to do away with them. Tiamat, more indulgent than her spouse, urged patience, but Apsu, stirred to action by his vizier, was unmoved. The gods, stunned by the prospect of death, called on the resourceful god Ea to save them. Ea recited a spell that made Apsu sleep. He then killed Apsu and captured Mummu, his vizier. Ea and his wife Damkina then gave birth to the hero Marduk, the tallest and mightiest of the gods. Marduk, given control of the four winds by the sky god Anu, is told to let the winds whirl. Picking up dust, the winds create storms that upset and confound Tiamat. Other gods suddenly appear and complain that they, too, cannot sleep because of the hurricane winds. They urge Tiamat to do battle against Marduk so that they can rest. Tiamat agrees and decides to confront Marduk. She prepares for battle by having the mother goddess create eleven monsters. Tiamat places the monsters in charge of her new spouse, Qingu, who she elevates to rule over all the gods. When Ea hears of the preparations for battle, he seeks advice from his father, Anshar, king of the junior gods. Anshar urges Ea and afterward his brother Anu to appease the goddess with incantations. Both return frightened and demoralized by their failure. The young warrior god Marduk then volunteers his strength in return for a promise that, if victorious, he will become king of the gods. The gods agree, a battle ensues, and Marduk vanquishes Tiamat and Qingu, her host. Marduk then uses Tiamat’s carcass for the purpose of creation. He splits her in half, “like a dried fish,” and places one part on high to become the heavens, the other half to be the earth. As sky is now a watery mass, Marduk stretches her skin to the heavens to prevent the waters from escaping, a motif that explains why there is so little rainfall in southern Iraq. With the sky now in place, Marduk organizes the constellations of the stars. He lays out the calendar by assigning three stars to each month, creates his own planet, makes the moon appear, and establishes the sun, day, and night. From various parts of Tiamat’s body, he creates the clouds, winds, mists, mountains, and earth.

The myth continues as the gods swear allegiance to the mighty king and create Babylon and his temple, the Esagila, a home where the gods can rest during their sojourn upon the earth. The myth conveniently ignores Nippur, the holy city esteemed by both the Sumerians and the rulers of Kassite Babylonia . Babylon has replaced Nippur as the dwelling place of the gods.

Meanwhile, Marduk fulfills an earlier promise to provide provisions for the junior gods if he gains victory as their supreme leader. He then creates humans from the blood of Qingu, the slain and rebellious consort of Tiamat. He does this for two reasons: first, in order to release the gods from their burdensome menial labors, and second, to provide a continuous source of food and drink to temples.

The gods then celebrate and pronounce Marduk’s fifty names, each an aspect of his character and powers. The composition ends by stating that this story and its message (presumably the importance of kingship to the maintenance of order) should be preserved for future generations and pondered by those who are wise and knowledgeable. It should also be used by parents and teachers to instruct so that the land may flourish and its inhabitants prosper.

The short tale “Marduk, Creator of the World” is another Babylonian narrative that opens with the existence of the sea before any act of creation. First to be created are the cities, Eridu and Babylon, and the temple Esagil is founded. Then the earth is created by heaping dirt upon a raft in the primeval waters. Humankind, wild animals, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the marshlands and canebrake, vegetation, and domesticated animals follow. Finally, palm groves and forests appear. Just before the composition becomes fragmentary and breaks off, Marduk is said to create the city of Nippur and its temple, the Ekur, and the city of Uruk, with its temple Eanna.

“The Creation of Humankind” is a bilingual Sumerian- Akkadian story also referred to in scholarly literature as KAR 4. This account begins after heaven was separated from earth, and features of the earth such as the Tigris, Euphrates, and canals established. At that time, the god Enlil addressed the gods asking what should next be accomplished. The answer was to create humans by killing Alla-gods and creating humans from their blood. Their purpose will be to labor for the gods, maintaining the fields and irrigation works in order to create bountiful harvests, celebrate the gods’ rites, and attain wisdom through study.

Spar, Ira. “Mesopotamian Creation Myths.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/epic/hd_epic.htm (April 2009)

Further Reading

Black, J. A., G. Cunningham, E. Flückiger-Hawker, E. Robson, and G. Zólyomi, trans. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature .. Oxford: , 1998–2006.

Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature . 3d ed.. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 2005.

Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976.

Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987.

Lambert, W. G. "Mesopotamian Creation Stories." In Imagining Creation , edited by Markham J. Geller and Mineke Schipper, pp. 17–59. IJS Studies in Judaica 5.. Leiden: Brill, 2008.

Lambert, W. G., and Alan R. Millard. Atra-Hasis: The Babylonian Story of the Flood . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969.

Additional Essays by Ira Spar

  • Spar, Ira. “ Flood Stories .” (April 2009)
  • Spar, Ira. “ Gilgamesh .” (April 2009)
  • Spar, Ira. “ Mesopotamian Deities .” (April 2009)
  • Spar, Ira. “ The Gods and Goddesses of Canaan .” (April 2009)
  • Spar, Ira. “ The Origins of Writing .” (October 2004)

Related Essays

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Ancient Mesopotamia 101

Ancient Mesopotamia proved that fertile land and the knowledge to cultivate it was a fortuitous recipe for wealth and civilization. Learn how this "land between two rivers" became the birthplace of the world's first cities, advancements in math and science, and the earliest evidence of literacy and a legal system.

