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Student Opinion

Do We Need Better Music Education?

A guest essay argues that we are teaching music the wrong way. Do you agree?

An illustration of a music class full of children happily playing different instruments.

By Jeremy Engle

Do you play any musical instrument — or have you ever? Do you think music should be an essential part of every child’s education?

In “ We’re Teaching Music to Kids All Wrong ,” Sammy Miller, a Grammy-nominated drummer and the founder of a music education company, writes:

Each fall, as school starts up again, music educators witness a familiar ritual: Eager first-time students squeak on a clarinet, suppress giggles at the noises coming from the tubas and zealously hit a bass drum a little too hard. It’s a moment characterized by excitement, enthusiasm and the anticipation of new beginnings — which is why it’s so disheartening to know that many of those kids will eventually quit their instruments. The fact that many children don’t stick with music is bad news not only for the state of self-expression and joy but also for education. Studies show that students who play an instrument do better in science, English and math and are more likely to want to attend college . They also may have less anxiety and be more conscientious — they are the kids you want your kids to be friends with. I have never met an adult who is expressly thankful to have quit music as a child, but I’ve met many who have regrets. So why haven’t we, as parents and educators, been better able to encourage our own kids to continue? In my 15 years as a musical educator, talking to countless teachers, I’ve learned one thing: There is no magical fix. Making music education more successful doesn’t need to involve expensive digital accessories or fancy educational platforms (and I say that as someone who developed an online educational platform). There’s no technological or financial program that will convert children into lifelong music lovers. Instead, we need to start by rethinking how we teach music from the ground up, both at home and in the classroom. The onus is on parents and educators to raise the next generation of lifelong musicians — not just for music’s sake, but to build richer, more vibrant inner personal lives for our children and a more beautiful and expressive world.

Mr. Miller urges parents and educators to take a new approach to musical education:

It’s often been repeated that “music is a language,” yet we’re reluctant to teach it that way. When we learn a language, we don’t simply memorize phrases or spend all day reading — we practice the language together, sharing, speaking, stumbling but ultimately finding ways to connect. This should happen in music class, too. Music should be a common pursuit: Ask any dad rock weekend band or church ensemble how it experiences music, and the performers are likely to tell you it’s not a chore but a way of building community. Most important, we need to let kids be terrible. In fact, we should encourage it. They’ll be plenty terrible on their own — at first. But too often kids associate music in school with a difficult undertaking they can’t hope to master, which leads them to give up. Music does not have to be, and in fact, shouldn’t be, about the pursuit of perfection. And the great musicians have plenty of lessons to teach students about the usefulness of failure.

Students, read the entire article and then tell us:

Do you play any musical instruments? If so, how did you learn? What role does music play in your life?

Mr. Miller writes that after great “excitement, enthusiasm and the anticipation,” many children eventually quit their instruments. What kind of musical education, in or out of school, have you had? How effective has it been?

If you are one of the many people described by Mr. Miller who have started an instrument but later quit, why did you give up? Do you think a different approach to musical education, like the kind described in the essay, might have helped you to stick with it?

While saying there is no “magical fix” for converting children into lifelong music lovers, Mr. Miller shares several recommendations for improving musical education, such as, letting kids to be terrible and make a lot of mistakes or encouraging students to write their own simple songs using a few chords. What do you think of his proposed approach? What other suggestions would you give to parents and educators who hope to spark a love of music in young people?

Mr. Miller writes that studies show that students who play an instrument do better in science, English and math, and may have less anxiety and be more conscientious. What benefits of music education have you seen or experienced? Do any of these benefits, or others not mentioned in the essay, come to mind when you think of the value of learning music?

Does reading Mr. Miller’s essay make you more excited about playing music? Why or why not? If you could learn to play any instrument (or one different from what you already play), what would it be? Why?

Students 13 and older in the United States and Britain, and 16 and older elsewhere, are invited to comment. All comments are moderated by the Learning Network staff, but please keep in mind that once your comment is accepted, it will be made public and may appear in print.

