September 1, 2020

The Language of Science

How the words we use have evolved over the past 175 years

By Moritz Stefaner , Lorraine Daston & Jen Christiansen

Annotated data visualization of the most popular words used in Scientific American, from 1845 through 2020.

Moritz Stefaner and Christian Lässer

The most popular words used in the pages of Scientific American displayed by frequency, from 1845 through 2020

Since at least the 17th century, science has struggled with words. Francis Bacon, visionary of a new, experimental natural philosophy, called language an “idol of the marketplace”: a counterfeit currency we trade in so habitually that we no longer notice the gap between words and the world. True to its Baconian ideology, the Royal Society of London, one of the world's oldest scientific societies, made nullius in verba (roughly, “on no one's word”) its motto soon after it was established in 1660. Satirist Jonathan Swift parodied the Royal Society's suspicion of language in Gulliver's Travels , published in 1726: instead of conversing, some members of the Academy of Lagado carry around a sack of things that they exchange instead of words. Science aspired to show, not tell.

Yet science has never been speechless. Scientific journals also began in the 17th century, and since then, science has been all about communication—first and foremost between scientists and other scientists, but also with a broader public fascinated by the latest discoveries, inventions and speculations about fossils, electricity, atoms, computers, genes and galaxies. How to communicate about the world in words? Into the crack between words and things sprang images: woodcuts, engravings, lithographs, photographs, diagrams, graphics of all kinds. Modern science is ingeniously, intrinsically and extravagantly visual. No wonder “see” is a word whose popularity spans all 175 years of writing about science and technology in Scientific American .

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It is entirely in keeping with the visual spirit of scientific communication that the very words used in all 5,107 issues of Scientific American since 1845 should be turned into an image. Like the patterns in marbled paper, the word frequencies undulate, soaring and plunging as a function of time to track the way science talked about itself to itself. Epistemic virtues (which are to knowledge what moral virtues are to goodness) such as “certainty,” flanked by its boon companions “universal,” “rational” and “truth,” spiked in the middle decades of the 19th century, whereas clusters such as “imagination,” “intuition,” “conjecture” and “interpret” peaked suggestively between the 1950s and the 1970s. After World War II, when the most prominent scientists of the day—Albert Einstein, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Linus Pauling—reflected on the wider significance of their science for a nonspecialist audience, values and assumptions taken for granted in research journals came out into the open in the pages of Scientific American .

Just as revealing as the jagged peaks and troughs are the trajectories of words that have persisted over time: “average,” “exception,” “cause,” “experiment,” “observation,” “standard,” “skill” and, yes, “see.” Instead of the Alps, these word landscapes resemble gently rolling hills: they have their ups and downs, but for the most part they are as steady as the horizon. They represent the enduring practices of science that survive revolutions in theories and even shifts in epistemic virtues.

Scientific images are multipurpose tools: they represent things, relationships, even arguments. But just as a map does not duplicate the territory it represents, words do not mirror the world in every detail. Although the relative frequencies of words used are highly suggestive, they cannot convey the texture of the magazine issue by issue. A reader nowadays might wonder: Where are the women? Why are some fields of research missing? Who paid for science back then? No image can tell the whole story, if only because the story that interests us changes over time. When images do succeed, they enlist sight in the cause of insight—in this case, a rippling physiognomy of 175 years of science for the curious public.  —L.D.

Line charts depicting print frequency of the words “certainty,” “interpret” and “see” in Scientific American over time.

Credit: Moritz Stefaner and Christian Lässer ( graphics ), and Jen Christiansen ( captions )

The relative frequency of revealing and interesting terms in Scientific American, from 1845 to the present.

To learn more about how the data were collected, analyzed and visualized, see “ How to Turn 175 Years of Words in Scientific American into an Image .” To search for your own favorite words and to explore other juxtapositions, visit “ Explore 175 Years of Words in Scientific American .”

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The Role of Language in Science

[block_title title=”The Role of Language in Science”]

Alan Ford and F.David Peat

[/block_title] Abstract

It is argued that language plays an active role in the development of scientific ideas. A research project is outlined which will investigate this hypothesis and, in addition, focus on such questions as the role of mathematics in science and the status of the genetic code.

“Nothing is more usual than for philosophers to encroach on the province of grammarians, and to engage in disputes of words, while they imagine they are handling controversies of the deepest importance and concern.” David Hume

Introduction

In essays and lectures Neils Bohr was constantly emphasizing the role played by language in science and in our understanding of nature. Scientific investigations, Bohr pointed out, are not exclusively formal, mathematical affairs for they also involve informal discussions in which key concepts are explored and understood. In Bohr’s words, “We are suspended in language in such a way that we cannot say what is up and what is down” 1 . In the case of quantum theory his views on language formed an essential component of the Copenhagen Interpretation ” …the unambiguous interpretation of any measurement must be essentially framed in terms of the classical physical theories, and we may say that in this sense the language of Newton and Maxwell will remain the language of physicists for all time.” 1

More recently David Bohm has made a thoroughgoing analysis of the role of language in science and in thought. Writing with one of us he has also explored how particular world views are enfolded within the ways scientists use language and shown how fixed forms and the insensitive use of language can lead to blocks in scientific creativity. In particular, 2 Bohm has made a perceptive analysis of the famous break down in communication between Bohr and Einstein which he traced to the different values and meanings that were placed on certain words and concepts.

In his proposal for a new language, the Rheomode, 3 Bohm has also drawn attention to what he feels to be a defect of our common language in that it enfolds what could be called a mechanistic view of the world. But this appeal for a new language comes into conflict with what linguists feel to be the essential limitations of artificial and so-called improved language systems. How, therefore, is it possible to reconcile Bohm’s particular views on the Rheomode within the wider context of his general philosophy and the particular views that are currently held in linguistics?. Our answer is to propose an empirical investigation of the role and use of language within science and, in particular, scientific literature.

Language and Science

The object of this project, which represents the result of many years of discussion between us, as well as discussions with David Bohm, is to study the role of language in the description and practice of science, in its various disciplinary manifestations. A traditional view of language in science is that it plays a passive role, that it is simply the vehicle whereby meaning and information are conveyed from one speaker to another. Attempting to express an new scientific idea becomes merely a matter of “trying to find the right words”. Such an attitude is an extension of the common presupposition that the essential role of language is to transport a cargo which is variously described as meaning or content. In such a light, scientific writing has, as its objective, the conveying of scientific knowledge to the reader in a clear and economical way.

The physicist will recognize this view of language as having something in common with Information Theory, in which “bits” of information are transported via a channel from transmitter to receiver. A related notion has also entered physics in the concept of a “signal”, which occupies a key position in the Special Theory of Relativity. Bohm, however, has pointed out that Einstein’s conception of a signal does not cohere with the corresponding “quantum” context of physics, for it implies “a certain kind of analysis which is not compatible with the sort of undivided wholeness that is implied by the quantum theory” 4

We call this “transport view of language” into question. The writings of Bohr and Bohm have made it clear that, in the evolution of scientific thought, language is playing a more active role than is implied by a passive vehicle which merely conveys information. In the context of communication theory, linguists themselves have also pointed to the inadequacies of this traditional viewpoint, for it is clear that the listener is as active as the speaker in elaborating the content of the message. Indeed Fauconnier 5 has gone as far as to say that it is never possible to communicate anything that the listener doesn’t in fact already know!

The idea of a mental space is most clearly understood in the case of vision in which much of what we see is built out of what we already know. Visual scanning of an exterior scene is not so much involved in conveying “bits” of information to the brain as it is a part of an active and ongoing process in which certain clues are sought for and visual hypotheses are put forward and confirmed or modified.

Some intimation of what is going on can be appreciated by looking at the drawings of an artist like Matisse, or the sketches of Rembrant. In these cases there is a considerable economy of marks upon the page, when compared with the works of many other artists, yet the final drawings are particularly satisfying. On the basis of the “information content” conveyed to the brain by these marks it would appear that such drawings are particularly impoverished. Nevertheless they arouse considerable activity within the mind, for each mark on the paper can be completed, or complemented, in a very rich way by the visual imagination of the viewer. Indeed such drawings could be said to involve a play upon the many complex visual strategies we use to fill in and complete what we see. These strategies advance hypotheses, take us in new visual directions and generate a whole dynamical feeling of space, form and movement.

We would argue that there are strong parallels to be drawn between the way in which the visual world is created and the way in which language is used to create our mental spaces. We therefore see that language can play a particularly subtle and active role in the way scientists communicate with each other and the ways in which new ideas are developed, or can be blocked. It will also be of interest to pursue the relationships between vision and language in greater depth and to investigate, for example, the role of meaning as it applies both to words in a language and to visual elements in a scene.

In the light of our proposal, that language plays an active role in the development of science, we feel that an empirical investigation of the role of language in science is called for and, at the same time, an examination of different situations in which the supposed inadequacies of language have led to “improvements” or substitutions for existing language with a view to rendering it more serviceable for the purpose of expressing scientific concepts and theories. In proposing such an investigation we welcome comments and reactions from physicists who have given thought to these issues.

Language and Thought

The question we are investigating can, ultimately, be posed as:”Do we speak (have language) because we think, or do we think because we speak?”

The classical view takes the former position which can clearly be seen in what have been referred to as the transport theory of language, in which language is considered as a passive vehicle used for the conveying information. (In linguistic circles it can also be seen in the prototype theory of categories of Givon, and articles on generative semantics like Lakoff’s “Classifiers as a Reflection of Mind”.)

The latter view, which acts as a stimulus to our investigation, is clearly more in harmony with Bohm’s writings. It can also be found in Wittgenstein”s “family relation Principle” 6 and Saussure’s notion of “arbitrary sign”.

The main field of our investigation will therefore be that of the evolution of scientific thought. One view of science is that it evolves through technological innovations, be these telescopes, particle accelerators or the calculus. But we can also ask why science sometimes blocks, runs into obstacles or turns around in circles. Our hypothesis, and that of Bohm too, is that the origins of these blocks may partially lie in language. Of course the proponents of such systems as symbolic logic have also taken this point of view and sought to repair what they take to be defects in natural language such as ambiguity, irrational deductions, paradoxes etc. But this can never be satisfactory since these pseudo language systems don’t work as language. That is, they lack the full expressive and communicative power of our common or natural language.

Our project will begin by examining the recent history of at least two sciences (physics and linguistics) to indicate how natural language properties have contributed to confusion, dilemmas and the creation of artificial problems that only a proper understanding of the workings of natural language mechanisms could have avoided. It is our opinion that natural language is a perfectly adequate instrument for the expression of scientific ideas. Only abuse of its properties, by the imposition of artificial constraints, prevents its functioning and leads to serious breakdowns in communication.

Meaning and Language

In particular we will be looking at the changing use of certain words within science since it is our hypothesis that a change in the use of the word is indicative of a change in theory. Some of these words will include: reality, order, space ,movement, process, field, reason, thought, knowledge, universal, random, discontinuous theory, insight and creativity which also crop up in David Bohm’s writings.

During a radical change in scientific thinking, what Thomas Kuhn has called a scientific revolution, it is generally the case that the meanings of key words will change. Yet the words themselves, the linguistic symbols so to speak, remain the same. For example, while the concept of energy underwent a profound development as a result of the science of thermodynamics the word itself continued in common use. But in itself can become a barrier to further scientific development when it gives rise to difficulties in communication. Since the form of the word remains the same it is possible for different scientists to believe that they are all talking about essentially the same thing. In some contexts the world will be used as before while for others it will have acquired a number of subtle new senses.

It is of the nature of language itself that these difficulties should arise. Indeed it is these very issues which require the most alert attention on the part of physicists and, for that matter, philosophers for, we argue, they cannot be resolved by appeal to any specialized or artificial language.

Nowhere has this state of affairs been more graphically illustrated than in the development of quantum theory. It was Bohr who argued that words like position, momentum, spin, space and time refer to classical concepts which have no place within quantum theory. Einstein for his part argued that it should be possible to develop new concepts that are more suited to the quantum domain. However Bohr maintained that, since our language of its very nature is grounded in our day to day commerce with the large scale world, it will not be possible to modify or change it in any significant way. In other words, an unambiguous discussion is only possible at the classical level of things, that is when it is about the results of quantum measurements made with laboratory scale apparatus. But to ask what actually happens at the quantum level of things makes no sense.

The changing meanings of words can also be seen in those terms which have to do with spatial relationships such as space, position, locality, non-locality and even interaction. They have undergone far reaching changes in the developments which led from the Aristotelian to the Newtonian and finally to the general relativistic and quantum mechanical picture of things. Yet because the same word “space” is used in each case it is possible to create the illusion that different scientists are sometimes talking about the same thing. Particular difficulties can also be found in discussions about the significance of Bell’s Theorem and the meaning of non-locality in physics. Of course working physicists perfectly understand the difference between quantum theory, relativity and Newtonian mechanics, nevertheless there are many particularly subtle differences in meanings associated with a word such as space and it is often the case that the old and new meanings co-exist side by side. In other words scientists may employ the same word in subtly different ways within the same conversation. It is the actuality of our situation as human beings that we must employ language in order to communicate and, for this reason, we must pay careful attention to both the power and the limitations of language.

Since physicists may not be familiar with the general methodology of linguistics let us, by way of illustration, enquire into the meaning of the word language . What can be said about it?

That language is a word. And should first be seen in this light. But, to paraphrase Juliet: What is a word? A word has three necessary properties.

  • A phonological form.
  • A syntactic category.
  • A semantic use 7 .

On the basis of this notion of word, a language becomes:

  • A lexicon. This is the set of words used for linguistic intercommunication by a group or at least two people, along with some form of implicitly ordered relationship to other words. Commonly this ordering is assumed to be in the form of a syntactic tree, but could we venture to hypothesize a form of implicate ordering?
  • A grammar. That is, the set of strategies used for intercommunication by those who possess a common lexicon.

Linguistics is the study of the use and organization of language with particular linguistic theories differing in their views on how a and b are organized, or,if you like, how they are acquired and used psychologically. One particular approach which will be advocated, claims that a grammar contains the following components:

  • A lexicon. That is, a set of words along with what we are referring to as their implicate order.
  • A morphology, . A set of strategies for constructing words.
  • A syntax or set of strategies for constructing sentences.
  • A phonology or set of strategies for pronouncing sentences
  • A semantics, a set of strategies for interpreting sentences.
  • A text compiler. That is, a set of strategies for combining sentences into larger units.

The above corresponds to what may be brought to a linguist’s mind by the world language. Another useful tack is to think of some of the ways in which this word is used. In the English sentences below a French translation is also provided:-

A useful test to show that words have different uses is to translate them into another language for usually they do not come out in an uniform manner. For an English word like language , French has at least two words langue and langage .

David Bohm, has frequently referred to meaning, particularly when talking about his recent experiments with dialogue groups in which “a free flow of meaning” is encouraged. This whole question of meaning, and what we mean by it is clearly of importance and, in particular, the question “What do you mean by language?”

C.K. Ogden and I. A. Richards’s classic The Meaning of Meaning 8 provides a useful introduction to such questions. Following Odgen and Richards the work of Ludgwig Wittgenstein had made a particularly significant contribution to the notion of meaning in linguistics. 9 According to his dictum: Don’t look for the meaning, look for the use . Essentially this can be interpreted as saying that meaning is a generalization that doesn’t correspond to anything that is actually available in language behavior. What we actually rely upon are individual uses which are themselves interrelated according to a pattern of family resemblances. In this sense words could no more be said to “possess” an intrinsic meaning that is independent of their use than, in Bohr’s view, could an electron be said to “possess” an intrinsic position or spin.

Some Fundamental Questions

The research project we have begun is also directed towards answering a series of questions, amongst these are:.

What is the role of mathematics in science?

The topic of superstrings has caused some physicists to question the increasing important role that abstract mathematics is playing in science. What are we gaining and what are we loosing by placing such reliance on mathematics? And, to reiterate a question first asked by Wigner, why should mathematics be so extraordinarily effective in science? Why do all our insights and discoveries in science so naturally lend themselves to mathematics?

What is mathematics and what is its role in science? One could almost reiterate the questions asked about the role of language. Is mathematics simply the vehicle or tool of science or does it does it play a more positive and active role? There is an argument for suggesting that mathematics is actually “driving” some of the present research on superstrings,for example.

And is mathematics somehow more or less than a language? Are there things that can only be done and thought in mathematics and not in language? Are there methodologies in mathematics that do not exist in language? Or is it simply that mathematics allows certain operations to be performed in a more compact and efficient way? In what ways is mathematics less general than a language and what does it loose by this lack of generality?

A particular characteristic of mathematics which appears in one aspect to differentiate it from language is its appeal to visual thinking. Of course geometry and topology make direct appeal to visual conformation and to short cuts in thinking that require manipulations in a sort of mental visual space. But visualizations also occur in branches of mathematics that are not directly connected with the properties of space. Mathematicians claim that some of their thinking is quite different than that which uses language. Einstein himself appears to have been aware of a level of thinking which involved muscular tensions within the body and an almost tactile experience of space. In this sense therefore mathematics would appear to be both more and less than a language for while being limited in its linguistic capabilities it also seems to involve a form of thinking that has something in common with art and music.

What is the nature of Artificial Languages?

Forms used in logic, artificial intelligence, computer science and in semantics are variously viewed as being improvements on natural language or as defective forms of natural language. It is important to investigate those properties that are claimed to be improvements and see what they are really doing. For example, is it possible to do better logic with the computer language PROLOG, and what about the sorts of things that cannot be done with PROLOG but can be performed in a language like English? Are there limits upon the current approaches to artificial intelligence that result from a reliance on artificial languages? In other words: Is what is gained by the use of an artificial language in proportion to what is lost?

What are Primitive, Technical, Sacred and Super Languages?

What is the status of these supposedly different forms of language. At one time it was assumed, for example, that the native languages of Australia, Africa and the Americas were in some way primitive for they were supposed to be incapable of meeting the demands of our modern world. A limitation of this kind, if it truly existed, would open the possibility that the languages we speak may also reach some form of limit as science enters into ever new realms. But, in fact, it appears that native speakers can do as much with their language as can we in, for example, English. Again the so-called technical languages of law, medicine and theoretical physics are nothing less that ordinary language which, linguistically speaking, have nothing particularly special in the properties of their lexicons beyond certain restrictions and extensions. The supposed special status of superlanguages, like Esperanto, as well as sacred languages will also be examined.

Is the genetic code really a code?

It is generally assumed by biologists that DNA is the physical representation of an underlying genetic code which can be “cracked” like any other code. But what exactly are the commonly accepted linguistic properties of codes? It is generally agreed that a code is a written form of a natural language, employing some particular form of orthography. At first sight the genetic code looks quite different, for it has little in common with a natural language.