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Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations Essay

It is impossible to underestimate the importance of Mesopotamia and this region’s achievements for humankind. This circumstance is conditional upon the fact its progress and advanced culture led to a number of discoveries, which provided for further growth of other places (Adhikari, 2019). Therefore, it is critical to examine Mesopotamia’s contributions to our civilization and thereby confirm its impact on all contemporary spheres of human life.

Mesopotamia’s significant role in promoting the successes of people all over the world in exploring the environment is determined by the creation of transportation as such alongside the development of agriculture. The former results were possible with the invention of the wheel, the chariot, and the sailboat, which allowed citizens to make the first trips in history (Adhikari, 2019). In this way, all of the present-day means of changing one’s locations stem from those times. As for lifestyle, the shift from hunting to farming was performed with the help of creating the plow, which was followed by the cultivation of various foods, including wheat and barley (Adhikari, 2019). These advances were complemented by the emergence of the sciences, such as the mathematics and astronomy (Adhikari, 2019). Therefore, both knowledge and practices of the contemporary civilization were possible to achieve due to these factors.

To summarize, the contributions of Mesopotamian people to the present-day world population and their wellbeing can be viewed through the lens of their inventions, which correspond to specific areas. Their activity was primarily focused on agriculture and transportation alongside the scientific approach to cognition in general. Thus, it can be concluded that the principal spheres of human life were promoted by Mesopotamia and their progress in fields, which resulted in the further development of humanity as a whole.

Adhikari, S. (2019). Top 11 inventions and discoveries of Mesopotamia. Ancient History Lists. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2022, November 8). Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations. https://ivypanda.com/essays/contributions-of-mesopotamian-civilizations/

"Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations." IvyPanda , 8 Nov. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/contributions-of-mesopotamian-civilizations/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations'. 8 November.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations." November 8, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/contributions-of-mesopotamian-civilizations/.

1. IvyPanda . "Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations." November 8, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/contributions-of-mesopotamian-civilizations/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations." November 8, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/contributions-of-mesopotamian-civilizations/.

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Essays on Mesopotamia

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Essays on Mesopotamia

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Influence of Religion: Mayan and Egyptian Pyramids

Comparison of ancient male emperors: ramses ii and charlemagne, distinguished mesopotamian ruler: hammurabi's code, ancient egyptian architecture - theirs pyramids, temples and homes, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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Egyptian Civilization: Pyramids, Religion and Culture

A brief review of pyramids around the world, the ancient time history of domesticated cats, analysis of differences in civilization of mesopotamia and ancient egypt, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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The Relationship Between People and The Environment During The Mesopotamia Ages

An idealised layout of a mesopotamian city and its surroundings, vilification of women in power: an analysis of the rulership of catherine the great and hatshepsut, powerful women in the ancient world, analysis of the portrayal of pharaoh hatshepsut and empress sabina in art, reconstruction and protection of the pyramids of giza, pyramids of giza: the important monument in the history of egypt, analysis of the features of sculpture art in the hellenistic period, neolithic revolution: a mistake or a great decision, topics in this category.

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  1. History of Mesopotamia

    Category: Geography & Travel Major Events: Armistice of Mudros Key People: Julian Seljuq Hormuzd Rassam Sir Leonard Woolley Sir Austen Henry Layard Related Topics: cuneiform

  2. Mesopotamia Essay

    6 Pages Good Essays Preview Ancient Civilizations Of Mesopotamia And Mesopotamia Sumerian (3500-2300BC)&Babylonian (1792-1750 BC) both belong to civilizations of Mesopotamia, but they existed different period.

  3. Ancient Mesopotamian civilizations (article)

    Overview Mesopotamian civilizations formed on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is today Iraq and Kuwait. Early civilizations began to form around the time of the Neolithic Revolution—12000 BCE. Some of the major Mesopotamian civilizations include the Sumerian, Assyrian, Akkadian, and Babylonian civilizations.

  4. Mesopotamia

    Mesopotamia (from the Greek, meaning 'between two rivers') was an ancient region located in the eastern Mediterranean bounded in the northeast by the Zagros Mountains and in the southeast by the Arabian Plateau, corresponding to modern-day Iraq and parts of Iran, Syria, Kuwait, and Turkey and known as the Fertile Crescent and the cradle of civil...

  5. Mesopotamia

    Mesopotamia is a region of southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river system that benefitted from the area's climate and geography to host the beginnings of human civilization. Its...

  6. Mesopotamia

    Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris-Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent.Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq. In the broader sense, the historical region of Mesopotamia included parts of present-day Iran, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey.. The Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians), each ...

  7. Mesopotamia, History & The Rise Of Civilisation

    Print. In ancient times, Mesopotamia, meaning 'land between two rivers', was a vast region that lay between the Tigris and Euphrates river systems, and it is where civilization emerged over 7,000 years ago. The first inhabitants, the Sumerians, established an advanced system writing, spectacular arts and architecture, astronomy and mathematics.