Find more Student Opinion questions here. Teachers, check out this guide to learn how you can incorporate these prompts into your classroom.

Jeremy Engle joined The Learning Network as a staff editor in 2018 after spending more than 20 years as a classroom humanities and documentary-making teacher, professional developer and curriculum designer working with students and teachers across the country. More about Jeremy Engle

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Illustration of students learning with music

How Music Primes the Brain for Learning

To reap the benefits of music on learning, kids need consistent and abundant musical practice, according to the latest cognitive research.

Ten years ago, musician Angélica Durrell began teaching a small group of Connecticut high school students how to play different percussion instruments, including the charango and toyos —musical instruments native to Central and South America, where many of the students had recently immigrated from. They learned to play Pachelbel’s Canon and then moved on to master “Will You Love Me Tomorrow,” the sixties doo-wop hit by The Shirelles, singing the lyrics in both English and Spanish.

Within a few years, the after-school music program—aimed at Latino students, many of whom were struggling academically—became renowned in the school district, recast from a “nice-to-have” extracurricular into a strategic tool for addressing some of the district’s persistent challenges. Durrell’s students, teachers and school leaders noticed, were attending school more consistently, their English was improving, and they seemed increasingly comfortable making friends.

Today, Durrell’s non-profit program Intempo serves more than 3,000 students each year in Stamford and Norwalk schools, underscoring music’s profound impact on learning from both a cognitive and a social and emotional learning (SEL) vantage point. “We went from approaching it from a music perspective,” Durrell says, “to approaching it from an immigrant inclusion, language acquisition, and grade-level reading-acquisition perspective.”

Consistent exposure to music, like learning to play a musical instrument, or taking voice lessons, strengthens a particular set of academic and social-emotional skills that are essential to learning. In ways that are unmatched by other pursuits, like athletics for instance, learning music powerfully reinforces language skills, builds and improves reading ability, and strengthens memory and attention, according to the latest research on the cognitive neuroscience of music.

Experts are hoping this body of evidence might alter the current state of music education in schools—which is extremely uneven and, in some places, downright nonexistent. In a 2014 survey from Americans for the Arts, a nonprofit advocacy organization, teachers reported that 1.3 million elementary students didn’t have music classes in their schools, and nearly 4 million didn’t have a visual arts class. More recently, data from the 2016 National Assessment of Educational Progress showed improvements in some areas, though arts participation and access varied greatly by region . For example, while 68 percent of eighth-graders had music class in 2016, students in the Northeast were twice as likely to attend music class compared with students in the South and the West, where only one-third of students had access to music classes.

Now, following months of pandemic-related learning disruptions, organizations that track arts education like the federally-funded Arts Education Partnership say it’s difficult to even get a handle on who’s learning music at school.

The Cognitive Benefits of Music

The key to understanding music’s advantages, researchers say, lies in how the brain processes sound, the raw material of music, language, and—perhaps counterintuitively—learning to read. The sounds that come in through our ears travel along an anatomically complex “auditory pathway” that’s deeply connected to parts of the brain that determine how humans move, how we think and speak, what we know, and what we pay attention to. “The hearing brain is vast,” explains neuroscientist Nina Kraus, author of the new book  Of Sound Mind , in an interview with Edutopia . “People think of the hearing brain as being a silo within the brain. In fact, our hearing engages our cognitive, sensory, motor, and reward systems. That’s huge. From an evolutionary perspective, being able to make sense of sound is ancient and has engaged all these different perspectives.”

What makes music learning so powerful is how it engages all those different systems in a single activity. To play the violin, for example, a student needs to coordinate their motor, cognitive, and sensory systems to be able to put their fingers on the correct strings and move the bow at the right time; to read musical notes on a sheet of music and know what sounds they represent; and to hear if the pitches and rhythms are correct and coordinating with other players at the right time. Then there’s how the sound of music makes the student feel, which lights up the brain’s reward system. Engaging all these different systems makes learning how to play music one of the richest and deepest brain activities that humans perform. “Teachers resoundingly tell me that children who play music also do better in school,” Kraus writes. Young musicians also tend to have stronger language and reading skills than non-musicians because their brains have spent more time actively “engaging with sound.”