But suppose that we advance the hypothesis that it is indeed used like a natural language! It then becomes possible to project onto the structure and processes of DNA and the cell itself all that we know about the properties of natural languages. By experimenting with this notion, that the cell may have available to it all the richness of a natural language, we may be led to new insights in biology–or alternatively to a rejection of our hypothesis.

a Department de linguistique et philologie, Universite de Montreal, C.P. 6128, Succ. A, Montreal, Quebec, H3C 3J7.

1 N.Bohr, in A. Peterson Quantum Physics and the Philosophical Tradition . (M.I.I. Press, Cambridge, Mass 1968.) 2 D.Bohm and F.David Peat, Science, Order and Creativity . (Bantam Books, N.Y., 1987) 3 D. Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order . (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, Boston, 1980.) 4 D. Bohm, Quantum Theory as an Indication of a New Order in Physics, in Foundations of Quantum Mechanics . B d’Espagnat, ed. (Academic Press, N.Y. and London, 1971.) 5 G. Fauconnier, Mental Spaces:Aspects of meaning construction in natural language . (Bradford/M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1985.) 6 Alan Ford, Category theory and family resemblances in Quantum Implications: Essays in Honour of David Bohm . B.J.Hiley and F.David Peat, eds. (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1987.) 7 Alan Ford, (To be added in proof.) 8 C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards, The Meaning of Meaning . (Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 10th edition, 1966.) 9 See for example, L. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations . (Blackwell, Oxford, 1968.)

The Hidden Bias of Science’s Universal Language

The vast majority of scientific papers today are published in English. What gets lost when other languages get left out?

essay on language science

Newton’s Principia Mathematica was written in Latin; Einstein’s first influential papers were written in German; Marie Curie’s work was published in French. Yet today, most scientific research around the world is published in a single language, English.

Since the middle of the last century, things have shifted in the global scientific community. English is now so prevalent that in some non-English speaking countries, like Germany, France, and Spain, English-language academic papers outnumber publications in the country’s own language several times over. In the Netherlands, one of the more extreme examples, this ratio is an astonishing 40 to 1.

A 2012 study from the scientific-research publication Research Trends examined articles collected by SCOPUS, the world’s largest database for peer-reviewed journals. To qualify for inclusion in SCOPUS, a journal published in a language other than English must at the very least include English abstracts; of the more than 21,000 articles from 239 countries currently in the database, the study found that 80 percent were written entirely in English. Zeroing in on eight countries that produce a high number of scientific journals, the study also found that the ratio of English to non-English articles in the past few years had increased or remained stable in all but one.

This gulf between English and the other languages means that non-English articles, when they get written at all, may reach a more limited audience. On SCImago Journal Rank —a system that ranks scientific journals by prestige, based on the citations their articles receive elsewhere—all of the top 50 journals are published in English and originate from either the U.S. or the U.K.

In short, scientists who want to produce influential, globally recognized work most likely need to publish in English—which means they’ll also likely have to attend English-language conferences, read English-language papers, and have English-language discussions. In a 2005 case study of Korean scientists living in the U.K., the researcher Kumju Hwang, then at the University of Leeds, wrote: “The reason that [non-native English-speaking scientists] have to use English, at a cost of extra time and effort, is closely related to their continued efforts to be recognized as having internationally compatible quality and to gain the highest possible reputation.”

It wasn’t always this way. As the science historian Michael Gorin explained in Aeon earlier this year, from the 15th through the 17th century, scientists typically conducted their work in two languages: their native tongue when discussing their work in conversation, and Latin in their written work or when corresponding with scientists outside their home country.

“Since Latin was no specific nation’s native tongue, and scholars all across European and Arabic societies could make equal use of it, no one ‘owned’ the language. For these reasons, Latin became a fitting vehicle for claims about universal nature,” Gordin wrote. “But everyone in this conversation was polyglot, choosing the language to suit the audience. When writing to international chemists, Swedes used Latin; when conversing with mining engineers, they opted for Swedish.”

As the scientific revolution progressed through 17th and 18th centuries, Gordin continued, Latin began to fall out of favor as the scientific language of choice:

Galileo Galilei published his discovery of the moons of Jupiter in the Latin Sidereus Nuncius of 1610, but his later major works were in Italian. As he aimed for a more local audience for patronage and support, he switched languages. Newton’s Principia (1687) appeared in Latin, but his Opticks of 1704 was English (Latin translation 1706).

But as this shift made it more difficult for scientists to understand work done outside of their home countries, the scientific community began to slowly consolidate its languages again. By the early 19th century, just three—French, English, and German—accounted for the bulk of scientists’ communication and published research; by the second half of the 20th century, only English remained dominant as the U.S. strengthened its place in the world, and its influence in the global scientific community has continued to increase ever since.

As a consequence, the scientific vocabularies of many languages have failed to keep pace with new developments and discoveries. In many languages, the  words “quark” and “chromosome,” for example, are simply transliterated from English. In a 2007 paper, the University of Melbourne linguist Joe Lo Bianco described the phenomenon of “domain collapse,” or “the progressive deterioration of competence in [a language] in high-level discourses.” In other words, as a language stops adapting to changes in a given field, it can eventually cease to be an effective means of communication in certain contexts altogether.

In many countries, college-level science education is now conducted in English—partially because studying science in English is good preparation for a future scientific career, and partially because the necessary words often don’t exist in any other language. A 2014 report from the University of Oxford found that the use of English as the primary language of education in non-English speaking countries is on the rise, a phenomenon more prevalent in higher education but also increasingly present in primary and secondary schools.

But even with English-language science education around the world, non-native speakers are still often at a disadvantage.

“Processing the content of the lectures in a different language required a big energetic investment, and a whole lot more concentration than I am used to in my own language,” said Monseratt Lopez, a McGill University biophysicist originally from Mexico.

“I was also shy to communicate with researchers, from fear of not understanding quite well what they were saying,” she added. “Reading a research paper would take me a whole day or two as opposed to a couple of hours.”

Sean Perera, a researcher in science communication from the Australian National University, described the current situation this way: “The English language plays a dominant role, one could even call it a hegemony … As a consequence, minimal room or no room at all is allowed to communicators of other languages to participate in science in their own voice—they are compelled to translate their ideas into English.”

In practice, this attitude selects for only a very specific way of looking at the world, one that can make it easy to discount other types of information as nothing more than folklore. But knowledge that isn’t produced via traditional academic research methods can still have scientific value—indigenous tribes in Indonesia , for example, knew from their oral histories how to recognize the signs of an impeding earthquake, enabling them to flee to higher ground before the 2004 tsunami hit. Similarly, the Luritja people of central Australia have passed down an ancient legend of a deadly “fire devil” crashing from the sun to the Earth—which, geologists now believe, describes a meteorite that landed around 4,700 years ago.

“It is all part of a growing recognition that Indigenous knowledge has a lot to offer the scientific community,” the BBC wrote in an article describing the Luritja story. “But there is a problem—indigenous languages are dying off at an alarming rate, making it increasingly difficult for scientists and other experts to benefit from such knowledge.”

Science’s language bias, in other words, extends beyond what’s printed on the page of a research paper. As Perera explained it, so long as English remains the gatekeeper to scientific discourse, shoehorning scientists of other cultural backgrounds into a single language comes with “the great cost of losing their unique ways of communicating ideas.”

“They gradually lose their own voice,” he said—and over time, other ways of understanding the world can simply fade away.

Stanford University

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The power of language: How words shape people, culture

Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

Girl solving math problem

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Human silhouette

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Katherine Hilton

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Policeman with body-worn videocamera (body-cam)

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

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Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

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  • Perspect Behav Sci
  • v.42(3); 2019 Sep

The Language of Science

Matthew p. normand.

Department of Psychology, University of the Pacific, 3601 Pacific Ave, Stockton, CA 95211 USA

Science is what scientists do and, especially, what they say about what they do. Science is a way of talking about the world that enables the listener to behave more effectively in that world. Understanding science, then, is a matter of understanding the language of science. Scientific verbal practices are codified and recorded so that they can affect the behavior of all scientists, including those without access to the original controlling variables. What we know about the world is simply the way we have learned to talk about the world. We know best what is most useful about the world, in the sense that what we know enables us to behave effectively in the world. Scientists are unique in that they, more so than non-scientists, have the experience of behaving as effectively as possible—they can predict and control. This is what makes all the difference, in the sense that it makes science different from other ways of knowing about the world. Science is not simply one way of knowing about the world, it is arguably the most effective way of knowing about it. Scientific talk leads to effective action.

It is wrong to think that the task of physics is to find out how nature is . Physics concerns what we can say about nature. – Niels Bohr 1

Science is what scientists do, especially what they say about what they do. Science is a way of talking about the world that enables the listener to behave more effectively in that world. Understanding science, then, is a matter of understanding the language of science. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior ( 1957 ) described a functional analysis of language that focused on the relevant controlling variables involved in various environment- behavior relations he classified as verbal. Part of that book (Chapter 18) was dedicated to discussing the implications of such an analysis for understanding logical and scientific verbal behavior. That single chapter is one of the most exhaustive functional analyses of scientific verbal behavior available to date.

Unfortunately, Skinner’s chapter is dated, having been published in 1957, and it appears at the end of a daunting book. Many readers no doubt give up before encountering the chapter, or are a bit worse for the wear by the time they do. Moreover, if the published literature is any guide, the book has been most impactful in terms of influencing the way that behavior analysts teach language skills, typically in straightforward ways involving relatively simple functional relations. Very little attention has been given to the epistemological implications of Skinner’s analysis, especially in the context of present-day concerns. In what follows, I attempt to summarize that material, reorganize and update it for clarity, and modestly expand it to encompass aspects of scientific behavior not explicitly addressed by Skinner, and to describe in more detail the aspects that were explicitly addressed. Discussions of this sort often are long, detailed, and difficult to navigate. My goal is to provide as succinct an exposition as I can manage to meaningfully affect the behavior of as many readers as possible. The style errs toward straightforward description and away from philosophical digression.

Science as Verbal Behavior

When we refer to science we are referring primarily to the verbal practices of scientists (Day, 1969 ; Hackenberg, 2013 ; Moore, 2010 ; H. D. Schlinger, 2013 ; Skinner, 1953 , 1957 ), which are shaped by a particular kind of verbal community that differs in important ways from the verbal communities of everyday life (Skinner, 1957 ). All language is established and shaped by a verbal community, but the scientific verbal community differs from most others because it "encourages the precise stimulus control under which an object or property of an object is identified or characterized in such a way that practical action will be most effective" (Skinner, 1957 , p. 418). Scientific verbal practices are codified and recorded so that they can affect the behavior of all scientists, including those without access to the original controlling variables. In Skinner’s words,

The contingencies of reinforcement which create a special scientific repertoire and sharpen its stimulus control provide for a kind of behavior which serves the listener as (1) an optimally effective discriminative stimulus in evoking any behavior he may already possess with respect to a situation and (2) a fruitful source of instruction in altering his behavior with respect to new situations (Skinner, 1957 , p. 420).

It is important that the scientist respond to stimuli in the same ways that other scientists respond, and that sharp distinctions among stimulus classes are maintained. When someone describes an event as a conditional stimulus, for example, it is important that all listeners respond similarly, as if that event elicits a smooth muscle or gland response resulting from a history of being paired with some other stimulus that already elicited such a response. The verbal community is at a disadvantage if the speaker describes the event as a conditional stimulus when it actually is a discriminative stimulus, because the listeners will not respond effectively. 2

Moreover, it is important that scientists describe what they observe rather than what they want to observe. "Scientific verbal behavior is most effective when it is free of multiple sources of strength; and humor, wit, style, the devices of poetry, and fragmentary recombinations and distortions of form all go unreinforced, if they are not actually punished, by the scientific community" (Skinner, 1957 , p. 419). That the language of science is so importantly related to the actions that scientists take is a primary reason that the scientific verbal community emphasizes precise stimulus control. This is especially true of empirical research, basic and applied, where what scientists say controls what other scientists do in the laboratory and in the field. This is not the case in literature, for example, where the listener should expect no practical benefit as a result of responding to what is written and, in most cases, does not respond to what is written other than in an echoic or intraverbal sense. If the writer of a novel provides an inaccurate description of some aspect of the world, the listener is at no great disadvantage. If the scientist provides an inaccurate description of the results of an experimental preparation, that is a very different story.

Scientific writing is often considered dull, but this is not so much a problem as it is a solution. Scientific verbal practices discourage colorful language that can lead the listener to more or less strongly agree with what is written independent of the actual evidence described—the data should speak for themselves. To the extent possible, scientific verbal behavior exemplifies the kind of stimulus control that defines the tact as a verbal operant. When sources of control characteristic of, say, a mand are present, the verbal community withholds reinforcement or might even punish the behavior. To put it colloquially, scientists should say what they see, not what they want to see.

Scientific writing requires the presentation of data and the frequent and clear citing of relevant sources as a practical way to provide the listener with access to some of the same variables that are controlling the behavior of the speaker. Of course, there is more to scientific writing and speaking, as raw data do not control behavior as effectively as summarized data (Michael, 1974 ). As Gould ( 1981 ) put it, “Numbers suggest, constrain, and refute; they do not, by themselves, specify the content of scientific theories” (p. 106). What controls the reader’s responses differs from what controls the experimenter’s responses. In a published paper, for example, the experimenter has responded to the data under stimulus control characteristic of tact and intraverbal relations (cf. Palmer, 2016 ). The reader is left to engage mostly in echoic and intraverbal responding controlled not by the experiment but by the experimenter’s descriptions (tacts) and explanations (intraverbals) of the experiment.

Summaries of data, including verbal statements controlled by those data, minimize the variability evident in the raw data and obscure the variability of the contingencies responsible for the verbal statements (Hackenberg, 2013 ; Palmer, 2013 ). Because the varying stimuli are absent, they cannot control the behavior of the listener. This can be a virtue or a vice, depending on the relevance of the missing data. If the speaker describes the data obtained in the presence of the independent variable as higher than data obtained in the absence of the independent variable, none of the variability evident in the dataset remains to influence the behavior of the listener. Even if numbers are used to categorize the data described, say 5 responses per minute versus 20 responses per minute, and those numbers are plotted on a graph or listed in a table, the range of variables available to influence the speaker are absent for the speaker. As Palmer ( 2013 ) put it,

A speaker may utter the tact fish in response to a picture of a marlin, a fillet on a slab, a can of tuna, a trout, a goldfish, a haddock, a smelt, or any one of countless other fish as well as countless fish within species, each of which is unique in some respects. That is, the class of idiosyncratic creatures and other stimuli that evoke the response fish is nearly unlimited. But when the response is uttered and serves as a discriminative stimulus for behavior of the listener, all of that potential variability is lost. That is to say, in the absence of other variables, the listener has no way of responding differentially to any variability in stimulating conditions. The verbal discriminative stimulus has filtered away, as it were, all of unique features of the setting, and the listener cannot recover it. (p. 271)

By and large, how we depict and describe the data we collect is what controls our subsequent behavior and, most especially, the behavior of other scientists (Hackenberg, 2013 ). This is why the reinforcing practices of the scientific verbal community need to be precise; typically, more precise than the practices of our everyday verbal communities. In reality, few scientists have direct contact with much of what they talk about, even things with important influences on what they study. I would bet that most behavior analysts talk about the matching law (e.g., Herrnstein, 1961 ), and probably discuss it in relation to their work or the work of others, though relatively few behavior analysts have actually conducted an experiment on the matching law. Despite my earlier point that behavior controlled by variables characteristic of the tact is central to scientific verbal practices, echoic, intraverbal, and autoclitic relations (Skinner, 1957 ), as well as stimulus-equivalence relations (e.g., Miguel et al., 2015 ; Sidman, 2000 ; Sidman & Tailby, 1982 ) and verbal function-altering relations (e.g., Blakely & Schlinger, 1987 ; H. Schlinger & Blakely, 1987 ), also are central to what scientists say (Hackenberg, 2013 ; Palmer, 2013 ; H. D. Schlinger, 2013 ).

As a science matures, “Not only does it make statements about the world, it makes statements about statements…which helps to generate new rules very much as the rules themselves generate new practices” (Skinner, 1953 , p. 14). Initially, the statements made in response to data and to statements about those data probably exemplify intraverbal control insofar as they have not been made before under those specific conditions. Once emitted, those statements can be reinforced under specific conditions and can be expected to occur again under similar conditions, in which case we would call the operants themselves intraverbal (Palmer, 2016 ).

False Leads and Misdeeds

Recorded descriptions of events permit future scientists to behave without constructing all of the necessary conditions for a given phenomenon so that they can tact the relevant relations themselves. A liability arises, however, when attempts to reconstruct those conditions and the effects of those conditions would fail if actually undertaken. This is the reproducibility problem that currently commands so much attention, especially in psychology (Ioannidis, Munafo, Fusar-Poli, Nosek, & David, 2014 ; Open Science Collaboration, 2015 ; Pashler & Wagenmakers, 2012 ). Once descriptions of events are recorded, they can control behavior at great strength, especially if there is no direct contact with the events being described. The matter then becomes one characterized by social contingencies that maintain certain kinds of verbal practices independent of the data or, more importantly, the events giving rise to those data.

Such “rule-governed” behavior (e.g., Blakely & Schlinger, 1987 ; H. Schlinger & Blakely, 1987 ; H. D. Schlinger, 1990 ) can be slow or impervious to change when the actual contingencies differ from the contingencies described (e.g., Catania, Matthews, & Shimoff, 1982 ; Hayes, Brownstein, Zettle, Rosenfarb, & Korn, 1986 ; Joyce & Chase, 1990 ; Matthews, Catania, & Shimoff, 1985 ), such as in a scientific paper reporting experimental findings. The problem is compounded when failures to replicate an experimental finding are not published, preventing scientists from coming in contact with revised descriptions of important phenomena. A related problem is that errors are sometimes identified in scientific papers that are so egregious the paper is retracted. The available evidence suggests, unfortunately, that retraction is not enough; the retracted papers tend to live on via existing citations in other papers and new citations (probably from second-hand sources) in new papers (Campanario, 2000 ; Teixeira da Silva & Bornemann-Cimenti, 2016 ). This can result in scientists continuing to contact the original, rather than the revised, descriptions of scientific findings and these descriptions exert echoic and intraverbal control over the behavior of the reader.