  8. Mesopotamia

    Mesopotamia is thought to be one of the places where early civilization developed. It is a historic region of West Asia within the Tigris-Euphrates river system. In fact, the word Mesopotamia means "between rivers" in Greek. Home to the ancient civilizations of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia these peoples are credited with influencing mathematics and astronomy. Use these classroom resources to ...

  9. History of Mesopotamia

    Ancient Mesopotamia had many languages and cultures; its history is broken up into many periods and eras; it had no real geographic unity, and above all no permanent capital city, so that by its very variety it stands out from other civilizations with greater uniformity, particularly that of Egypt.

  10. Mesopotamia: AP® World History Crash Course Review

    Mesopotamia has also been called "the Cradle of Civilization," hence you know you're going to want to use this AP® World History review during your exam studying. It was a hugely influential place and time in world history. ... With that said, take a look at this example essay question from the AP® World History Course and Exam Guide ...

  11. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia

    Mesopotamia was never a single, unified civilization, not even under the Akkadian Empire of Sargon of Akkad (the Great, r. 2334-2279 BCE). The region was comprised of many ethnicities and kingdoms that differed significantly from each other.

  12. Mesopotamian Creation Myths

    Stories describing creation are prominent in many cultures of the world. In Mesopotamia, the surviving evidence from the third millennium to the end of the first millennium B.C. indicates that although many of the gods were associated with natural forces, no single myth addressed issues of initial creation. It was simply assumed that the gods existed before the world was formed.

  13. Mesopotamian Civilization

    Mesopotamia is famous for being one of the regions where writing was invented and advanced. The other places include the Nile valley and the Yellow River Valley. The greatest cities that were ever built in Mesopotamia include Nippur, Uruk and Babylon. The other states that lay on the outskirts and territory of Mesopotamia include Ma-aesesblu.

  14. Mesopotamian Government

    Ancient Mesopotamian Government was based on the understanding that human beings were created to help and serve the gods. The high priest, king, assembly of elders, governors, and any other officials were recognized as stewards chosen by the gods to care for the people in the same way a father was expected to care for his family.

  15. The History of Ancient Mesopotamia: [Essay Example], 3202 words

    Mesopotamia was the place that had a plethora of natural resources and that allowed to people to concentrate more on inventing new technologies, rather that hustling all day to grow food. The ancient Mesopotamian inventions contributed to the modern world by providing the foundation for many technologies we consider necessities.

  16. Ancient Mesopotamia 101

    Ancient Mesopotamia 101. Ancient Mesopotamia proved that fertile land and the knowledge to cultivate it was a fortuitous recipe for wealth and civilization. Learn how this "land between two rivers" became the birthplace of the world's first cities, advancements in math and science, and the earliest evidence of literacy and a legal system.

  17. 95 Mesopotamia Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

    1 hour! 95 Mesopotamia Essay Topic Ideas & Examples Updated: Sep 26th, 2023 5 min Table of Contents 🏆 Best Mesopotamia Topic Ideas & Essay Examples Civilization in Mesopotamia and Egypt The people of Mesopotamia used calendars in order to determine when the floods could occur along the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

  18. Mesopotamia Essays: Examples, Topics, & Outlines

    MESOPOTAMIA & EGYPT: One of the major events that marked the beginning of civilization was the development of agriculture which was made possible by the presence of three important rivers -- the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the so-called "Cradle of Civilization," and the great Nile River in Egypt, where one of the greatest civilizations first appeared some five thousand years ago.

  19. Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilizations Essay

    Mesopotamia's significant role in promoting the successes of people all over the world in exploring the environment is determined by the creation of transportation as such alongside the development of agriculture. The former results were possible with the invention of the wheel, the chariot, and the sailboat, which allowed citizens to make ...

  20. The Impact of Ancient Mesopotamian Culture on The Modern Society

    The huge impact of Mesopotamian civilizations made on the development of mankind and the great path of continuous evolution is undeniable. The practice of many traditions we have today was first established by the first civilizations of Mesopotamia.

  21. Essay On Ancient Mesopotamia

    309 Words2 Pages Ancient Mesopotamia Ancient Mesopotamia people lived thousands of years before us. They were one of the first civilizations to actually settle down and take in farming. According to the article They settled in the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent was a marshy area, perfect for growing plants.

  22. Essays About Mesopotamia ️ Free Examples & Essay Topic Ideas

    Free essays on Mesopotamia are academic papers that discuss various aspects of the civilization that evolved in the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers thousands of years ago. These essays may explore the social, cultural, economic, and political systems of Mesopotamia, as well as its religion, architecture, art, and literature.

  23. Essays on Mesopotamia

    Essays on Mesopotamia . Essay examples. Essay topics. Topics in this category. 1 ... This essay analyzes two readings containing opposite positions about the Neolithic Revolution. In the reading "The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race" by Jared Diamond, he believes that going from hunter-gathering to agriculture was a huge ...