The type of instrument doesn’t matter: flute, violin, accordion, piano, voice—even abundant exposure to music can make an impact. “What is important is that engaging with sound changes and strengthens how the brain responds to sound,” Kraus says.

Music as Academic Strength Training

At Durban Avenue School in Sussex County, New Jersey, music teacher Shawna Longo calls out a particular rhythm, and then her kindergarteners play it on their Boomwhackers , tuned percussion tubes that come in different sizes and colors to symbolize different pitches. “Now only the red ones! Do ‘I like pepperoni pizza,’” she calls out, and the children play ta-ta-tee-tee-tee-tee-ta-ta. “They can only play when I hold up their color,” she says. “They have to learn when to wait, and when to play.”

The ability to keep a steady beat and anticipate the next beat, research has shown , are reliable indicators that a child is ready to learn to read. But keeping rhythm isn’t the only musical skill that paves the way for language development and reading, notes education researcher Anita Collins in her new book, The Music Advantage .

Learning to read music—decoding musical notation and connecting it to sounds—activates the same “phonological loop” in the brain as when kids learn to read words, deepening sound-word connections. Collins describes the process in her book:

• The eye sees a symbol on the page, whether it’s an eighth note D or a letter t at the start of a word

• The brain hears the sound, pulling it from the memory of music and speech sounds all brains possess

• The brain instructs the body to make that sound, whether it’s hands playing an instrument or the mouth shaped to make the t sound

• The brain listens to be sure the correct sound was made, and then makes adjustments

(From page 54 of The Music Advantage )

Processing sound strengthens the same areas of the brain that are responsible for learning language and learning to read—and while neuroscientists are still teasing out the how and the why, Collins writes that the latest research indicates that “music and reading may well be complementary learning activities,” with music functioning as a robust tool to improve language learning.

The Sound of Social Cohesion

When Covid-19 lockdowns first spread across the globe in March 2020, multiple videos showed people in Italy singing together from their balconies. At a time of extreme stress and isolation, Italians turned to music to connect with their neighbors.

Music and song are among the most basic ways humans have connected with one another for thousands of years. “Music lives in the oldest part of our brain,” Collins tells  Edutopia . “Music and song are at least as old as language and the spoken word.”

In a landmark 2018 study , researchers from the University of Toronto found that an adult singing and moving to a musical beat with a one-year-old child in tow increased social cohesion: the child was more likely to help when the adult later “accidentally” dropped an item. The study has been replicated many times, Collins writes, and shows how music taps into a primal bond that may encourage prosocial behavior like empathy and helping—the very behaviors that adults want children to develop as they grow, and behaviors schools strive to teach using the tenets of social and emotional learning.

When students belt out the school song at basketball games, or sing the clean-up song in kindergarten, it’s a potent practice for strengthening basic human social bonds. “Singing is a very powerful tool to make children feel in community,” says Kelly Green, vice president of education at Kindermusik, which creates research-based music curriculum for early childhood learners. “It’s deep SEL.”

Like Italy’s balcony singers during lockdown, social singing and music-making might be especially helpful to students now, when loneliness, anxiety, and depression are skyrocketing among young people. But Green says that kids in school sing a lot less than they used to. We tend to think “that learning music is only to develop as a musician,” Collins remarks. “People don’t feel confident to sing anymore. The fear that sits under ‘I can’t sing, I’m not musical’ is incredibly deep. When I start singing with students, they often realize singing is just a practiced skill. All these things start happening. They feel this sense of euphoria.”

Kids Benefit From Deep and Consistent Engagement

Facing limited budgets, increased academic expectations and testing , and a music teacher shortage , some schools and districts are increasingly looking to nonprofit organizations and community partners for help. Groups like Save the Music Foundation provide grants for schools to purchase student instruments and provide teacher training. The Harmony Project brings intensive music training and support to underserved students in the Los Angeles area. The Soulsville Charter School, a music-influenced middle and high school in Memphis, Tennessee, taps into the birthplace of American soul music and legendary Stax Records with the support of the Soulsville Foundation .