Scientists also respond to the phenomena they study influenced, at least in part, by reinforcement contingencies arranged by the scientific community that are independent of their interactions with the subject matter they study (Moore, 1984 ). This seems to be playing a role in the reproducibility problem, noted above. The scientific enterprise has long arranged powerful contingencies for bold, new, and surprising conclusions, almost, it seems, irrespective of the data from which those conclusions are drawn (Meehl, 1967 ). These generalized conditioned reinforcers—money, fame, prestige—often trump the relatively small reinforcers provided for a job truly well done in the laboratory. Moreover, the successful control of the world, even if illusory, can be a powerful reinforcer for even the most virtuous scientist. To speak loosely, knowing about something and knowing how to do something seem to be powerful reinforcers for most of us, any malicious intent aside. As Skinner noted, there are cases in which "[a] special measure of generalized reinforcement has led him [e.g., the scientist] to misread a point on a scale of measurement" (Skinner, 1957 , p. 149). We could call this a distorted tact, where certain motivating operations related to the “special measure of generalized reinforcement” influence the form of the response otherwise controlled by the number on the scale corresponding to the quantity of the thing being measured (Moore, 1984 ; Skinner, 1957 ). As suggested earlier, sometimes scientists describe not what they see, but what they want to see, even when doing so is not intended to mislead.

The Jargon of Science

There is a rub, however. It is not simply a matter of providing access to raw or summarized data, else there would be little need for introduction, results, or discussion sections of scientific papers. Most readers of scientific papers do not have the relevant history with respect to the data newly reported or the relevant data collected in previous experiments, which can limit the effectiveness of their responses. 3 That different listeners will respond differently to what is said by a speaker reflects differences in the histories of those listeners. That is, the variability of listener responses is not—indeed, cannot—be related to the variability of the variables controlling the speaker’s behavior (Palmer, 2013 ). Another problem arises in that the variables controlling the behavior of the speaker, in addition to the raw data, can result in descriptions that differ markedly from what another observer would say in response to the same events.

The jargon of science, although not always a boon, is a solution to a problem. "To dispose of irrelevant controlling relations,” scientists introduce "new forms of response as arbitrary replacements for the lay vocabulary—not only the special vocabulary of science but graphs, models, tables, and other ways of representing the properties of nature” (Skinner, 1957 , p. 418). The jargon police, like the grammar police, punish deviations from codified verbal practices in order to maximize the common effects on the behavior of listeners. When a term common to the vernacular is used to describe a specific scientific phenomenon, the verbal community begins at a serious disadvantage with respect to establishing tight stimulus control over that verbal response. This is because the speaker already has a long history of contacting reinforcement in other various, if not contradictory, circumstances when uttering the same term. Even if the scientific community reinforces the term only under specific conditions, the amount of reinforcement in those specific conditions is weighted against the reinforcement contacted previously in more varied circumstances. Moreover, it is quite likely that the speaker will continue to contact reinforcement in varied circumstances when uttering the term in the general verbal community, thereby blunting the degree of stimulus control established by their scientific verbal community.

Subjective Objectivity

Because scientists are products of their verbal communities, both scientific and nonscientific, they will respond to the circumstances they encounter as a scientist influenced by their experiences outside of the scientific community. We use the term bias to refer to cases in which the reinforcement contingencies arranged by the nonscientific community conflict with those arranged by the scientific community and, more importantly, when they alter the way the scientist responds to the discriminative stimuli produced while conducting their research. Sometimes, the scientist can describe the contingencies that lead them to respond in ways other than the ways they would if, for example, their behavior was controlled primarily by the discriminative stimuli produced by an experiment. In such cases we say that they are aware of the bias, and the problem is proportional to the degree to which they take actions to minimize the extraneous sources of control. The problem is greater when the scientist cannot describe the extraneous sources of control. In such cases, we would say that they are unaware of the bias and, hence, are unlikely to arrange the experimental situation so as to minimize the impact of the bias.

We tend to view scientific description as objective (unbiased), whereas opinion and anecdote are viewed as subjective (biased). Objectivity and subjectivity can refer only to statements we make about the world, including our own behavior. The terms do not refer to properties of stimuli, they refer to the reinforcement histories that give rise to the verbal statements controlled, in part, by those stimuli. Objective statements are those for which the controlling variables are shared among most members of the verbal community and depend relatively little on idiosyncratic experiences. The origin of the term objective is found in the Latin objectum , meaning object. That is, a physical feature of the natural world to which all people have access. For example, a statement such as, “The apple is red” is objective when made in response to the presence of a red apple because all members of the verbal community have access to the most critical controlling variables and, given common verbal histories in that verbal community, would respond the same under similar conditions.

In contrast, subjective statements are controlled mostly by variables whose function was established because of experiences specific to the history of the speaker. The origin of the term subjective is found in the Latin subiectivus , meaning “of the subject,” with subject meaning literally, "person under control or dominion of another.” In this context, something that is subjective is dependent on the way a particular individual uses it, or “controls” it. A statement such as, “The apple tastes good” is subjective because many members of the verbal community would respond differently under those same conditions. Of course, the distinction is not always so clear, as there are circumstances in which similar statements would be made by members of one specific verbal community under certain conditions, whereas members of a different verbal community would make different statements under those conditions, with one kind of statement still considered objective and the other subjective.

Skinner ( 1945 ) drew the distinction between objective and subjective using the moveable line between public and private events. By reframing the distinction in this way, he was able to ultimately dismiss it. Public events are those events that can be observed by more than one person, hence there can be agreement as to what happened. Private events, on the other hand, can be observed by only one person (the person experiencing them); hence, there can be no agreement between observers because there is only one observer. If I say that my tooth hurts, this is a subjective statement because the (private) event is observed only by me. If I say that my tooth is broken, this is an objective statement because others can see the broken tooth (a public event) just as well as I can. The distinction, then, between objective and subjective (or public and private) still is not to be found in terms of any characteristics of the events themselves, but rather in terms of the observability of those events. Something that is unobservable at one point in time can become observable at another point in time, meaning that subjective events can become objectives events even though the events themselves do not change. I might shoot a hole in one on the golf course to the applause of the other golfers in my party, or I might shoot a hole in one while practicing by myself. The former event would be public, and descriptions of it objective, whereas the latter event would be private, and descriptions of it subjective. However, the events would not otherwise differ.

What really matters is not that a statement can be clearly classified as objective or subjective or the relevant events as public or private, but whether the statement is falsifiable. Unlike “the apple tastes good,” “the apple is red” is a scientific statement, primarily because the latter is falsifiable, whereas the former is not. If a green apple is found, most, if not all, members of the verbal community will respond “green,” not “red,” due to common reinforcement histories. There will be considerably more variation in terms of how many would respond “tastes good” even if the same apple is tasted, as there is no real way to falsify the statement. Something is falsifiable to the extent that variables could be manipulated to influence the phenomenon in way that would cause the members of the scientific community to describe new functional relations in place of previously described functional relations. The scientific community should describe new functional relations only if the new descriptions in some way permit better prediction of the described event or, where possible, better control of that event. That is, statements are “not true or false simply according to public agreement about the correspondence between it and other events, but according to the impact that the use of the term, concept, or statement has on dealing successfully with the phenomenon of interest” (Hayes & Brownstein, 1986 , p. 177). The truth of a statement is proportion to the degree to which it permits us to behave effectively with respect to what it is a statement about.

But what does it mean to behave more effectively? Generally, it means to behave in ways that maximize contact with reinforcement relative to other ways of behaving. Consider the famous Monty Hall problem, in which a gameshow contestant has the opportunity to choose among three closed doors. Behind one of the doors is a shiny new sports car, while behind the other two doors are haggard old goats. At the outset, the chance of any door being the winning door is .33. The contestant chooses the first door. Now the host, Monty Hall, opens one of the remaining two doors to reveal a goat. The contestant is then given the option of staying with their initial choice, or selecting the other remaining door. What do you do? Many people assume the best option is to keep your door, because nothing has changed about the chance that you chose the winning door on your first try. But something has changed. The door you chose has a .33 chance of being correct, while the other two doors collectively have a .66 chance of being correct. Because one of those doors is now out of the mix, the remaining other door now has a .66 chance of revealing the car. If you were able to play the game multiple times, the rule “switch your door” would result in you winning more often than “keep your door.” 4 This is not obvious to most people based simply on their everyday experiences. The statement about the world (the game, in this case) generated by our understanding of probabilities would lead to more effective action (switching doors) because it would more often result in reinforcement (the car). Scientific statements, derived from careful observation and experimentation, describe the world as it appears when observed carefully, systematically, and repeatedly, rather than as it can appear when observed unsystematically, based on unrepresentative samples, and experienced only occasionally.

What It Means to Know Something

Our behavior has been changed, but there is no evidence that we have acquired knowledge. To be "in possession of the facts" is not to contain the facts within ourselves but to have been affected by them. (Skinner, 1977 , p. 6)

“Knowing that” something is a certain way should be distinguished from “knowing how” to do it (Hineline, 1983 ; Skinner, 1957 ). The former implies a mostly verbal repertoire, whereas the latter usually implies a nonverbal repertoire. Most of us “know that” you are supposed to keep your eye on the ball, but many of us do not “know how” to do that. The ivory tower academic is accused of too much knowing-that and not enough knowing-how. (After all, those who can’t, teach.) This is not necessarily a bad thing, depending on your perspective. A great deal of science involves knowing that certain things stand in lawful relations to other things, even when we do not have the means of doing anything about those relations. Newton could explain the ocean tides, but he certainly could not exert any control over them. That is, Newton knew that the tides were controlled, and by what, but he could not control them in any practical way. He could predict, but he could not control. “Knowing that” something is and “knowing how” to do something, then, is an important part of the distinction between scientific interpretation and experimental analysis (Palmer, 1991 ). Science prioritizes experimental analysis, and the resulting verbal behavior comprises mostly tact relations, with the proximate controlling variables (i.e., data) evident. Scientific interpretation, however, is to a large extent intraverbal, and extraneous variables can come to control aspects of the scientist’s verbal behavior, with those variables sometimes difficult or impossible to identify. The scientific community, then, tends to be less confident about interpretations because they are not easily verified. That is, scientists respond more tentatively (e.g., at longer latencies, at a reduced magnitude) to interpretive statements because it is difficult for independent investigators to identify the controlling variables for those statements.

Similarly, we can know how to do something even if we are unable to describe how we do it. The musician knows how to write beautiful music, but she is unable to tell us how to do the same. Science is a matter of being able to describe how things are done. People could do things long before they could describe how to do them. It was only when people began to describe how to do things that science became possible. Behaving verbally is often easier, possible across a wider range of conditions, and executed in briefer periods of time than nonverbal behavior. This is especially useful for the sciences, particularly the basic sciences, where practical solutions are not always forthcoming. Because of the ease with which we can speak, read, etc., the amount of reinforcement necessary to maintain our verbal behavior is small, because even small reinforcers are relatively large compared to the effort required to produce them (Palmer, 2014 ). We sometimes talk just to hear ourselves talk. The sight of a coherent sentence on our computer screen can be enough to reinforce the act of writing. Whether other scientists reinforce our writing or speaking, however, is proportional to the degree to which our descriptions of the world permit them to behave more effectively.

Prediction and Control

…The scientific "system," like the law, is designed to enable us to handle a subject matter more efficiently…When we have discovered the laws which govern a part of the world about us, and when we have organized these laws into a system, we are then ready to deal effectively with that part of the world. By predicting the occurrence of an event we are able to prepare for it. By arranging conditions in ways specified by the laws of a system, we not only predict, we control: we "cause" an event to occur or to assume certain characteristics. (Skinner, 1953 , p. 14)

Prediction and control was at the center of John B. Watson’s behaviorist manifesto (Watson, 1913 ). According to Watson, psychology, as a science, was in the business of predicting and controlling behavior, just as the other natural sciences were in the businesses of predicting and controlling their particular subject matters, more or less. Natural science, behavioral or otherwise, is more than the observation of events as they occur, it is the description of functional relations. As Claude Bernard, the founder of modern experimental physiology and medicine, put it, “proof that a given condition always precedes or accompanies a phenomenon does not warrant concluding…that a given condition is the immediate cause of that phenomenon. It must still be established that when this condition is removed, the phenomenon will no longer appear…” (Bernard, 1865 /1957, p. 55). When you continue to deliver food following each lever press, the rat continues to press the lever. When you discontinue the food deliveries, the rat discontinues the lever presses. Back and forth, so on and so on. If you can identify the relevant controlling variables for a phenomenon, you can predict its occurrence based on the presence or absence of those variables. If you describe the relevant controlling variables accurately, others can do the same. If the controlling variables are accessible, you can alter them and, in turn, alter the occurrence of the phenomenon, and, again, you can describe to others how they can do the same.

A Radical Epistemology 5

What we know about the world, in the sense of “knowing that,” is simply the way we have learned to talk about the world. The degree to which this talk is “true” or “factual” is determined largely by the reinforcing practices of a verbal community. For Skinner, “meanings, contents, and references are to be found among the determiners, not the properties, of a response” ( 1945 , p. 271). Said another way, "terms, concepts, and constructs do not have an existence independent of the behavior of the speaker” (H. D. Schlinger & Normand, 2013 , p. 286). Skinner was not the first to make this kind of argument (see Moxley, 1997 ), as the following passage from John Dewey’s How to Think illustrates.

To grasp the meaning of a thing, an event, or a situation is to see it in its relations to other things: to note how it operates or functions, what consequences follow from it, what causes it, what uses it can be put to. (Dewey, 1933 , p. 137)

Still, Skinner’s is a fairly radical approach to epistemology that follows directly from his functional analysis of verbal behavior. In Skinner’s analysis, something is true if the verbal community reinforces statements about it under certain conditions because doing so leads to more effective action. What the verbal community reinforces is governed largely by the benefit accrued as a result of responding in prescribed ways to certain statements. What constitutes a benefit is a more complicated matter, especially as the benefits can vary both within and across verbal communities. Effective behavior is behavior that produces reinforcement, but what functions as reinforcement for any individual can by idiosyncratic or, at the very least, subject to change, at least in the short term. Even food functions as a reinforcer only when relevant motivating operations are in effect.

Because what we learn about the world and all of its parts, including ourselves, from our verbal communities (Skinner, 1945 , 1953 ), what we can know is constrained by the repertoires established by our verbal communities. In all circumstances, there are limits on what aspects of the world can come to control our behavior, verbal or otherwise. If we were very small, gravity would be largely inconsequential to our everyday experience. We would no notice it and we would not ask questions about it. Flies do not know and do not care—they are too small. The world is a different place to them. The average person is the same size as the average scientist, but there are aspects of the world that are hidden from them. Not because they are too small or too big, but because they are never in a position to see them. They never see what the scientist sees, in many cases, because the scientist looks carefully at specific things, has special tools available, and has opportunities to watch things repeatedly. They come to know prediction and control. They see variables that are invisible to the average person. So, for the average person, such control (and such phenomena) are no more real than ghosts.

Some parts of the world, real to the scientist, are not real to the average person. They are not part of their world. If they exist at all, it is only in terms of verbal behavior—what other people (scientists, teachers, and journalists) describe to them. The properties of the verbal behavior, and the history with respect to that verbal behavior, then matter more than the phenomena being described. The behavior is mostly echoic and intraverbal. It most certainly is not tacting, which, again, is so central to science. It is true that not all aspects of our world are detectable by us, so that we are not “knowing” all of the “real” world. But that does not matter. Richard Dawkins put it nicely:

But if solid things are mostly empty space, why don't we see them as empty space? Why does a diamond feel hard and solid instead of crumbly and full of holes? The answer lies in our own evolution. Our sense organs, like all our bits, have been shaped by Darwinian natural selection over countless generations. You might think that our sense organs would be shaped to give us a 'true' picture of the world as it 'really' is. It is safer to assume that they have been shaped to give us a useful picture of the world, to help us to survive. (Dawkins, 1995 , p. 31)

David Hume argued that causality, as studied by scientists, was an illusion. The idea of causation was based on a fallacy—the induction fallacy. If we say all apples are green, this really means simply that all the apples we have seen have been green. It takes only one red apple to spoil that bunch. The same holds true for any observations of functional relations. But at the end of the day, Hume was content to conclude that, despite the shortcomings, science worked and causality seemed a useful way of thinking. Causality might be an illusion, but it is a way of describing the world that promotes effective behavior, arguably more than any other way of describing the world. It permits effective action. It allows us to predict and control, with strong consensus that we are predicting and controlling, skeptics be damned. It is useful. Hume was a champion of science. Scientific pragmatism trumps paralyzing philosophical skepticism.

What we know is what we say, and what we say is determined by our verbal communities. Hence, what we know is what our verbal community teaches us to know. We know best what is most useful about the world. It enables us behave effectively. To paraphrase Moore ( 1984 , p. 85), knowledge is not a cause of effective action, it is what we call action that is effective. Scientists are unique in that they, more so than non-scientists, have the experience of behaving about as effectively as possible—they can predict and control. This is what makes all the difference, in the sense that it makes science different from other ways of “knowing” about the world. Science is not simply one way of knowing about the world, it is the most effective way of knowing about it. Scientific talk leads to effective action.

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The author declare that he has no conflict of interest.

1 As quoted in Petersen, A. (1963). The philosophy of Niels Bohr. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , 19 (7), p. 12.

2 I will refer to speaker and listener throughout this paper, both for consistency and for clarity. The terms should be taken to refer generally to all forms of speaking (e.g., vocal, written, gestural) and listening (e.g., hearing, reading).

3 Of course, ignorance can sometimes be a virtue, as when “a fresh set of eyes” or an impartial observer sees a problem in a new way, but those exceptions probably prove the rule and are beyond the scope of the present discussion.

4 If you do not believe that it is better to switch and need more convincing, a quick internet search of “Monty Hall Problem” will return many detailed explanations of the problem and, even better, a number of computer simulations that will allow you to play the game again and again to see for yourself.

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Language, Thought, and the History of Science

  • Published: 13 October 2021
  • Volume 41 , pages 573–586, ( 2022 )

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  • Carmela Chateau-Smith   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6995-1670 1  

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Language and thought are intimately related: philosophers have long debated how a given language may condition the oral and written expression of thought. The language chosen to communicate scientific discoveries may facilitate or impede international access to such knowledge. Vector and message may become intertwined in ways not yet fully understood: comparing and contrasting dictionary definitions of key terms, such as the Humboldtian Weltansicht , may provide useful insights into this process. Semantic prosody, a linguistic phenomenon brought to light by corpus linguistics through the analysis of ever vaster corpora, may have unsuspected and even unconscious impacts on the perception of a message. A case study of data from WebsTerre , a diachronic corpus of geological English, explores a twentieth-century Kuhnian paradigm shift in Earth Science, from continental drift to plate tectonics, to demonstrate how interactions between semantic prosody and translation have the potential to alter the history of science.

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essay on language science

The two-million-word WebsTerre corpus contains geological texts published between 1830 and 1990.

See the discussion about changes in pronunciation of the letter ‘h’, in Sect.  4

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Acknowledgements

The organisers of the Lisbon Workshop in 2019 are thanked for the opportunity to present a preliminary version of this study. The author is grateful to the Franco-Canadian art historian and archaeologist, Dr Laetitia Métreau, for the many fruitful debates that have greatly contributed to the quality of this paper. Dr Josef Wilczek provided further insights to improve the final version of the paper. Mme Geneviève Rérolle-Pouffier is thanked for providing assistance with German expressions. The helpful remarks of the editors and an anonymous reviewer have contributed greatly to the readability of the study. Any remaining errors are the sole responsibility of the author.

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The Science of Meaning: Essays on the Metatheory of Natural Language Semantics

The Science of Meaning: Essays on the Metatheory of Natural Language Semantics

The Science of Meaning: Essays on the Metatheory of Natural Language Semantics

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Semantics is the systematic study of linguistic meaning. The past fifty years have seen an explosion of research into the semantics of natural languages. There are now sophisticated theories of phenomena that were not even known to exist mere decades ago. Much of the early work in natural language semantics was accompanied by extensive reflection on the aims of semantic theory, and the form a theory must take to meet those aims. But this meta-theoretical reflection has not kept pace with recent theoretical innovations. The aim of this volume is to re-address these questions concerning the foundations of natural language semantics in light of the current state-of-the-art in semantic theorizing. The volume addresses a range of foundational questions about formal semantics: what is the best methodology for semantic theorizing, and should experimental techniques play a crucial role? How should we understand the use of formal tools such as model theory, and are there better formal alternatives? How should we think about compositionality? What does semantic theory tell us about the language faculty or linguistic competence? What are the advantages of dynamic semantics? How do formal semantic theories relate to philosophical notions of context, content, interpretation, and propositions?

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History of the Language Sciences

The history of the language sciences has expanded considerably in recent years, moving to consider broader disciplinary constellations, global developments, extra-intellectual dynamics, and non-elite actors. This group builds upon that energy, seeking to underscore the centrality of linguistic knowledge to the history and historiography of science. It provides a forum where those with interests in all varieties of linguistic research can come together to share work in progress, engage in “slow reading,” and build community through discussion.

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Participants at Consortium activities will treat each other with respect and consideration to create a collegial, inclusive, and professional environment that is free from any form of discrimination, harassment, or retaliation.

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Upcoming Meetings

Chen-Pang Yeang, "Information, Cryptography, and Noise"  This paper focuses on the roles of noise in Claude Shannon's development of information theory in the 1940s. It explains how Shannon formed his core conepts of generic noise through his wartime cryptographic work, how such concepts of noise configured his so-called "channel Coding Theorem," and how he came up with various visual representations of noise as modeling of uncertainty at large. While the content of this presentation is not about linguistics in its narrow sense, Shannon's information theory did have profound influences on the studies of languages in the mid-20th century. His talk about redundancy, entropy, and coding became well-known intellectual resources among linguists at the time.

Past Meetings

Kristine Palmieri, "Grand Visions of Alterthumswissenschaft: Classical Philology as Language Science in early Nineteenth-Century Germany" This chapter examines three grand visions of classical philology that were articulated in the period 1805–1807. This analysis focuses especially on the vision of George Friedrich Creuzer (1771–1858), professor of philology and ancient history at the University of Heidelberg, and on his statement that, “the science of antiquity presents two sides for consideration, the historical and the exemplary.” Creuzer’s views are compared first with those of Johann Heinrich Voß (1751–1826), the famous translator of Homer and devout philhellene, who was radically opposed to Creuzer’s approach to classical philology. This chapter then turns to the programmatic statement on classical philology, “Description of the Science of Antiquity” (Darstellung der Alterthumswissenschaft) (1807) written by Friedrich August Wolf (1759–1824). The comparison of these three views both illuminates the relationship between philology and pedagogy, which emphasizes the important role that the classical philology played in the development of cultural philhellenism, and highlights the unique status of the philology seminar as a space in which classical philology was taught as an independent field of scientific research.

*NOTE SPECIAL TIME* Paul Michael Kurtz, "Knowledge Infrastructure ca. 1900: The Case of Assyriology at the British Museum"    Abstract:  Stripping himself in excitement at the British Museum, George Smith stated, in 1872, “I am the first man to read that after more than two thousand years of oblivion.” What he read both shocked and awed: an account of the Deluge – yet from a still more ancient age and in a different language than Genesis. Controversy ensued, of biblical proportions. But how did that clay fragment make its way to London, from Iraq, and how could that now famous text become visible in the first place, buried not only under earth but also beneath crystalline deposits?

This paper presents an initial foray into the history of infrastructure in Semitic philology during the nineteenth century. Focusing on the transport of cuneiform tablets from Iraq, on the one hand, and their storage, organization, and processing at the British Museum, on the other, it examines material problems and material solutions at the bedrock of philology. It considers the affordances essential to making, transmitting, and inculcating textual and linguistic knowledge. Along the way, this exploration examines processes of experimentation and boundaries between experts and technicians and addresses larger questions of epistemic objects, actor-networks, and cooked data.

  Reading: E.A. Wallis Budge,  The Rise & Progress of Assyriology  (London: Hopkinson, 1925), 143–74. Available digitally on  Archive.org .

*NOTE SPECIAL TIME* Gregory Radick (University of Leeds), "Language, Darwinism and the Human/Non-Human Boundary" Charles Darwin’s  Descent of Man  (1871) includes a famous passage on moral progress as due to human reason continuously expanding the range of beings to whom – and, eventually, to which – human sympathies extend.  This chapter tracks the fortunes of this passage across the last century and a half of public Darwinism, dwelling in particular on three instances: first, its debut in Darwin’s  Descent ; second, its return in the 1950 UNESCO Statement on the “Race Question,” as the sole quotation from a scientific author; third, its return again in the evolutionary psychologist Steven Pinker’s 2011 bestseller  The Better Angels of Our Nature , as an epigraph to the concluding chapter.  Against any impression that this lineage might convey of a consensus stably enduring from Darwin’s day to ours, I aim to show on the contrary that beneath the surface continuity is a remarkable discontinuity, located in the years around 1900.  Once we recognize this discontinuity, we can better understand how Darwinian theory came to be used in the twentieth century first to underwrite the concept of human rights biologically and then to undermine that concept.  

Michael E. Lynch (Cornell University), "Harvey Sacks and the 'Linguistics Turn' in the Analysis of Conversation"  Harvey Sacks (1935–1975) is generally acknowledged as the founder of conversation analysis, which originated as part of the sociological subfield of ethnomethodology. Although he died at the age of 40 in an automobile accident nearly 50 years ago, there has been renewed interest in his work, in part because the field of Conversation Analysis (CA), which became established in the social and behavioral sciences in the decades following his death, appears to some of us to have drifted from Sacks’ radical treatment of conversation as a social production. This presentation is part of an effort based on readings and online discussions of Sacks’ transcribed lectures and some preliminary research at the Sacks’ archive. The focus of this presentation will be on the ‘linguistics turn’ in Conversation Analysis (not to be confused with, the linguistic turn in mid-20 th century Anglo-American philosophy). This ‘turn’ from ethnomethodology (the investigation of elementary features of human actions) to subfields of linguistics (psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, pragmatics) has broadened interest in CA, but calls for a reminder of Sacks’ use of linguistic resources in his investigations. The talk will focus on how Sacks, in his transcribed lectures and writings, invokes grammatical features of sentences as resources that parties to a conversation to compose and coordinate social actions. Sacks’ turn is from linguistic order to orders of coordinated action. In recent years, the professional ‘turn’ in CA has gone from a focus on social action to analysis of particulars of language and psychology.    

James McElvenny and Floris Solleveld, "Australian Languages and Cultures: Histories of Documentation"    This session features two papers about the study of Australian Aboriginal languages in the 19th century, how the cultural and natural environment was entailed in that study, and the colonial/missionary/scientific networks of which it was part.   Colonial science between Kleinstaaterei and the Word of God: The 1838 Lutheran mission to South Australia James McElvenny (University of Siegen)   In this talk, I present a case study of the first Lutheran mission to South Australia and look at the entanglements it reveals between scientific data collection in the colonial field, Protestant missionary efforts, and the political jockeying and pursuit of prestige among the German states of the nineteenth century. The focus lies on Christian Gottlob Teichelmann (1807–1888) and Clamor Wilhelm Schürmann (1815–1893), sent in 1838 by the Dresden Missionary Society to proselytize the Aboriginal inhabitants of Adelaide. Their ordination in the small central German duchy of Altenburg led them into an association with the local Naturforschende Gesellschaft des Osterlandes and the nobleman Hans Conon von der Gabelentz (1807–1874), senior government official in the duchy and renowned gentleman scholar. Through this association, Teichelmann and Schürmann sent back to Altenburg natural scientific specimens and linguistic and ethnographic documentation from South Australia. I will examine how typical this arrangement was in the scientific landscape of the time and the place of the data and specimens collected by the missionaries in the circulation of knowledge between the colonial field and European metropole.     Holy Echidnas: The McCrae-Lloyd correspondence on Aboriginal and San language and culture Floris Solleveld (University of Bristol)   In May 1875, Australian poet George Gordon McCrae sent a letter to German philologist Wilhelm Bleek in Cape Town, responding to a request for information about Aboriginal languages and cultures in Australian newspapers. By the time McCrae’s letter arrived in November, Bleek was dead. However, Bleek’s sister-in-law Lucy Lloyd, with whom he had been working in his final years to record a massive corpus of San [Bushman] oral literature from |Xam narrators, kept up the correspondence. With the ensuing letters, McCrae sent Lloyd a collection of essays on shamanism and food taboos among the Kulin Aboriginal people of Port Philip Bay (near Melbourne) as well as several vocabularies. One essay, about the food taboos regarding the holy parts of the ‘porcupine ant eater’ (echidna), inspired Lloyd to draw comparisons with a |Xam tale about a man who turned into a porcupine and talked to the rain but said something wrong that made the rain turn to hail. This correspondence has only recently come to light and narrowly escaped destruction in the 2021 fire at UCT libraries. I will discuss it against the background of colonial-age cultural and linguistic comparisons, and in relation to the theories of Wilhelm Bleek about the origin of language and grammatical gender in particular.  

Introductions, "Epistemic Transfer" For this first meeting, we invite all participants to bring an image, slide, excerpt, artifact, or recording to share and discuss. We hope that these will help us introduce our interests  to one another and, ideally, to frame the theme of epistemic transfer, which will guide our readings and presentations this year. With this thematic focus, our goal is to highlight historical interactions between the language sciences and other knowledge traditions, so we heartily welcome objects for show-and-tell that come from outside mainstream linguistics. Participants are encouraged to think about instances where transfers (e.g., of methods, concepts, tools, and norms) have been embraced, mediated, resisted, or even refused. To inform our discussion and analysis of these objects, we ask everyone to please read the essay "History of Science and History of Philologies" by Lorraine Daston and Glenn Most before coming to the meeting.    

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Group conveners.

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Kevin Chang

Kevin Chang works at Taiwan’s national academy, Academia Sinica in Taipei. He received his PhD at the University of Chicago and started as a historian of science and medicine in early modern Europe. He has since expanded his research areas to the global history of higher education, media studies, the comparative history of philology and language sciences. He co-edited World Philology (Havard UP, 2015) with Sheldon Pollock and Benjamin Elman, Impagination: Materiality and Layout of Writing and Publication (De Gruyter, 2021) with Anthony Grafton and Glenn Most, and A Global History of Research Education (Oxford UP, 2021) with Alan Rocke. He has completed a manuscript on the global history of the dissertation as a genre of academic writing.

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Judy Kaplan

Judy Kaplan is a cultural and intellectual historian of the human sciences with a focus on nineteenth- and twentieth-century linguistic research. She has published widely on subjects from orientalism to sound studies and is currently working on a new project that unravels histories of research on language universals. She is the NSF Fellow in Residence at the Consortium for History of Science, Technology and Medicine.

FlorisSolleveld's picture

Floris Solleveld

Floris Solleveld is a research associate at the University of Bristol working on 19th-century missionary translation networks. His Ph.D. thesis (Radboud University Nijmegen, 2018) analyzed transformations in the humanities around 1800; as FWO Postdoctoral Fellow at KU Leuven (2018-2022) he studied the imperial-era “mapping” of the world’s languages and peoples. Other research interests include the Republic of Letters and the history of historiography.

A Group of Multi Colored Chat Bubbles Overlapped With Common Ground on Beige Background Directly Above View, Paper Cut Craft.

Disappearing tongues: the endangered language crisis

Linguistic diversity on Earth is far more profound and fundamental than previously imagined. But it’s also crumbling fast

A t the heart of linguistics is a radical premise: all languages are equal. This underlies everything we do at the Endangered Language Alliance , an eccentric extended family of linguists, language activists, polyglots and ordinary people, whose mission is to document endangered languages and support linguistic diversity, especially in the world’s hyperdiverse cities.

Language is a universal and democratic fact cutting across all human societies: no human group is without it, and no language is superior to any other. More than race or religion, language is a window on to the deepest levels of human diversity. The familiar map of the world’s 200 or so nation-states is superficial compared with the little-known map of its 7,000 languages . Some languages may specialise in talking about melancholy, seaweed or atomic structure; some grammars may glory in conjugating verbs while others bristle with syntactic invention. Languages represent thousands of natural experiments: ways of seeing, understanding and living that should form part of any meaningful account of what it is to be human.

Users of Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, Mandarin, English and the like have continually proclaimed their languages holier, more perfect or more adaptive than the unwritten, unstandardised “dialects” they look down on. But from a linguistic point of view, no language as used by a native speaker is in any way inferior, let alone broken. The vast majority have always been oral, with written language a derivative of comparatively recent vintage, confined to tiny elites in a small number of highly centralised societies. Writing is palpably a trained technology of conscious coding, in comparison with the natural and universal human behaviours of speaking and signing.

Perceptions of linguistic superiority or inferiority are not based on anything about the languages themselves, but on the power, class or status of the speakers. Every language signed or spoken natively is a fully equipped system for handling the core communicative demands of daily life, able to coin or borrow words as needed. “Languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey,” said the linguist and polyglot Roman Jakobson. In other words: it’s possible to say anything in any language, but each language’s grammar requires speakers to mark out certain parts of reality and not others, however unconsciously. This is the essence of what makes linguistics fascinating and revealing.

All languages may be equal in the abstract, but much harder to bridge are the social and historical disparities among their speakers. At present, about half of all languages are spoken by communities of 10,000 or fewer , and hundreds have just 10 speakers or fewer . On every continent, the median number of speakers for a language is below 1,000 , and in Australia this figure goes as low as 87.

Today, these numbers reflect serious endangerment, and even languages with hundreds of thousands or a few million speakers can be considered vulnerable. In the past, however, small language communities could be quite stable, especially hunter-gatherer groups, which typically comprised fewer than 1,000 people. Likewise, most older sign languages, now critically endangered, evolved in so-called deaf villages, where the incidence of hereditary deafness in the population was significantly higher than elsewhere, though still rarely more than about 2%. Many hearing people in these villages could also sign, but the core group of signers was typically several hundred at most.

In general, sheer speaker or signer numbers have always mattered less than intergenerational transmission. A small language can apparently remain strong for centuries as long as parents, grandparents and other caregivers are using it with children. Take Gurr-Goni, an Aboriginal language from north-central Arnhem Land in Australia, which has had just several dozen speakers as far back as anyone can remember. Far from being an isolated group, Gurr-Goni speakers maintained their language in a context of multilingual equilibrium, where each “father tongue” was integrally connected with certain ancestral lands and natural resources. It’s this kind of equilibrium that has been vanishing fast as colonial and national languages take over.

But why does linguistic diversity matter in the first place? For a linguist, the answer is clear enough: little-documented, primarily oral languages are often the ones with the most to teach us about the nature and possibilities of human communication more generally. Without the Khoisan languages of southern Africa, we wouldn’t know how extensively and expressively clicks could be used. Without Warao, spoken in Guyana, Venezuela and Suriname, we wouldn’t know that object-subject-verb could be the routine way of ordering a sentence. Without the Hmong-Mien languages of south-east Asia, we wouldn’t know that a language could have a dozen tones.

But it’s also what the languages carry inside them: the poetry, literature, jokes, proverbs and turns of phrase. The oral histories, the local and environmental knowledge, the wisdom, and the lifeways. Only a fraction of this ever can or will be translated into other languages.

If this still sounds theoretical, consider even more immediate, practical consequences. A growing body of research shows that there is no substitute for mother-tongue education, and that language maintenance is an integral component of physical and mental well-being – perhaps especially so for long-marginalised Indigenous and minority peoples.

For this is the crux of it: languages are not “dying natural deaths”, but being hounded out of existence.

L ike biodiversity, linguistic diversity remains strongest today in remote and rugged regions traditionally beyond the reach of empires and nation states: mountain ranges like the Himalayas and the Caucasus; archipelagoes like Indonesia and the Solomons; and what were once zones of refuge like the Amazon, southern Mexico, Papua New Guinea and parts of west and central Africa. But these too are now under tremendous pressure.

“Language has always been the companion of empire,” wrote Antonio de Nebrija in his 1492 Gramática Castellana , which aimed to raise vernacular Castilian Spanish to the level of Latin and other imperial languages, just in time for European conquests across the globe. Though languages have always changed and come and gone, the scope for linguistic imperialism has widened exponentially since Nebrija’s day. A comparatively small number of empires and nation states, now bristling with 24/7 communication and education systems, cover every inch of the Earth. Worldwide, centuries of imperialism, capitalism, urbanisation, environmental destruction and nation building are now coming to a head linguistically. With power behind them, a few hundred languages keep growing and getting all the resources, while the other 95% struggle.

Particularly dominant are just a few dozen languages of wider communication, less politely called “killer languages”. English, Spanish and Chinese are on the march, but so are Nepali and Brazilian Portuguese. These languages are spreading through political, economic and cultural conquest, and the consequences are seeping into everything. At the same time, only under extraordinary circumstances are a few new languages emerging, such as Light Warlpiri, which developed out of mixing English and the Aboriginal language Warlpiri in Australia’s Northern Territory.

A road sign with the English names crossed out and replaced with Aboriginal names near Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia.

In anglophone settler societies such as the US and Canada, genocide, expulsion, disease and every form of prejudice and pressure exerted on Native peoples have profoundly altered the linguistic landscape. About half of the 300 distinct languages once spoken north of the Rio Grande have already been silenced, and most of those remaining are no longer actively used, with under 10 native speakers. Only a few of the largest, including ᏣᎳᎩ (Cherokee), Diné Bizaad (Navajo) and Yup’ik can in any way be considered “safe”, though profoundly embattled, for the coming decades. Likewise, most of the hundreds of Aboriginal languages once spoken in Australia are either no longer spoken or else down to small clusters of elderly speakers, with just a few still heroically being transmitted.