“You have to be willing to say, ‘We can’t do this alone,’” says Tamu Lucero, superintendent of Stamford Public Schools, where Durrell’s Intempo program is now a critical component of the district’s new-arrivals program. Even though Stamford schools already offered regular music programming, Lucero says, “we were willing to be open to the idea of how we could use an outside partner to enrich the learning environment for students.”

Researchers will continue to untangle some of the reasons behind why music learning is so beneficial to students—but know enough to conclude that listening to music or writing a song for a class project only begins to scratch the surface. To get maximal brain benefits, students should actively engage with music by learning to play an instrument or studying voice, preferably in a group setting. The evidence is strong enough to recommend music education as a discrete class for all kids—and across the grade levels—as a critically important investment.

Or as Nina Kraus states, “Music should be a part of every child’s education. Period.”

American Scientist

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The Argument for Music Education

By nina kraus , travis white-schwoch.

Musicians’ brains show striking benefits.

Biology Physiology

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July-august 2020, volume 108, number 4.

DOI: 10.1511/2020.108.4.210

Margaret Martin needed help. It was early 2011 and had been 10 years since she’d founded Harmony Project, which provides free music lessons to children from underserved Los Angeles neighborhoods. Martin made a simple deal with each student who enrolled: If you maintained passing grades, and if you attended every practice and performance at Harmony Project, you would have a guaranteed spot for free until you graduated high school. Demand for her program quickly outstripped the number of available openings, and Martin grew desperate to shrink the waiting list.

Harmony Project kept growing in popularity partly because its students excelled in not only music but also many seemingly unrelated areas: They graduated at the top of their classes, earned college scholarships, and went on to successful careers. Martin had touted those success stories as she tirelessly grew her project, but now she needed school districts and large foundations to invest larger sums in Harmony Project. She knew from her training in public health how to develop experimental data to convince policy makers.

music articles education

The argument for teaching music in schools takes three general forms. The indirect argument posits that music boosts brain and cognitive function important for learning, which in turn facilitates success in school. The incentive argument directly ties the benefits of music training to educational outcomes, such as graduation rates. The intangible argument contends that the deepest benefits of music education, such as lasting friendships, are challenging to quantify.

Martin saw that music was sparking something in her students’ brains that was setting them up for academic success, but she didn’t have the evidence to prove it. She realized she needed the help of a neuroscientist.

The notion that the brain is malleable—a trait that we now call neuroplasticity —dates back more than a century to the earliest days of neuroscience. Spanish neuroscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, who is remembered today chiefly for his drawings of brain cells ( see “ Neuroscience as Neuroart ” on our Science Culture blog ), also discovered that cellular projections wax and wane throughout an organism’s life, a phenomenon he poetically termed neural gymnastics . He intuited that the nervous system is dynamic.

But rigorously documenting and studying these plastic changes in the brain remained out of reach for decades. In the 1970s and 1980s, when tracking the activity of a single neuron became possible, scientists finally could prove that learning was rooted in changes to a neuron’s physiology—basically, its proclivity to spark a jolt of electricity, sending signals to other neurons.

For more than 30 years, we have studied neuroplasticity in humans. Our work has focused on determining how to measure the integrity of sound processing in the brain using electrophysiology—measuring brain waves from the scalp. Although measuring the jolt of electricity from a single neuron is impossible in humans, we could measure the aggregate electrical activity emanating from the brain. Around the time that Martin started Harmony Project, we had embarked on a complementary line of research: studying musicians as a model for neuroplasticity to understand the neural mechanisms at work in the kinds of changes Martin saw in her students.

Neuroplasticity and Music

Musicians dedicate their lives to focused, disciplined, and repeated practice. Moreover, playing music offers an unlimited capacity for improvement: Musicians constantly strive for nuance, defter technique, and better synchrony with their ensembles. Articles implying a link between musicianship and brain plasticity started to appear: Violinists had enlarged motor brain areas dedicated to the hand; expert musicians made finer judgments about sounds that differed subtly in timing or pitch.