Dominant-language speakers opine that everything would be easier and better (and peace on Earth!) if everyone would just speak their particular dominant language. But common languages don’t unify in and of themselves – look at many of the world’s civil wars, or the deep divisions in anglophone American society today. The imaginative challenge of big differences is quickly replaced with the narcissism of small ones: scrutinising other people’s accents, sociolects, word choice, tone of voice.

The spheres of use for smaller languages and nonstandard varieties are continually shrinking: they often emerge only in private, yielding as soon as a speaker steps outside. Now the shift is happening inside homes as well. Families around the world are hitching their fate to English and other dominant languages – abandoning not just words, but vast traditions of gesture, intonation, facial expression, conversational style and perhaps even the culture and character behind all these. Only in the face of intense political, economic, religious or social pressures do people stop passing on their mother tongues to children, but today these pressures are everywhere. The disruption of this basic natural process has come to feel almost normal.

O f course English in particular, supercharged by business, pop culture and the internet after centuries of colonial expansion, is the real empire of our time – far more fluid and influential than any political entity. Many English speakers go their entire lives without encountering anything significant they can’t do or get in their language. Whatever the power dynamics of any given conversation, English is pure linguistic privilege, the reserve currency of communication. The push to learn it is an event of planetary significance, swelling a linguistic community of going on half a billion native English speakers worldwide, plus another 1 or 2 billion who know it as a second language. These numbers are growing every day.

Many people think the world, or at least their corner of it, is growing ever more diverse, but monolinguals are increasingly in charge. The monolingual mindset, bone-deep in almost every anglophone American, blocks any real urgency about other languages. A multilingual childhood, only now widely recognised as an inestimable cognitive advantage, can add a whole dimension to someone’s understanding of the world, with a sense of linguistic and cultural perspective. But to do it right, especially for monolingual parents, can require serious effort and resources.

What should a monolingual person do? Every time someone speaks, they embody an inherited chain of choices. It can be profoundly useful to be a native speaker of the dominant dialect of a dominant language. Representing the associated “mainstream” culture with every sound means being able to talk to many and sound good to most. Rarely does a dominant-language monolingual need to speak anyone else’s language, and it counts as a charming attempt if they do, a mark of open-mindedness and sophistication or an advanced party trick. Since reading and writing usually hew close to the dominant dialect, book learning is that much easier. A person “without an accent” is by default considered to be smarter or better educated as soon as they open their mouth.

Yet people intensely aware of privilege based on gender, race, class or sexuality seldom consider their linguistic privilege. English or Spanish or Mandarin or Urdu may just seem like the air you breathe. The only cure for monolingualism is to learn other human languages, but it’s at least a start to learn about them, from those who speak them. Maybe there should be a special kind of therapy for monolinguals, where you have to sit listening to a language you can’t understand, without translation but with total patience.

One of the last remaining speakers of a Khoisan language teaching it to school children in South Africa in 2015.

For an academic linguist, this is an occupational hazard. On first meeting, a speaker knows you don’t know their language, but there is a useful ambiguity. If not learning languages, what exactly does a linguist do? Sound systems are entire ecosystems for the ear, but even on an initial listen you can try to make out the shapes of syllables, the qualities of vowels, the puff of aspiration, the bent tongue of a retroflex. There may be clues in the intonation patterns: variations in pitch, rhythm, loudness, voice quality or the length of sounds, which convey not only vibes, but essential information, like how rising pitch in English can signal a yes-no question. Under the rush of unfamiliar sound, flowing at hundreds of syllables a minute, you try to hold back from the scramble for meaning and suss out the structure.

From the glottis to the lips, the whole tract where spoken language happens is just five or six inches long. Across evolutionary eons, a space for eating and breathing gradually took on linguistic uses, not just anywhere but at certain places of articulation: the lips, the teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate and the soft one behind it, the uvula that hangs like a little grape above the throat, the pharynx and the larynx. The tongue – that near-universal symbol of language – darts and bends to make contact wherever it can. For signers, it happens in the hands. (In what follows, I use terms such as speech and oral for the sake of simplicity, but virtually everything here also applies to sign languages.) There are also whistled languages, drum languages and many other ways of emulating speech across space.

T o document and describe languages while there is still time ought to be the first task for a linguist. Yet a linguist’s moment of discovery is also almost always the moment of grasping a disappearance. For any outsider claiming to “discover” any human society or culture or language – that is, announcing the existence of some smaller group to the ruthlessly joined-up juggernaut sometimes known as “us” – is also arriving at, and bound up in, the moment of its destruction. The same forces that bring an outside linguist in are bringing everything else as well.

The organised movement to preserve the world’s languages is recent. In 1992, the linguist Michael Krauss warned that linguistics would “go down in history as the only science that presided obliviously over the disappearance of 90% of the very field to which it is dedicated”. This helped light the spark. Inspired by the new push for biodiversity and the growing movement for Indigenous rights, a cohort of linguists and language activists vowed to use new technologies to record and preserve as much as possible of the world’s vanishing linguistic heritage. Ideally, speakers record and document their own languages, and this is now increasingly common.

Language documentation may sound like an obvious priority for linguistics, but it flies in the face of what most linguists have been focusing on for the past 70 years: language , not languages. Following Noam Chomsky, most have been chasing theoretical and computational questions, seeing themselves as Martians trying to document an essentially uniform language called Earthling. Their evidence has come mostly from the largest languages, which happen to be the dominant ones they’re familiar with. Few meaningful universals have emerged from all the armchair theorising and laboratory testing. Theory has its place, of course, but it’s essential that languages be documented on their own terms. The real view from Mars, it turns out, is that linguistic diversity on Earth is far more profound and fundamental than previously imagined.

At the same time, there is an essential toolkit that every language should have: a substantial dictionary, a detailed grammatical description, and a representative corpus of recorded stories, oral histories and other texts showing the language in action, and at least partially transcribed, translated, analysed and archived. To the extent that speakers are willing, these materials should be maximally accessible and archived for posterity. Speakers of larger languages take for granted effectively limitless resources in and about their languages. Forget Siri, speech recognition, automatic translation, spellcheck and other nifty tools: imagine not having a dictionary, any established way of writing or any authority on the language at all, aside from an elder you have to find and ask in person.

English dictionaries in a Beijing bookshop.

It’s one thing to help build arks, or at least archives, but linguists don’t and can’t “save” languages. By definition, every language is limitless as long as speakers are still speaking it or signers are signing it. No language ends on the last page of a dictionary. From a finite number of sounds, words, rules and techniques, speakers form an infinite number of utterances. There is no single way that a community “really speaks”, nor any one authoritative type of data to preserve for all time. Language is too fluid.

Unfortunately, many linguists also dwell on damaging, defeatist abstractions about language “death” and “extinction” while Indigenous scholars state clearly that oppression is the threat, and that reclaiming Indigenous languages is about liberation and recovery from historical trauma. Linguistics, like anthropology, has skeletons in its disciplinary closet. Fighting for endangered languages can only mean fighting on the side of their speakers and signers, and ultimately it’s always up to communities whether and how to keep using their languages. Some have been struggling to do so for centuries; others are less concerned. Of course, there are not only pressures, but also always enticements to learn a dominant language, which may grant access, however limited, to the dominant culture’s resources.

For some members, the breakdown of a traditional community may feel like emancipation; for others, a disaster. Whether it’s a matter of survival or a question of common sense, the logic of abandoning a smaller mother tongue for work, education, migration, marriage or any number of other reasons can seem unassailable. Once-valued or ingrained connections to ancestors, traditions, territories and knowledge systems can easily seem irrelevant, obscure or simply impossible to access under contemporary conditions.

It’s a powerful-sounding truism, but not quite true, that language and culture are inextricably linked, since group identities in some cases persist after the loss of a language. Nor should anyone feel forced to stay within any particular culture. What matters is that individuals and communities have meaningful options for how they relate to their linguistic pasts and construct their linguistic futures. Given the normal and natural human capacity for multilingualism, maintaining a less widely spoken language need not preclude learning a more widely spoken one.

T here are now hundreds of language revitalisation movements around the world, most launched in just the past few decades, creating a wealth of experience for others to draw on. It can feel like nearly impossible work, where even a single new speaker of a highly endangered language counts as a serious triumph, requiring years of dedication. At the same time, scattered speakers are now finding one another in virtual spaces, where language learning options are multiplying and reality-augmenting and artificial intelligence possibilities are on the horizon.

If one critical ingredient has been missing from language revitalisation movements, it is real financial, political, and technical support from majority populations. Speakers of endangered languages almost never encounter outside interest in or knowledge about their languages, while persecution, mockery, and stigma are still common. To the extent that language policy or discussion is on the agenda at all, it relates to specific points of conflict in a few dominant languages, not the collapse of linguistic diversity itself.

For the revivers of endangered languages, a sense of radical futility may be waiting round the bend of every utterance. Where will I speak this? Who will understand me? Who can even tell me if I’m speaking correctly? Will I ever start thinking in the language? When almost no one else is doing it, matching a string of sounds to a meaning can seem downright arbitrary. And yet it is only after ingesting masses of often arbitrary-seeming words that people can process or produce them at speed, and only then that they can start feeling the indescribable sense of what it is to live in a particular language – just as an actor needs to get her lines down cold before even starting to get into character. To try to communicate with what is no longer a tool of communication – to resurrect a whole worldview that is almost over the horizon – is a wonderful madness.

This is an edited extract from Language City: The Fight to Preserve Endangered Mother Tongues, published by Grove Press UK on 7 March and available at guardianbookshop.co.uk

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Essay on Science for Students and Children

500+ words essay on science.

Essay on science:  As we look back in our ancient times we see so much development in the world. The world is full of gadgets and machinery . Machinery does everything in our surroundings. How did it get possible? How did we become so modern? It was all possible with the help of science. Science has played a major role in the development of our society. Furthermore, Science has made our lives easier and carefree.

Essay on science

Science in our Daily Lives

As I have mentioned earlier Science has got many changes in our lives. First of all, transportation is easier now. With the help of Science it now easier to travel long distances . Moreover, the time of traveling is also reduced. Various high-speed vehicles are available these days. These vehicles have totally changed. The phase of our society. Science upgraded steam engines to electric engines. In earlier times people were traveling with cycles. But now everybody travels on motorcycles and cars. This saves time and effort. And this is all possible with the help of Science.

Secondly, Science made us reach to the moon. But we never stopped there. It also gave us a glance at Mars. This is one of the greatest achievements. This was only possible with Science. These days Scientists make many satellites . Because of which we are using high-speed Internet. These satellites revolve around the earth every day and night. Even without making us aware of it. Science is the backbone of our society. Science gave us so much in our present time. Due to this, the teacher in our schools teaches Science from an early age.

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Science as a Subject

In class 1 only a student has Science as a subject. This only tells us about the importance of Science. Science taught us about Our Solar System. The Solar System consists of 9 planets and the Sun. Most Noteworthy was that it also tells us about the origin of our planet. Above all, we cannot deny that Science helps us in shaping our future. But not only it tells us about our future, but it also tells us about our past.

When the student reaches class 6, Science gets divided into three more subcategories. These subcategories were Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. First of all, Physics taught us about the machines. Physics is an interesting subject. It is a logical subject.

Furthermore, the second subject was Chemistry . Chemistry is a subject that deals with an element found inside the earth. Even more, it helps in making various products. Products like medicine and cosmetics etc. result in human benefits.

Last but not least, the subject of Biology . Biology is a subject that teaches us about our Human body. It tells us about its various parts. Furthermore, it even teaches the students about cells. Cells are present in human blood. Science is so advanced that it did let us know even that.

Leading Scientists in the field of Science

Finally, many scientists like Thomas Edison , Sir Isaac Newton were born in this world. They have done great Inventions. Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. If he did not invent that we would stay in dark. Because of this Thomas Edison’s name marks in history.

Another famous Scientist was Sir Isaac Newton . Sir Isaac Newton told us about Gravity. With the help of this, we were able to discover many other theories.

In India Scientists A..P.J Abdul was there. He contributed much towards our space research and defense forces. He made many advanced missiles. These Scientists did great work and we will always remember them.

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Science Essay

Science is a systematic and logical study of occurrences, events, happenings etc. Science is the study that logically explains the round shape of earth; it explains the twinkling of stars; why light travels faster than sound; why hawk flies higher than a crow; why the sunflower turns to the sunlight etc. Science doesn’t provide supernatural explanations; rather it gives logical conclusion to every question. Science as a subject is extremely popular with students. It’s indeed an essential subject for aspirants who want to make their career in science and related fields.

Knowledge of science makes people more confident and well aware of their surroundings. One who knows science will not be scared of natural occurrences, knowing their origin and reason. On the other hand science also plays a significant role in technological development of a nation and hence also in removing growth impediments like unemployment and illiteracy.

Long and Short Essay on Science in English

We have provided below short and long essay on science in English for your knowledge and information.

The essays have been wisely written to deliver to you the meaning and significance of science.

After going through the essays you will know what is science and its importance in our day to day life, also how science helps in the development of a country.

You can use these science essay in your school’s or college’s essay writing, debate or other similar competitions.

Science Essay 1 (200 words)

Science involves extensive study of the behaviour of natural and physical world. The study is conducted by way of research, observation and experimentation. There are several branches of science. These include the natural sciences, social sciences and formal sciences. These broad categories have further been divided into sub categories and sub-sub categories. Physics, chemistry, biology earth science and astronomy form a part of the natural sciences, history, geography, economics, political science, sociology, psychology, social studies and anthropology are a part of the social sciences and formal sciences include mathematics, logic, statistics, decision theory, system theory and computer science.

Science has changed the world for good. There have been several scientific inventions from time to time and these have made life convenient for the human beings. Several of these inventions have become an integral part of our lives and we cannot imagine our lives without them. Scientists worldwide continue to experiment and keep coming up with newer inventions every now and then with some of them bringing revolution worldwide. However, as useful as it is, science has also been misused by some, mainly by those in power, for fuelling an arms race and degrading the environment.

The ideologies of science and religion have not found any meeting ground. These seemingly contrasting ideas have given rise to several conflicts in the past and continue to do so.

Science Essay 2 (300 words)

Introduction

Science is a means to study, understand, analyze and experiment with the natural and physical aspects of the world and put them to use to come up with newer inventions that make life more convenient for the mankind. The observation and experimentation in the field of science is not limited to a particular aspect or idea; it is widespread.

Uses of Science

Almost everything we use in our daily lives is a gift of science. From cars to washing machines, from mobile phones to microwaves, from refrigerators to laptops – everything is an outcome of scientific experimentation. Here is how science impacts our everyday life:

Not just microwaves, grillers and refrigerators, gas stoves that are commonly used to prepare food are also a scientific invention.

  • Medical Treatments

The treatment of several diseases and ailments has been made possible because of the advancement in science. Science thus promotes healthy living and has contributed in the increase of life span.

  • Communication

Mobile phones and internet connections that have become an integral part of our lives these days are all inventions of science. These inventions have made communication easier and brought the world closer.

  • Source of Energy

The discovery of atomic energy has given way to the invention and deployment of various forms of energies. Electricity is one of its main inventions and the way it impacts our everyday life is known to all.

  • Variety of Food

The variety of food has also increased. Many fruits and vegetables are now available all through the year. You do not require waiting for a particular season to enjoy a specific food. The experimentations in the field of science have led to this change.

Science is thus a part of our everyday life. Our life would have been very different and difficult without the advancement in science. However, we cannot deny the fact that many scientific inventions have led to the degradation of the environment and have also caused numerous health problems for the mankind.

Science Essay 3 (400 words)

Science is basically divided into three broad branches. These include Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and Formal Sciences. These branches are further classified into sub-categories to study various aspects. Here is a detailed look at these categories and sub categories.

Branches of Science

  • Natural Sciences

As the name suggests, this is the study of the natural phenomena. It studies how the world and universe works. Natural Science is further categorized into Physical Science and Life Science.

  • a) Physical Science

Physical science includes the following sub categories:

  • Physics: The study of properties of energy and matter.
  • Chemistry: The study of substances of which matter is made.
  • Astronomy: The study of the space and celestial bodies.
  • Ecology: The study of relation of organisms with their physical surroundings as well as with each other.
  • Geology: It deals with Earth’s physical structure and substance.
  • Earth Science: The study of Earth’s physical constitution and its atmosphere.
  • Oceanography: The study of biological and physical elements and phenomena of the sea.
  • Meteorology: It deals with the processes of the atmosphere
  • b) Life Science

The following sub categories form a part of the life science:

  • Biology: The study of living organisms.
  • Botany: The study of plant life.
  • Zoology: The study of animal life.
  • Social Sciences

This involves the study of the social pattern and human behaviour. It is further divided into various sub-categories. These include:

  • History: The study of events occurred in the past
  • Political Science: Study of systems of government and political activities.
  • Geography: Study of Earth’s physical features and atmosphere.
  • Social Studies: Study of human society.
  • Sociology: Study of development and functioning of the society.
  • Psychology: Study of human behaviour.
  • Anthropology: Study of different aspects of humans within present and past societies.
  • Economics: Study of production, consumption and circulation of wealth.
  • Formal Sciences

It is that branch of science that studies formal systems such as mathematics and logic. It involves the following sub-categories:

  • Mathematics: The study of numbers.
  • Logic: The study of reasoning.
  • Statistics: It deals with the analysis of numerical data.
  • Decision Theory: Mathematical study to enhance decision making ability when it comes to profit and loss.
  • Systems Theory: The study of abstract organization.
  • Computer Science: The study of experimentation and engineering to form basis for designing and use of computers.

The experts in various branches of science have continually been studying the subject deeply and experimenting with different aspects to come up with newer theories, inventions and discoveries. These discoveries and inventions have made life easier for us; however, at the same time these have also made an irreversible damage to the environment as well as the living beings.

Science Essay 4 (500 words)

Science is the study of structure and behaviour of different physical and natural aspects. Scientists study these aspects, observe them thoroughly and experiment before coming to a conclusion. There have been several scientific discoveries and inventions in the past that have proved to be a boon for the mankind.

Concepts of Science and Religion

While a logical and systematic approach is followed in the field of science to come up with new ideas and inventions, religion, on the other hand, is purely based on belief system and faith. In science, a thorough observation, analysis and experimentation is done to derive a result whereas there is hardly any logic when it comes to religion. Their view of looking at things is thus completely different from one another.

Conflict between Science and Religion

Science and religion are often seen at loggerheads due to their conflicting views on certain things. Sadly, at times these conflicts lead to disturbance in the society and causes suffering to the innocent. Here are some of the major conflicts that have occurred between the advocates of religion and the believers of scientific methodologies.