We suspected something more might be going on with music. Playing music could affect more than our ability to process melodies and rhythms; it might trigger much broader cognitive and sensory changes. With our colleagues Gabriella Musacchia, Erika Skoe, Patrick Wong, and Mikko Sams, our lab decided to investigate. We recruited a cohort of college students, half of whom had been avid musicians for several years and the other half were musically naive. We then measured electrophysiological responses to speech and music—brain waves that tell us the integrity of sound processing in the brain.

In a pair of papers published in 2007, we reported that the musicians had heightened responses to the subtle acoustic details of speech, suggesting that music training generalizes to language. Indeed, the musicians’ brains could encode acoustic details of Mandarin speech too subtle for most English speakers to detect, suggesting that music training might enable a listener to be a more precocious language learner.

These initial findings caught the attention of a pair of conservatory-trained classical musicians turned neuroscientists, Alexandra Parbery-Clark and Dana Strait, who came to our lab to pursue their doctorates. With their combined forces, we could test for effects of music training across the entire lifespan. We assembled a group of test subjects, split them into age groups, and for each, identified age-appropriate tests of brain function, hearing abilities, and cognition.

Musical experience early in life imparts lifelong neuroplasticity. Facebook Twitter

We quickly discovered that music training forges a remarkably similar brain signature across all ages. Musicians’ brains more quickly and accurately encode certain ingredients of speech sounds than do those of nonmusicians. Music training improves the brain’s ability to process speech sounds against a noisy background, such as the din of a busy restaurant. This neural resilience made sense, because musicians also had a superior ability to understand speech in a noisy environment. Moreover, they had stronger memory and attentional skills than did nonmusicians. Although there were developmental variations, with certain aspects of brain function being fine-tuned later in life than others, music training seemed to have a strikingly consistent effect across the lifespan.

Some of the most surprising results came from musicians in their sixties and seventies, who showed stronger memory, attention, and hearing abilities than did contemporaries who had never participated in music training. We also found direct evidence for differences in brain function between older musicians and nonmusicians. Neural responses to speech generally slow as we age. Not so in lifelong musicians: A 65-year-old musician’s neural responses are indistinguishable from those of a 25-year-old nonmusician. The responses of a 65-year-old who played music as a child but hadn’t touched an instrument in decades fell in the middle: faster than those of a peer who had never played music but slower than those of a lifelong musician. Musical experience early in life imparts lifelong neuroplasticity.

The Science of Music Education

A skeptic might reasonably look at our comparisons between musicians and nonmusicians and argue that the ostensible benefits of music training—sharper hearing, augmented cognitive abilities, and heightened auditory brain functions—were predispositions that influenced individuals to seek music training. We were therefore eager to conduct a formal experimental trial of music training.

Traditional trials in medicine allow high levels of control so that researchers can make rigorous causal conclusions. In a randomized-control trial to test a drug’s efficacy, for example, researchers can recruit a large cohort, randomize them to receive a specified dose of the drug or a placebo for a circumscribed time, and measure a defined endpoint.

That’s easier said than done for music. One can’t condense music instruction into pill form. We were never enthusiastic about relying on simulacra of music instruction, such as two weeks of basic recorder training in a lab. We both know from personal experience that’s not how anyone learns to play an instrument.

Around this time Martin serendipitously found her way to our lab with her thriving, real-world instrumental music program available for study. In the summer of 2011 four of our colleagues flew to Los Angeles to test for two weeks 75 school-aged kids eager to enroll in Harmony Project. They performed an intensive battery of tests, inspired by our earlier work, determining hearing abilities, memory, attention, language, and, crucially, the neural responses to speech. A camper that looked like it had been used for location shoots on Miami Vice became an ad hoc lab outside Harmony Project’s office.