  • The Creation of World

Many conservative Christians believe that God created the world in six days sometime between 4004 and 8000 BCE. On the other hand, the cosmologists state that the universe is as old as around 13.7 billion years and that the Earth emerged around 4.5 billion years ago.

  • Earth as the Centre of the Universe

This is one of the most famous conflicts. The Roman Catholic Church regarded Earth as the centre of the universe. As per them, the Sun, Moon, stars and other planets revolve around it. The conflict arose when famous Italian astronomer and mathematician, Galileo Galilei discovered the heliocentric system wherein the Sun forms the centre of the solar system and the Earth and other planets revolve around it.

Unfortunately, Galileo was condemned as a heretic and put in house arrest for the rest of his life.

  • Solar and Lunar Eclipse

One of the earliest conflicts occurred in Iraq. The priests there had told the locals that lunar eclipse was caused because of the restlessness of gods. These were thought to be ominous and aimed at destroying the kings. The conflict occurred when the local astronomers came up with the scientific reason behind the eclipse.

While the astronomers state a strong and logical reason about the occurrence of the solar and lunar eclipse, myths and superstitions surrounding the same still continue in various parts of the world.

  • The Evolution of Species

Taking reference from the biblical book of Genesis, the conservative Christians believe that all the species of flora and fauna were created during the six days period when God created the world. The biologists, on the other hand, argue that the various species of plants and animals evolved over hundred and millions of years via the procedures of natural selection.

Apart from these, there are several other arenas wherein the scientists and religious advocates have contradictory views. Even though the scientists/ astronomers/ biologists have a backing for their theories most people deeply follow the religious views.

It is not only the religious advocates who often raise voice against the scientific methodologies and ideologies, science has also been criticized by many other sections of society because its inventions are giving way to various social, political, environmental and health issues. Scientific inventions such as nuclear weapons pose a threat to the mankind. Besides, the procedures of preparation as well as the use of most scientifically designed devices are adding to the pollution, thereby making life difficult for everyone.

Science Essay 5 (600 words)

There have been several scientific discoveries and inventions in the last couple of decades that have made life much easier. Last decade was no exception. There were quite a few significant scientific inventions that received appreciation. Here is a look at the 10 most remarkable recent scientific inventions.

Recent Scientific Inventions and Discoveries

  • Control over Biomechanical Hand through Mind

Amputee Pierpaolo Petruzziello, an Italian who lost his forearm in an unfortunate accident, learned how to control a biomechanical hand connected to his arm by way of his thoughts. The hand connected to his arm nerves via electrodes and wires. He became the first person to master the art of making movements such as finger wiggling, grabbing objects and moving fist with his thoughts.

  • Global Positioning System

Global Positioning System, popularly referred to as GPS, became commercially viable in the year 2005. It was embedded into the mobile devices and proved to be a boon for the travelers worldwide. Looking for directions while travelling to newer places couldn’t get easier.

  • Prius – The Self-Driving Car

Google initiated the self-driving car project in the year 2008 and soon Toyota introduced Prius. This car does not have brake pedal, steering wheel or accelerator. It is powered by an electric motor and does not require any user interaction to operate. It is embedded with special software, a set of sensors and accurate digital maps to ensure that the driverless experience is smooth and safe.

Known to be one of the most noteworthy inventions of the decade, Android came as a revolution and took over the market that was earlier flooded with Symbian and Java powered devices. Most smart phones these days run on the Android operating system. It supports millions of applications.

  • Computer Vision

Computer vision includes several sub-domains such as event detection, indexing, object recognition, object pose estimation, motion estimation, image restoration, scene reconstruction, learning and video tracking. The field encompasses techniques of processing, analyzing, acquiring and comprehending images in high-dimensional data from the actual world so as to come up with symbolic information.

  • Touch Screen Technology

The touch screen technology seems to have taken over the world. The ease of operating makes for the popularity of the touch screen devices. These devices have become a rage worldwide.

  • 3D Printing Technique

The 3D printing device can make a variety of stuff including kitchenware, accessories, lamps and much more. Also known as additive manufacturing, this technique creates three-dimensional objects of any shape with the use of digital model data from electronic data source such as Additive Manufacturing File (AMF).

Launched in the year 2008, Git Hub is a version control repository revision control and Internet hosting service that offers features such as bug tracking, task management, feature requests and sharing of codes, apps, etc. The development of GitHub platform started in 2007 and the site was launched in 2008.

  • Smart Watches

Smart watches have been in the market for quite some time. However, the newer ones such as that launched by Apple have come with several added features and have gained immense popularity. These watches come with almost all the features of the smart phones and are easier to carry and operate.

  • Crowd Funding Sites

The introduction of crowd-funding sites such as GoFundMe, Kickstarter and Indiegogo has been a boon for the creative minds. By way of these sites, inventors, artists and other creative people get a chance to share their ideas and receive financial help they require to implement the same.

Scientists worldwide observe and experiment continually to bring forth new scientific inventions, making life easier for people. They do not only keep coming up with newer inventions but also improvise the existing ones wherever there is a scope. While these inventions have made life easier for the man; however, the amount of environmental, social and political hazards these have caused are not hidden from you all.

Related Information:

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Essay on Science - 100, 200, 500 Words

  • Science Essay in English

Scientific knowledge gives people confidence and makes them aware of their surroundings. Those who know science know the origin and reason of natural phenomena, they are not afraid of natural phenomena. Science also plays an important role in the country's technological development and in removing obstacles to growth such as unemployment and illiteracy. Here are a few sample essays on Science.

100 Words Essay on Science

200 words essay on science, 500 words essay on science.

Essay on Science - 100, 200, 500 Words

Science is a systematic and logical approach to discovering new knowledge and understanding the natural world . It involves observation, experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. Science has transformed the way we live and has led to countless advancements in medicine, technology, and industry. Scientific discoveries have helped us to understand the origins of the universe, the complexity of life, and the intricacies of the human body. Science has also opened up new frontiers in areas such as space exploration, renewable energy, and artificial intelligence. Science is a continuous process of discovery and it will always be at the forefront of human progress, shaping our future and improving our lives.

From cars to washing machines, mobile phones to microwave ovens, refrigerators to laptops, everything we use in our daily lives is a scientific wonder. There is nothing in our lives that science cannot do. Science plays a very important role in our life. Here are some examples of how science affects our daily lives—

Gas stoves, which are routinely used for food preparation, are as much a scientific development as microwaves, grills and freezers.

2. Medical Care

Advances in technology have made it possible to treat a wide variety of diseases and disorders. Learn how science supports healthy living and extends life.

3. Communication

Mobile phones and Internet connectivity, which have become an integral part of our daily lives, are all scientific innovations. These advances have made communication easier and made the world a closer one.

4. Energy source

The discovery of nuclear power paved the way for the development and use of many energy sources. Electricity is one of their most important creations and their influence on our daily lives is well known.

All of this shows the importance of science, and it cannot be separated from everyday life. It's truly a miracle, life without science is unthinkable nowadays.

Science is the study of the structure and behavior of various physical and natural aspects. Scientists study these aspects, observe closely, conduct experiments, and then draw conclusions. There have been several scientific discoveries and inventions in the past that have proven to benefit mankind.

Science and Religious Concept

Science takes a logical and systematic approach to coming up with new ideas and inventions , religion is based solely on belief systems and beliefs. In science there is exhaustive observation, analysis and experimentation to arrive at results, but in religion there is little logic. So their perspective on things is completely different.

Science vs Religion

Science and religion are often at odds because they have conflicting views on certain issues. Unfortunately, these conflicts sometimes lead to social upheaval and afflict innocent people. Some of the major conflicts that have arisen between adherents of religion and adherents of the scientific method are listed below.

Earth as Center of the Universe

This is one of the most famous conflicts. The Roman Catholic Church believed that the Earth was the center of the universe. According to them, the sun, moon, stars and other planets revolve around them. The dispute arose when the famous Italian astronomer and mathematician Galileo Galilei discovered the heliocentric system, in which the sun forms the center of the solar system and the earth and other planets form the center of the solar system. Unfortunately, Galileo was convicted as a heretic and put under house arrest for the rest of his life.

Apart from these, there are several other areas where scholars and religious advocates hold conflicting views. Not only are religious advocates often vocal against the scientific method and ideology, but scientific inventions are superseded by a variety of social, political, environmental, and health problems. has also been criticized by many other sections of society.

Importance of Science

Science is important because it helps to understand the natural world, make informed decisions, and develop new technologies that improve our lives and benefit society. Science also plays a crucial role in solving global problems such as disease, hunger, and climate change. By using the scientific method and testing theories with evidence, science provides a systematic way of understanding and explaining the world, and leads to advancements in medicine, energy, transportation, communication, and many other areas.

The role of science in our daily lives cannot be overstated. Science helps us to understand the workings of the natural world and provides us with the knowledge and tools to address a wide range of practical problems.

For example, medical science has led to the development of vaccines, cures, and treatments for many diseases, greatly improving public health and increasing life expectancy . The field of agriculture has used science to increase food production, feed a growing global population, and develop new and more efficient farming methods.

In addition, science has helped to address environmental problems and improve energy efficiency. The use of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power has become more widespread, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating their negative impact on the environment.

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The role of geotechnical engineer in mining includes designing and determining the type of foundations, earthworks, and or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be made. Geotechnical engineering jobs are involved in earthen and concrete dam construction projects, working under a range of normal and extreme loading conditions. 

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A career as a Finance Executive requires one to be responsible for monitoring an organisation's income, investments and expenses to create and evaluate financial reports. His or her role involves performing audits, invoices, and budget preparations. He or she manages accounting activities, bank reconciliations, and payable and receivable accounts.  

Product Manager

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.  

Investment Banker

An Investment Banking career involves the invention and generation of capital for other organizations, governments, and other entities. Individuals who opt for a career as Investment Bankers are the head of a team dedicated to raising capital by issuing bonds. Investment bankers are termed as the experts who have their fingers on the pulse of the current financial and investing climate. Students can pursue various Investment Banker courses, such as Banking and Insurance , and  Economics to opt for an Investment Banking career path.

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Commercial Manager

A Commercial Manager negotiates, advises and secures information about pricing for commercial contracts. He or she is responsible for developing financial plans in order to maximise the business's profitability.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues. 

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

Construction Manager

Individuals who opt for a career as construction managers have a senior-level management role offered in construction firms. Responsibilities in the construction management career path are assigning tasks to workers, inspecting their work, and coordinating with other professionals including architects, subcontractors, and building services engineers.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems. 

Naval Architect

A Naval Architect is a professional who designs, produces and repairs safe and sea-worthy surfaces or underwater structures. A Naval Architect stays involved in creating and designing ships, ferries, submarines and yachts with implementation of various principles such as gravity, ideal hull form, buoyancy and stability. 

Field Surveyor

Are you searching for a Field Surveyor Job Description? A Field Surveyor is a professional responsible for conducting field surveys for various places or geographical conditions. He or she collects the required data and information as per the instructions given by senior officials. 

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description:  A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Conservation Architect

A Conservation Architect is a professional responsible for conserving and restoring buildings or monuments having a historic value. He or she applies techniques to document and stabilise the object’s state without any further damage. A Conservation Architect restores the monuments and heritage buildings to bring them back to their original state.

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Veterinary Doctor

A veterinary doctor is a medical professional with a degree in veterinary science. The veterinary science qualification is the minimum requirement to become a veterinary doctor. There are numerous veterinary science courses offered by various institutes. He or she is employed at zoos to ensure they are provided with good health facilities and medical care to improve their life expectancy.

Pathologist

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Speech Therapist

Gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth. 

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

Cardiothoracic Surgeon

Cardiothoracic surgeons are an important part of the surgical team. They usually work in hospitals, and perform emergency as well as scheduled operations. Some of the cardiothoracic surgeons also work in teaching hospitals working as teachers and guides for medical students aspiring to become a cardiothoracic surgeon. A career as a cardiothoracic surgeon involves treating and managing various types of conditions within their speciality that includes their presence at different locations such as outpatient clinics, team meetings, and ward rounds. 

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs. 

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Talent Agent

The career as a Talent Agent is filled with responsibilities. A Talent Agent is someone who is involved in the pre-production process of the film. It is a very busy job for a Talent Agent but as and when an individual gains experience and progresses in the career he or she can have people assisting him or her in work. Depending on one’s responsibilities, number of clients and experience he or she may also have to lead a team and work with juniors under him or her in a talent agency. In order to know more about the job of a talent agent continue reading the article.

If you want to know more about talent agent meaning, how to become a Talent Agent, or Talent Agent job description then continue reading this article.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Videographer

Careers in videography are art that can be defined as a creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of an original work of art rather than a simple recording of a simple event. It would be wrong to portrait it as a subcategory of photography, rather photography is one of the crafts used in videographer jobs in addition to technical skills like organization, management, interpretation, and image-manipulation techniques. Students pursue Visual Media , Film, Television, Digital Video Production to opt for a videographer career path. The visual impacts of a film are driven by the creative decisions taken in videography jobs. Individuals who opt for a career as a videographer are involved in the entire lifecycle of a film and production. 

Multimedia Specialist

A multimedia specialist is a media professional who creates, audio, videos, graphic image files, computer animations for multimedia applications. He or she is responsible for planning, producing, and maintaining websites and applications. 

An individual who is pursuing a career as a producer is responsible for managing the business aspects of production. They are involved in each aspect of production from its inception to deception. Famous movie producers review the script, recommend changes and visualise the story. 

They are responsible for overseeing the finance involved in the project and distributing the film for broadcasting on various platforms. A career as a producer is quite fulfilling as well as exhaustive in terms of playing different roles in order for a production to be successful. Famous movie producers are responsible for hiring creative and technical personnel on contract basis.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook. 

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion. 

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article. 

Individuals in the editor career path is an unsung hero of the news industry who polishes the language of the news stories provided by stringers, reporters, copywriters and content writers and also news agencies. Individuals who opt for a career as an editor make it more persuasive, concise and clear for readers. In this article, we will discuss the details of the editor's career path such as how to become an editor in India, editor salary in India and editor skills and qualities.

Advertising Manager

Advertising managers consult with the financial department to plan a marketing strategy schedule and cost estimates. We often see advertisements that attract us a lot, not every advertisement is just to promote a business but some of them provide a social message as well. There was an advertisement for a washing machine brand that implies a story that even a man can do household activities. And of course, how could we even forget those jingles which we often sing while working?

Photographer

Photography is considered both a science and an art, an artistic means of expression in which the camera replaces the pen. In a career as a photographer, an individual is hired to capture the moments of public and private events, such as press conferences or weddings, or may also work inside a studio, where people go to get their picture clicked. Photography is divided into many streams each generating numerous career opportunities in photography. With the boom in advertising, media, and the fashion industry, photography has emerged as a lucrative and thrilling career option for many Indian youths.

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Quality Controller

A quality controller plays a crucial role in an organisation. He or she is responsible for performing quality checks on manufactured products. He or she identifies the defects in a product and rejects the product. 

A quality controller records detailed information about products with defects and sends it to the supervisor or plant manager to take necessary actions to improve the production process.

Production Manager

A Team Leader is a professional responsible for guiding, monitoring and leading the entire group. He or she is responsible for motivating team members by providing a pleasant work environment to them and inspiring positive communication. A Team Leader contributes to the achievement of the organisation’s goals. He or she improves the confidence, product knowledge and communication skills of the team members and empowers them.

Procurement Manager

The procurement Manager is also known as  Purchasing Manager. The role of the Procurement Manager is to source products and services for a company. A Procurement Manager is involved in developing a purchasing strategy, including the company's budget and the supplies as well as the vendors who can provide goods and services to the company. His or her ultimate goal is to bring the right products or services at the right time with cost-effectiveness. 

Merchandiser

A career as a merchandiser requires one to promote specific products and services of one or different brands, to increase the in-house sales of the store. Merchandising job focuses on enticing the customers to enter the store and hence increasing their chances of buying a product. Although the buyer is the one who selects the lines, it all depends on the merchandiser on how much money a buyer will spend, how many lines will be purchased, and what will be the quantity of those lines. In a career as merchandiser, one is required to closely work with the display staff in order to decide in what way a product would be displayed so that sales can be maximised. In small brands or local retail stores, a merchandiser is responsible for both merchandising and buying. 

Azure Administrator

An Azure Administrator is a professional responsible for implementing, monitoring, and maintaining Azure Solutions. He or she manages cloud infrastructure service instances and various cloud servers as well as sets up public and private cloud systems. 

AWS Solution Architect

An AWS Solution Architect is someone who specializes in developing and implementing cloud computing systems. He or she has a good understanding of the various aspects of cloud computing and can confidently deploy and manage their systems. He or she troubleshoots the issues and evaluates the risk from the third party. 

Computer Programmer

Careers in computer programming primarily refer to the systematic act of writing code and moreover include wider computer science areas. The word 'programmer' or 'coder' has entered into practice with the growing number of newly self-taught tech enthusiasts. Computer programming careers involve the use of designs created by software developers and engineers and transforming them into commands that can be implemented by computers. These commands result in regular usage of social media sites, word-processing applications and browsers.

ITSM Manager

Information security manager.

Individuals in the information security manager career path involves in overseeing and controlling all aspects of computer security. The IT security manager job description includes planning and carrying out security measures to protect the business data and information from corruption, theft, unauthorised access, and deliberate attack 

Big Data Analytics Engineer

Big Data Analytics Engineer Job Description: A Big Data Analytics Engineer is responsible for collecting data from various sources. He or she has to sort the organised and chaotic data to find out patterns. The role of Big Data Engineer involves converting messy information into useful data that is clean, accurate and actionable. 

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Economic Times

  • Systematic review
  • Open access
  • Published: 19 February 2024

‘It depends’: what 86 systematic reviews tell us about what strategies to use to support the use of research in clinical practice

  • Annette Boaz   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0557-1294 1 ,
  • Juan Baeza 2 ,
  • Alec Fraser   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1121-1551 2 &
  • Erik Persson 3  

Implementation Science volume  19 , Article number:  15 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The gap between research findings and clinical practice is well documented and a range of strategies have been developed to support the implementation of research into clinical practice. The objective of this study was to update and extend two previous reviews of systematic reviews of strategies designed to implement research evidence into clinical practice.

We developed a comprehensive systematic literature search strategy based on the terms used in the previous reviews to identify studies that looked explicitly at interventions designed to turn research evidence into practice. The search was performed in June 2022 in four electronic databases: Medline, Embase, Cochrane and Epistemonikos. We searched from January 2010 up to June 2022 and applied no language restrictions. Two independent reviewers appraised the quality of included studies using a quality assessment checklist. To reduce the risk of bias, papers were excluded following discussion between all members of the team. Data were synthesised using descriptive and narrative techniques to identify themes and patterns linked to intervention strategies, targeted behaviours, study settings and study outcomes.

We identified 32 reviews conducted between 2010 and 2022. The reviews are mainly of multi-faceted interventions ( n  = 20) although there are reviews focusing on single strategies (ICT, educational, reminders, local opinion leaders, audit and feedback, social media and toolkits). The majority of reviews report strategies achieving small impacts (normally on processes of care). There is much less evidence that these strategies have shifted patient outcomes. Furthermore, a lot of nuance lies behind these headline findings, and this is increasingly commented upon in the reviews themselves.

Combined with the two previous reviews, 86 systematic reviews of strategies to increase the implementation of research into clinical practice have been identified. We need to shift the emphasis away from isolating individual and multi-faceted interventions to better understanding and building more situated, relational and organisational capability to support the use of research in clinical practice. This will involve drawing on a wider range of research perspectives (including social science) in primary studies and diversifying the types of synthesis undertaken to include approaches such as realist synthesis which facilitate exploration of the context in which strategies are employed.

Peer Review reports

Contribution to the literature

Considerable time and money is invested in implementing and evaluating strategies to increase the implementation of research into clinical practice.

The growing body of evidence is not providing the anticipated clear lessons to support improved implementation.

Instead what is needed is better understanding and building more situated, relational and organisational capability to support the use of research in clinical practice.

This would involve a more central role in implementation science for a wider range of perspectives, especially from the social, economic, political and behavioural sciences and for greater use of different types of synthesis, such as realist synthesis.

Introduction

The gap between research findings and clinical practice is well documented and a range of interventions has been developed to increase the implementation of research into clinical practice [ 1 , 2 ]. In recent years researchers have worked to improve the consistency in the ways in which these interventions (often called strategies) are described to support their evaluation. One notable development has been the emergence of Implementation Science as a field focusing explicitly on “the scientific study of methods to promote the systematic uptake of research findings and other evidence-based practices into routine practice” ([ 3 ] p. 1). The work of implementation science focuses on closing, or at least narrowing, the gap between research and practice. One contribution has been to map existing interventions, identifying 73 discreet strategies to support research implementation [ 4 ] which have been grouped into 9 clusters [ 5 ]. The authors note that they have not considered the evidence of effectiveness of the individual strategies and that a next step is to understand better which strategies perform best in which combinations and for what purposes [ 4 ]. Other authors have noted that there is also scope to learn more from other related fields of study such as policy implementation [ 6 ] and to draw on methods designed to support the evaluation of complex interventions [ 7 ].

The increase in activity designed to support the implementation of research into practice and improvements in reporting provided the impetus for an update of a review of systematic reviews of the effectiveness of interventions designed to support the use of research in clinical practice [ 8 ] which was itself an update of the review conducted by Grimshaw and colleagues in 2001. The 2001 review [ 9 ] identified 41 reviews considering a range of strategies including educational interventions, audit and feedback, computerised decision support to financial incentives and combined interventions. The authors concluded that all the interventions had the potential to promote the uptake of evidence in practice, although no one intervention seemed to be more effective than the others in all settings. They concluded that combined interventions were more likely to be effective than single interventions. The 2011 review identified a further 13 systematic reviews containing 313 discrete primary studies. Consistent with the previous review, four main strategy types were identified: audit and feedback; computerised decision support; opinion leaders; and multi-faceted interventions (MFIs). Nine of the reviews reported on MFIs. The review highlighted the small effects of single interventions such as audit and feedback, computerised decision support and opinion leaders. MFIs claimed an improvement in effectiveness over single interventions, although effect sizes remained small to moderate and this improvement in effectiveness relating to MFIs has been questioned in a subsequent review [ 10 ]. In updating the review, we anticipated a larger pool of reviews and an opportunity to consolidate learning from more recent systematic reviews of interventions.

This review updates and extends our previous review of systematic reviews of interventions designed to implement research evidence into clinical practice. To identify potentially relevant peer-reviewed research papers, we developed a comprehensive systematic literature search strategy based on the terms used in the Grimshaw et al. [ 9 ] and Boaz, Baeza and Fraser [ 8 ] overview articles. To ensure optimal retrieval, our search strategy was refined with support from an expert university librarian, considering the ongoing improvements in the development of search filters for systematic reviews since our first review [ 11 ]. We also wanted to include technology-related terms (e.g. apps, algorithms, machine learning, artificial intelligence) to find studies that explored interventions based on the use of technological innovations as mechanistic tools for increasing the use of evidence into practice (see Additional file 1 : Appendix A for full search strategy).

The search was performed in June 2022 in the following electronic databases: Medline, Embase, Cochrane and Epistemonikos. We searched for articles published since the 2011 review. We searched from January 2010 up to June 2022 and applied no language restrictions. Reference lists of relevant papers were also examined.

We uploaded the results using EPPI-Reviewer, a web-based tool that facilitated semi-automation of the screening process and removal of duplicate studies. We made particular use of a priority screening function to reduce screening workload and avoid ‘data deluge’ [ 12 ]. Through machine learning, one reviewer screened a smaller number of records ( n  = 1200) to train the software to predict whether a given record was more likely to be relevant or irrelevant, thus pulling the relevant studies towards the beginning of the screening process. This automation did not replace manual work but helped the reviewer to identify eligible studies more quickly. During the selection process, we included studies that looked explicitly at interventions designed to turn research evidence into practice. Studies were included if they met the following pre-determined inclusion criteria:

The study was a systematic review

Search terms were included

Focused on the implementation of research evidence into practice

The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed as part of the review

Study populations included healthcare providers and patients. The EPOC taxonomy [ 13 ] was used to categorise the strategies. The EPOC taxonomy has four domains: delivery arrangements, financial arrangements, governance arrangements and implementation strategies. The implementation strategies domain includes 20 strategies targeted at healthcare workers. Numerous EPOC strategies were assessed in the review including educational strategies, local opinion leaders, reminders, ICT-focused approaches and audit and feedback. Some strategies that did not fit easily within the EPOC categories were also included. These were social media strategies and toolkits, and multi-faceted interventions (MFIs) (see Table  2 ). Some systematic reviews included comparisons of different interventions while other reviews compared one type of intervention against a control group. Outcomes related to improvements in health care processes or patient well-being. Numerous individual study types (RCT, CCT, BA, ITS) were included within the systematic reviews.

We excluded papers that:

Focused on changing patient rather than provider behaviour

Had no demonstrable outcomes

Made unclear or no reference to research evidence

The last of these criteria was sometimes difficult to judge, and there was considerable discussion amongst the research team as to whether the link between research evidence and practice was sufficiently explicit in the interventions analysed. As we discussed in the previous review [ 8 ] in the field of healthcare, the principle of evidence-based practice is widely acknowledged and tools to change behaviour such as guidelines are often seen to be an implicit codification of evidence, despite the fact that this is not always the case.

Reviewers employed a two-stage process to select papers for inclusion. First, all titles and abstracts were screened by one reviewer to determine whether the study met the inclusion criteria. Two papers [ 14 , 15 ] were identified that fell just before the 2010 cut-off. As they were not identified in the searches for the first review [ 8 ] they were included and progressed to assessment. Each paper was rated as include, exclude or maybe. The full texts of 111 relevant papers were assessed independently by at least two authors. To reduce the risk of bias, papers were excluded following discussion between all members of the team. 32 papers met the inclusion criteria and proceeded to data extraction. The study selection procedure is documented in a PRISMA literature flow diagram (see Fig.  1 ). We were able to include French, Spanish and Portuguese papers in the selection reflecting the language skills in the study team, but none of the papers identified met the inclusion criteria. Other non- English language papers were excluded.

figure 1

PRISMA flow diagram. Source: authors

One reviewer extracted data on strategy type, number of included studies, local, target population, effectiveness and scope of impact from the included studies. Two reviewers then independently read each paper and noted key findings and broad themes of interest which were then discussed amongst the wider authorial team. Two independent reviewers appraised the quality of included studies using a Quality Assessment Checklist based on Oxman and Guyatt [ 16 ] and Francke et al. [ 17 ]. Each study was rated a quality score ranging from 1 (extensive flaws) to 7 (minimal flaws) (see Additional file 2 : Appendix B). All disagreements were resolved through discussion. Studies were not excluded in this updated overview based on methodological quality as we aimed to reflect the full extent of current research into this topic.

The extracted data were synthesised using descriptive and narrative techniques to identify themes and patterns in the data linked to intervention strategies, targeted behaviours, study settings and study outcomes.

Thirty-two studies were included in the systematic review. Table 1. provides a detailed overview of the included systematic reviews comprising reference, strategy type, quality score, number of included studies, local, target population, effectiveness and scope of impact (see Table  1. at the end of the manuscript). Overall, the quality of the studies was high. Twenty-three studies scored 7, six studies scored 6, one study scored 5, one study scored 4 and one study scored 3. The primary focus of the review was on reviews of effectiveness studies, but a small number of reviews did include data from a wider range of methods including qualitative studies which added to the analysis in the papers [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. The majority of reviews report strategies achieving small impacts (normally on processes of care). There is much less evidence that these strategies have shifted patient outcomes. In this section, we discuss the different EPOC-defined implementation strategies in turn. Interestingly, we found only two ‘new’ approaches in this review that did not fit into the existing EPOC approaches. These are a review focused on the use of social media and a review considering toolkits. In addition to single interventions, we also discuss multi-faceted interventions. These were the most common intervention approach overall. A summary is provided in Table  2 .

Educational strategies

The overview identified three systematic reviews focusing on educational strategies. Grudniewicz et al. [ 22 ] explored the effectiveness of printed educational materials on primary care physician knowledge, behaviour and patient outcomes and concluded they were not effective in any of these aspects. Koota, Kääriäinen and Melender [ 23 ] focused on educational interventions promoting evidence-based practice among emergency room/accident and emergency nurses and found that interventions involving face-to-face contact led to significant or highly significant effects on patient benefits and emergency nurses’ knowledge, skills and behaviour. Interventions using written self-directed learning materials also led to significant improvements in nurses’ knowledge of evidence-based practice. Although the quality of the studies was high, the review primarily included small studies with low response rates, and many of them relied on self-assessed outcomes; consequently, the strength of the evidence for these outcomes is modest. Wu et al. [ 20 ] questioned if educational interventions aimed at nurses to support the implementation of evidence-based practice improve patient outcomes. Although based on evaluation projects and qualitative data, their results also suggest that positive changes on patient outcomes can be made following the implementation of specific evidence-based approaches (or projects). The differing positive outcomes for educational strategies aimed at nurses might indicate that the target audience is important.

Local opinion leaders

Flodgren et al. [ 24 ] was the only systemic review focusing solely on opinion leaders. The review found that local opinion leaders alone, or in combination with other interventions, can be effective in promoting evidence‐based practice, but this varies both within and between studies and the effect on patient outcomes is uncertain. The review found that, overall, any intervention involving opinion leaders probably improves healthcare professionals’ compliance with evidence-based practice but varies within and across studies. However, how opinion leaders had an impact could not be determined because of insufficient details were provided, illustrating that reporting specific details in published studies is important if diffusion of effective methods of increasing evidence-based practice is to be spread across a system. The usefulness of this review is questionable because it cannot provide evidence of what is an effective opinion leader, whether teams of opinion leaders or a single opinion leader are most effective, or the most effective methods used by opinion leaders.

Pantoja et al. [ 26 ] was the only systemic review focusing solely on manually generated reminders delivered on paper included in the overview. The review explored how these affected professional practice and patient outcomes. The review concluded that manually generated reminders delivered on paper as a single intervention probably led to small to moderate increases in adherence to clinical recommendations, and they could be used as a single quality improvement intervention. However, the authors indicated that this intervention would make little or no difference to patient outcomes. The authors state that such a low-tech intervention may be useful in low- and middle-income countries where paper records are more likely to be the norm.

ICT-focused approaches

The three ICT-focused reviews [ 14 , 27 , 28 ] showed mixed results. Jamal, McKenzie and Clark [ 14 ] explored the impact of health information technology on the quality of medical and health care. They examined the impact of electronic health record, computerised provider order-entry, or decision support system. This showed a positive improvement in adherence to evidence-based guidelines but not to patient outcomes. The number of studies included in the review was low and so a conclusive recommendation could not be reached based on this review. Similarly, Brown et al. [ 28 ] found that technology-enabled knowledge translation interventions may improve knowledge of health professionals, but all eight studies raised concerns of bias. The De Angelis et al. [ 27 ] review was more promising, reporting that ICT can be a good way of disseminating clinical practice guidelines but conclude that it is unclear which type of ICT method is the most effective.

Audit and feedback

Sykes, McAnuff and Kolehmainen [ 29 ] examined whether audit and feedback were effective in dementia care and concluded that it remains unclear which ingredients of audit and feedback are successful as the reviewed papers illustrated large variations in the effectiveness of interventions using audit and feedback.

Non-EPOC listed strategies: social media, toolkits

There were two new (non-EPOC listed) intervention types identified in this review compared to the 2011 review — fewer than anticipated. We categorised a third — ‘care bundles’ [ 36 ] as a multi-faceted intervention due to its description in practice and a fourth — ‘Technology Enhanced Knowledge Transfer’ [ 28 ] was classified as an ICT-focused approach. The first new strategy was identified in Bhatt et al.’s [ 30 ] systematic review of the use of social media for the dissemination of clinical practice guidelines. They reported that the use of social media resulted in a significant improvement in knowledge and compliance with evidence-based guidelines compared with more traditional methods. They noted that a wide selection of different healthcare professionals and patients engaged with this type of social media and its global reach may be significant for low- and middle-income countries. This review was also noteworthy for developing a simple stepwise method for using social media for the dissemination of clinical practice guidelines. However, it is debatable whether social media can be classified as an intervention or just a different way of delivering an intervention. For example, the review discussed involving opinion leaders and patient advocates through social media. However, this was a small review that included only five studies, so further research in this new area is needed. Yamada et al. [ 31 ] draw on 39 studies to explore the application of toolkits, 18 of which had toolkits embedded within larger KT interventions, and 21 of which evaluated toolkits as standalone interventions. The individual component strategies of the toolkits were highly variable though the authors suggest that they align most closely with educational strategies. The authors conclude that toolkits as either standalone strategies or as part of MFIs hold some promise for facilitating evidence use in practice but caution that the quality of many of the primary studies included is considered weak limiting these findings.

Multi-faceted interventions

The majority of the systematic reviews ( n  = 20) reported on more than one intervention type. Some of these systematic reviews focus exclusively on multi-faceted interventions, whilst others compare different single or combined interventions aimed at achieving similar outcomes in particular settings. While these two approaches are often described in a similar way, they are actually quite distinct from each other as the former report how multiple strategies may be strategically combined in pursuance of an agreed goal, whilst the latter report how different strategies may be incidentally used in sometimes contrasting settings in the pursuance of similar goals. Ariyo et al. [ 35 ] helpfully summarise five key elements often found in effective MFI strategies in LMICs — but which may also be transferrable to HICs. First, effective MFIs encourage a multi-disciplinary approach acknowledging the roles played by different professional groups to collectively incorporate evidence-informed practice. Second, they utilise leadership drawing on a wide set of clinical and non-clinical actors including managers and even government officials. Third, multiple types of educational practices are utilised — including input from patients as stakeholders in some cases. Fourth, protocols, checklists and bundles are used — most effectively when local ownership is encouraged. Finally, most MFIs included an emphasis on monitoring and evaluation [ 35 ]. In contrast, other studies offer little information about the nature of the different MFI components of included studies which makes it difficult to extrapolate much learning from them in relation to why or how MFIs might affect practice (e.g. [ 28 , 38 ]). Ultimately, context matters, which some review authors argue makes it difficult to say with real certainty whether single or MFI strategies are superior (e.g. [ 21 , 27 ]). Taking all the systematic reviews together we may conclude that MFIs appear to be more likely to generate positive results than single interventions (e.g. [ 34 , 45 ]) though other reviews should make us cautious (e.g. [ 32 , 43 ]).

While multi-faceted interventions still seem to be more effective than single-strategy interventions, there were important distinctions between how the results of reviews of MFIs are interpreted in this review as compared to the previous reviews [ 8 , 9 ], reflecting greater nuance and debate in the literature. This was particularly noticeable where the effectiveness of MFIs was compared to single strategies, reflecting developments widely discussed in previous studies [ 10 ]. We found that most systematic reviews are bounded by their clinical, professional, spatial, system, or setting criteria and often seek to draw out implications for the implementation of evidence in their areas of specific interest (such as nursing or acute care). Frequently this means combining all relevant studies to explore the respective foci of each systematic review. Therefore, most reviews we categorised as MFIs actually include highly variable numbers and combinations of intervention strategies and highly heterogeneous original study designs. This makes statistical analyses of the type used by Squires et al. [ 10 ] on the three reviews in their paper not possible. Further, it also makes extrapolating findings and commenting on broad themes complex and difficult. This may suggest that future research should shift its focus from merely examining ‘what works’ to ‘what works where and what works for whom’ — perhaps pointing to the value of realist approaches to these complex review topics [ 48 , 49 ] and other more theory-informed approaches [ 50 ].

Some reviews have a relatively small number of studies (i.e. fewer than 10) and the authors are often understandably reluctant to engage with wider debates about the implications of their findings. Other larger studies do engage in deeper discussions about internal comparisons of findings across included studies and also contextualise these in wider debates. Some of the most informative studies (e.g. [ 35 , 40 ]) move beyond EPOC categories and contextualise MFIs within wider systems thinking and implementation theory. This distinction between MFIs and single interventions can actually be very useful as it offers lessons about the contexts in which individual interventions might have bounded effectiveness (i.e. educational interventions for individual change). Taken as a whole, this may also then help in terms of how and when to conjoin single interventions into effective MFIs.

In the two previous reviews, a consistent finding was that MFIs were more effective than single interventions [ 8 , 9 ]. However, like Squires et al. [ 10 ] this overview is more equivocal on this important issue. There are four points which may help account for the differences in findings in this regard. Firstly, the diversity of the systematic reviews in terms of clinical topic or setting is an important factor. Secondly, there is heterogeneity of the studies within the included systematic reviews themselves. Thirdly, there is a lack of consistency with regards to the definition and strategies included within of MFIs. Finally, there are epistemological differences across the papers and the reviews. This means that the results that are presented depend on the methods used to measure, report, and synthesise them. For instance, some reviews highlight that education strategies can be useful to improve provider understanding — but without wider organisational or system-level change, they may struggle to deliver sustained transformation [ 19 , 44 ].

It is also worth highlighting the importance of the theory of change underlying the different interventions. Where authors of the systematic reviews draw on theory, there is space to discuss/explain findings. We note a distinction between theoretical and atheoretical systematic review discussion sections. Atheoretical reviews tend to present acontextual findings (for instance, one study found very positive results for one intervention, and this gets highlighted in the abstract) whilst theoretically informed reviews attempt to contextualise and explain patterns within the included studies. Theory-informed systematic reviews seem more likely to offer more profound and useful insights (see [ 19 , 35 , 40 , 43 , 45 ]). We find that the most insightful systematic reviews of MFIs engage in theoretical generalisation — they attempt to go beyond the data of individual studies and discuss the wider implications of the findings of the studies within their reviews drawing on implementation theory. At the same time, they highlight the active role of context and the wider relational and system-wide issues linked to implementation. It is these types of investigations that can help providers further develop evidence-based practice.

This overview has identified a small, but insightful set of papers that interrogate and help theorise why, how, for whom, and in which circumstances it might be the case that MFIs are superior (see [ 19 , 35 , 40 ] once more). At the level of this overview — and in most of the systematic reviews included — it appears to be the case that MFIs struggle with the question of attribution. In addition, there are other important elements that are often unmeasured, or unreported (e.g. costs of the intervention — see [ 40 ]). Finally, the stronger systematic reviews [ 19 , 35 , 40 , 43 , 45 ] engage with systems issues, human agency and context [ 18 ] in a way that was not evident in the systematic reviews identified in the previous reviews [ 8 , 9 ]. The earlier reviews lacked any theory of change that might explain why MFIs might be more effective than single ones — whereas now some systematic reviews do this, which enables them to conclude that sometimes single interventions can still be more effective.

As Nilsen et al. ([ 6 ] p. 7) note ‘Study findings concerning the effectiveness of various approaches are continuously synthesized and assembled in systematic reviews’. We may have gone as far as we can in understanding the implementation of evidence through systematic reviews of single and multi-faceted interventions and the next step would be to conduct more research exploring the complex and situated nature of evidence used in clinical practice and by particular professional groups. This would further build on the nuanced discussion and conclusion sections in a subset of the papers we reviewed. This might also support the field to move away from isolating individual implementation strategies [ 6 ] to explore the complex processes involving a range of actors with differing capacities [ 51 ] working in diverse organisational cultures. Taxonomies of implementation strategies do not fully account for the complex process of implementation, which involves a range of different actors with different capacities and skills across multiple system levels. There is plenty of work to build on, particularly in the social sciences, which currently sits at the margins of debates about evidence implementation (see for example, Normalisation Process Theory [ 52 ]).

There are several changes that we have identified in this overview of systematic reviews in comparison to the review we published in 2011 [ 8 ]. A consistent and welcome finding is that the overall quality of the systematic reviews themselves appears to have improved between the two reviews, although this is not reflected upon in the papers. This is exhibited through better, clearer reporting mechanisms in relation to the mechanics of the reviews, alongside a greater attention to, and deeper description of, how potential biases in included papers are discussed. Additionally, there is an increased, but still limited, inclusion of original studies conducted in low- and middle-income countries as opposed to just high-income countries. Importantly, we found that many of these systematic reviews are attuned to, and comment upon the contextual distinctions of pursuing evidence-informed interventions in health care settings in different economic settings. Furthermore, systematic reviews included in this updated article cover a wider set of clinical specialities (both within and beyond hospital settings) and have a focus on a wider set of healthcare professions — discussing both similarities, differences and inter-professional challenges faced therein, compared to the earlier reviews. These wider ranges of studies highlight that a particular intervention or group of interventions may work well for one professional group but be ineffective for another. This diversity of study settings allows us to consider the important role context (in its many forms) plays on implementing evidence into practice. Examining the complex and varied context of health care will help us address what Nilsen et al. ([ 6 ] p. 1) described as, ‘society’s health problems [that] require research-based knowledge acted on by healthcare practitioners together with implementation of political measures from governmental agencies’. This will help us shift implementation science to move, ‘beyond a success or failure perspective towards improved analysis of variables that could explain the impact of the implementation process’ ([ 6 ] p. 2).

This review brings together 32 papers considering individual and multi-faceted interventions designed to support the use of evidence in clinical practice. The majority of reviews report strategies achieving small impacts (normally on processes of care). There is much less evidence that these strategies have shifted patient outcomes. Combined with the two previous reviews, 86 systematic reviews of strategies to increase the implementation of research into clinical practice have been conducted. As a whole, this substantial body of knowledge struggles to tell us more about the use of individual and MFIs than: ‘it depends’. To really move forwards in addressing the gap between research evidence and practice, we may need to shift the emphasis away from isolating individual and multi-faceted interventions to better understanding and building more situated, relational and organisational capability to support the use of research in clinical practice. This will involve drawing on a wider range of perspectives, especially from the social, economic, political and behavioural sciences in primary studies and diversifying the types of synthesis undertaken to include approaches such as realist synthesis which facilitate exploration of the context in which strategies are employed. Harvey et al. [ 53 ] suggest that when context is likely to be critical to implementation success there are a range of primary research approaches (participatory research, realist evaluation, developmental evaluation, ethnography, quality/ rapid cycle improvement) that are likely to be appropriate and insightful. While these approaches often form part of implementation studies in the form of process evaluations, they are usually relatively small scale in relation to implementation research as a whole. As a result, the findings often do not make it into the subsequent systematic reviews. This review provides further evidence that we need to bring qualitative approaches in from the periphery to play a central role in many implementation studies and subsequent evidence syntheses. It would be helpful for systematic reviews, at the very least, to include more detail about the interventions and their implementation in terms of how and why they worked.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Before and after study

Controlled clinical trial

Effective Practice and Organisation of Care

High-income countries

Information and Communications Technology

Interrupted time series

Knowledge translation

Low- and middle-income countries

Randomised controlled trial

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Professor Kathryn Oliver for her support in the planning the review, Professor Steve Hanney for reading and commenting on the final manuscript and the staff at LSHTM library for their support in planning and conducting the literature search.

This study was supported by LSHTM’s Research England QR strategic priorities funding allocation and the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Applied Research Collaboration South London (NIHR ARC South London) at King’s College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust. Grant number NIHR200152. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR, the Department of Health and Social Care or Research England.

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Boaz, A., Baeza, J., Fraser, A. et al. ‘It depends’: what 86 systematic reviews tell us about what strategies to use to support the use of research in clinical practice. Implementation Sci 19 , 15 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-024-01337-z

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Essay On National Science Day

Essay on National Science Day: National Science Day is an important event in Indian history. It was on 28th February 1928 when the renowned Indian Physicist Sir C.V. Raman discovered the RAMAN EFFECT. For this great contribution to humanity, C.V. Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930. 

Days of national importance are often part of our school curriculum. Students must keep themselves updated on trending public events and their related information. Such details will help them to write expressive and engaging essays. National Science Day serves as a platform to showcase advancements in science and technology and emphasizes the role of scientific research in the country’s development. In this regard, we will be discussing some essays on National Science Day for school students.

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Essay on national science day in 100 words, essay on national science day in 200 words, essay on national science day in 300 words.

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‘National Science Day is annually celebrated on 28th February. This day marks the discovery of the RAMAN EFFECT by the Indian Physicist Dr C.V. Raman. Raman Effect is also known as the Raman Scattering. According to the Raman Effect, when light interacts with molecules, the scattered light can experience changes in its frequency. 

On National Science Day, several events and activities are organized by the National Council for Science and Technology Communication (NCSTC). These events and celebrations aim to promote the importance of science in our daily lives. Through these activities, students and young people are encouraged to think scientifically and recognize the achievements of Indian scientists.’

Also Read: Essay on Science

‘National Science Day is observed on 28th February every year. The National Science Day 2024 theme is ‘Indigenous Technologies for Viksit Bharat’ . This day is celebrated to mark the discovery of Raman Effect or Raman Scattering by C.V. Raman. 

Shri Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman or C.V Raman discovered the Raman Effect on 28th February 1928, where we explained how light interacts with molecules and how the scattered light can experience changes in its frequency. This change in frequency is attributed to the vibrations of the molecules. The Government of India aims to promote scientific developments in India by organizing various events and activities on National Science Day. 

C.V Raman was an Indian scientist, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the Raman Effect. He was the first Indian to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics. 

The Indian Government and its departments of the National Science Day organize Scientific exhibitions at various educational institutions, that are aimed to engage the public and students in interactive learning experiences. Seminars and science competitions are conducted where students are encouraged to explore and showcase their scientific knowledge and skills. 

The celebrations and activities on National Science Day aim to celebrate science, promote the scientific temperament, and inspire interest in the minds of people, especially the youth.’

Also Read: Essay on Science and Technology for Students

‘National Science Day is observed on 28th February all over India. This Day is celebrated to mark the discovery of the Raman Effect or Raman Scattering by the famous Indian Physicist; Shri Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, popularly known as CV Raman. 

These days are known as the days of national importance, which portrays India’s significant achievement in a particular field. This day not only reminds us of the great contributions of Shri CV Raman but also provides an opportunity to think scientifically and encourage people to explore and experiment.

Dr Raman used a spectrograph, which he developed all by himself, and along with his student KS Krishnan, he discovered that when light travels through a transparent medium, the deflected light changes its frequency and wavelength. In the world of Science, this phenomenon was termed modified scattering, which was later named after Shri CV Raman as the Raman Effect or Raman Scattering.

It has been almost 100 years since the Dr Raman discovered the Raman Effect. Every year, the Indian government organizes various public events, like Science competitions and exhibitions, seminars, and Scientific awareness programs to encourage the development of a scientific temper in society. It aims to instill curiosity and a rational approach towards problem-solving, fostering a culture that values evidence-based reasoning. 

Every year, the Union Ministry of Science and Technology releases a special theme on this day. This theme targets a specific goal, where the youth is encouraged to participate and are provided with all the basic details and amenities. In 2024, the National Science Day theme is ‘Indigenous Technologies for Viksit Bharat’. 

Important days like National Science Day are celebrated for the spirit of inquiry, innovation, and discovery. India is a land of talent and this talent deserves the right platform. Through the National Science Day events, such talented youth can get the right opportunities in the field of science and technology and take the nation to new heights.’

Ans: ‘National Science Day is observed on 28th February all over India. This Day is celebrated to mark the discovery of the Raman Effect or Raman Scattering by the famous Indian Physicist; Shri Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, popularly known as CV Raman. 

Ans: 28th February is annually celebrated as the National Science Day in India. 

Ans: National Science Day commemorates the discovery of the RAMAN EFFECT by the Indian physicist Sir C.V. Raman on February 28, 1928. The Raman Effect is a phenomenon in spectroscopy that led to Raman being awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930.

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With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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Webb Finds Evidence for Neutron Star at Heart of Young Supernova Remnant

A three-panel image of a supernova remnant. The left panel is labeled “NIRCam” while the two right panels are labeled “MIRI M R S Argon two” (at top) and “NIRSpec I F U Argon six” (at bottom). At left, a mottled light pinkish-orange oval whose inner edge resembles a string of pearls. Within the oval is a dense blue-green cloud, shaped like a keyhole. Three stars with six-point diffraction patterns surround the oval. Above and below these structures, are very faint orange rings, which form a figure eight pattern. The center of the supernova remnant is surrounded by a white box with lines leading to the upper and lower right of the image, where two stacked panels show a bright orange ring with an orange dot in the middle. The upper panel is fuzzier and more blobby, while the bottom panel has more clearly defined edges around the ring and central dot.

NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope has found the best evidence yet for emission from a neutron star at the site of a recently observed supernova. The supernova, known as SN 1987A, was a core-collapse supernova, meaning the compacted remains at its core formed either a neutron star or a black hole. Evidence for such a compact object has long been sought, and while indirect evidence for the presence of a neutron star has previously been found, this is the first time that the effects of high-energy emission from the probable young neutron star have been detected.

Supernovae – the explosive final death throes of some massive stars – blast out within hours, and the brightness of the explosion peaks within a few months. The remains of the exploding star will continue to evolve at a rapid rate over the following decades, offering a rare opportunity for astronomers to study a key astronomical process in real time.

Supernova 1987A

The supernova SN 1987A occurred 160,000 light-years from Earth in the Large Magellanic Cloud. It was first observed on Earth in February 1987, and its brightness peaked in May of that year. It was the first supernova that could be seen with the naked eye since Kepler's Supernova was observed in 1604.

About two hours prior to the first visible-light observation of SN 1987A, three observatories around the world detected a burst of neutrinos lasting only a few seconds. The two different types of observations were linked to the same supernova event, and provided important evidence to inform the theory of how core-collapse supernovae take place. This theory included the expectation that this type of supernova would form a neutron star or a black hole. Astronomers have searched for evidence for one or the other of these compact objects at the center of the expanding remnant material ever since.

Indirect evidence for the presence of a neutron star at the center of the remnant has been found in the past few years, and observations of much older supernova remnants –such as the Crab Nebula – confirm that neutron stars are found in many supernova remnants. However, no direct evidence of a neutron star in the aftermath of SN 1987A (or any other such recent supernova explosion) had been observed, until now.

Image: Supernova 1987A

Claes Fransson of Stockholm University, and the lead author on this study, explained: “From theoretical models of SN 1987A, the 10-second burst of neutrinos observed just before the supernova implied that a neutron star or black hole was formed in the explosion. But we have not observed any compelling signature of such a newborn object from any supernova explosion. With this observatory, we have now found direct evidence for emission triggered by the newborn compact object, most likely a neutron star.”

Webb’s Observations of SN 1987A

Webb began science observations in July 2022, and the Webb observations behind this work were taken on July 16, making the SN 1987A remnant one of the first objects observed by Webb. The team used the Medium Resolution Spectrograph (MRS) mode of Webb’s MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument), which members of the same team helped to develop. The MRS is a type of instrument known as an Integral Field Unit (IFU).

IFUs are able to image an object and take a spectrum of it at the same time. An IFU forms a spectrum at each pixel, allowing observers to see spectroscopic differences across the object. Analysis of the Doppler shift of each spectrum also permits the evaluation of the velocity at each position.

Spectral analysis of the results showed a strong signal due to ionized argon from the center of the ejected material that surrounds the original site of SN 1987A. Subsequent observations using Webb’s NIRSpec (Near-Infrared Spectrograph) IFU at shorter wavelengths found even more heavily ionized chemical elements, particularly five times ionized argon (meaning argon atoms that have lost five of their 18 electrons). Such ions require highly energetic photons to form, and those photons have to come from somewhere.

“To create these ions that we observed in the ejecta, it was clear that there had to be a source of high-energy radiation in the center of the SN 1987A remnant,” Fransson said. “In the paper we discuss different possibilities, finding that only a few scenarios are likely, and all of these involve a newly born neutron star.”

More observations are planned this year, with Webb and ground-based telescopes. The research team hopes ongoing study will provide more clarity about exactly what is happening in the heart of the SN 1987A remnant. These observations will hopefully stimulate the development of more detailed models, ultimately enabling astronomers to better understand not just SN 1987A, but all core-collapse supernovae.

These findings were published in the journal Science.

The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and the Canadian Space Agency.

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Essay on Science

Introduction.

Children are curious about many things, and they ask questions about what they see around them. Sometimes, they will be eager to know how a fan works or milk turns into curd. So, it would be interesting to teach them that science has an answer to all their queries. This is the perfect time and age to introduce them to the wonder of science through this essay on science.

Science has seen tremendous progress over the years, and we are able to lead a comfortable life because of many scientific inventions and discoveries. Today, everything is run on a machine, and we attribute this success to science. Through this essay on science in English, we will make our children realise its significance and influence in our lives.

Essay on Science

Importance of Science

Without science, we would not have reached anywhere, and the comforts we see around us like fans, grinders, washing machines or laptops would not have existed. In this importance of science essay, we will discuss some aspects where science has contributed largely to society.

Can you imagine a day without smartphones? From calling friends and families who are countries apart and sending messages to them to transferring money and paying the bills, science has opened a new world before our eyes through the invention of smartphones. Moreover, it was difficult to travel long distances earlier, but now, we have motor vehicles, metro rails, and bullet trains that make it easy to travel far within a short time.

We have also heard the news of people landing on the moon, and this is the greatest achievement so far in the scientific realm. Likewise, this essay on science emphasises that it would not have been possible without science to stay cool during hot summers or cook our favourite dishes.

Uses of Science

In this part of the essay on science in English, we will see the uses of science in different fields and sectors. This will make children aware of the huge influence of science in our lives and society. We have already seen how science has contributed in the areas of transportation and communication in the previous section. Let us now see its impact on other fields through the importance of science essay.

The field of medicine has hugely benefited from science as it led to the discovery  of medical equipment that cured many diseases. In addition, many agricultural activities have become easy due to the influence of science. With special machines for sowing the seeds and drip irrigation systems, science has taken agriculture to a different level.

Thus, this essay on science emphasises that science has and will continue to amaze us in different ways. So, let us nurture the curiosity of our children through such amazing essays from BYJU’S.

Frequently Asked Questions on Essay on Science

Why is it necessary to study science.

Science is a vast field that teaches many things about the natural and social world. It has made our lives easier with the invention of several gadgets and machinery. So, by studying science, children can also be a part of such discoveries.

Name some famous scientists of the world.

Dr A.P.J Abdul Kalam was a leading scientist whose creation of advanced missiles earned him a place in India’s space research and defence forces. Isaac Newton and Thomas Alva Edison are other recognised scientists whose theories about gravity and the invention of the light bulb respectively revolutionised the field of science.

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Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: large language models: a survey.

Abstract: Large Language Models (LLMs) have drawn a lot of attention due to their strong performance on a wide range of natural language tasks, since the release of ChatGPT in November 2022. LLMs' ability of general-purpose language understanding and generation is acquired by training billions of model's parameters on massive amounts of text data, as predicted by scaling laws \cite{kaplan2020scaling,hoffmann2022training}. The research area of LLMs, while very recent, is evolving rapidly in many different ways. In this paper, we review some of the most prominent LLMs, including three popular LLM families (GPT, LLaMA, PaLM), and discuss their characteristics, contributions and limitations. We also give an overview of techniques developed to build, and augment LLMs. We then survey popular datasets prepared for LLM training, fine-tuning, and evaluation, review widely used LLM evaluation metrics, and compare the performance of several popular LLMs on a set of representative benchmarks. Finally, we conclude the paper by discussing open challenges and future research directions.

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    Also Read: Essay on Science. Essay on National Science Day in 200 Words 'National Science Day is observed on 28th February every year. The National Science Day 2024 theme is 'Indigenous Technologies for Viksit Bharat'. This day is celebrated to mark the discovery of Raman Effect or Raman Scattering by C.V. Raman.

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  29. Essay on Science

    Uses of Science. In this part of the essay on science in English, we will see the uses of science in different fields and sectors. This will make children aware of the huge influence of science in our lives and society. We have already seen how science has contributed in the areas of transportation and communication in the previous section.

  30. [2402.06196] Large Language Models: A Survey

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