We designed the research project so that half of the kids would immediately begin instrumental music lessons and the other half would wait one year, during which time they would participate in classes on basic music note reading, music history, and related topics. After collecting the baseline data, our team returned to Chicago, and we waited for one of the longest years of our careers. Someone on our team frequently called Harmony Project to make sure the students in our study were still enrolled. Every time a family moved away from Los Angeles over the study period it felt like a gut punch.

music articles education

Musicians’ brains respond more strongly to speech sounds than those of nonmusicians, which explains why musicians hear sound better in noisy environments. The authors and their colleagues have measured the brain’s electrical activity in response to a sound in both quiet and noisy environments. Such studies support the indirect argument for music education.

The next July our team flew back to Los Angeles to repeat the tests, swapping the camper for instrument closets. After returning to Chicago they immediately began systematically analyzing the data. As expected, there were no discernible changes in cognition, language, or brain function among the children who completed the music appreciation class. Then we analyzed the group who received music lessons and found . . . nothing. If the music lessons had sparked neuroplasticity, we could not find a scintilla of evidence.

It was an awkward phone call to Martin. Her response? Come back next year. So our team repeated the study in July 2013. This time, however, the data told a different story ( see figure below ). The instrumental group’s brain responses and language and listening skills had advanced above those of their peers in a way completely consistent with our initial studies. It was as if their brains had suddenly matured by leaps and bounds.

In 2014 we published the initial results of the Harmony study in the Journal of Neuroscience . It was one of the first studies of community-based music programs to document neurological outcomes and, to our knowledge, the first to focus on children from underserved areas.

A parallel study in our lab reinforced our findings. While half our lab members made their annual trip to Los Angeles, our colleague Jennifer Krizman took the other half to the Chicago Public Schools to test nearly 150 high school students. Half began music training their freshman year, and the other half participated in a drill team. She and her team published their results in 2015 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. Once again music training enhanced neural processing of speech sounds and accelerated auditory brain development after two years. Comparing music training to the drill team also showed it wasn’t extracurricular enrichment in general that sped up brain development. It was music.

Since then, other scientists have performed similar studies with community music groups. Each experiment showed that music lessons accelerate brain development, but only after some time. The papers were the missing arrows in Martin’s quiver. They have helped her gain support to expand Harmony into a national program serving more than 1,000 kids annually with free music lessons.

Justifying Music Education

Our research into music and neuroplasticity has given us opportunities such as speaking to teachers, policy makers, and the media, which are relatively rare for scientists. Like other scientists who have studied music and brain development, we strongly support music classes in schools and community music organizations that provide cocurricular or extracurricular music education.

When we find ourselves talking about brain development and language tests as outcomes of music education, however, a thought sometimes nags us. Why do we have to justify music lessons in the first place?

We see the arguments for teaching music in schools taking three general forms, which we call the indirect argument , the incentive argument , and the intangible argument .

The indirect argument posits that music boosts brain and cognitive function that is important for learning. In turn, these heightened skills facilitate success in school. School administrators and policy makers should invest in music education because it equips students to fare better in their courses. Children and adults with music training, for example, have a superior ability to understand speech in noisy environments, such as some classrooms.

We believe the indirect argument has the strongest empirical support and lends itself to controlled studies. Children can enroll in music classes, and researchers can follow them empirically, as in our studies. It is the core gist of our work: Music training sets up children’s brains to make them better learners by enhancing both sound processing in the brain and cognition. But the types of benefits associated with the indirect argument are a step removed from school administrators’ mandated academic benchmarks, such as standardized-test scores.

music articles education

Children in Harmony Project in Los Angeles who received two years or more of music training showed a significant increase in neural sound processing. Green circles represent wait-listed students who received music appreciation classes; blue triangles represent those in Harmony Project.

Figure adapted from Kraus et al., 2014

This limitation leads us to the incentive argument, which directly ties the benefits of music education to educational outcomes such as standardized testing, attrition, grade point average, college matriculation, and even health outcomes. The incentive argument is the one that Martin makes when she cites Harmony Project’s graduation rate. It is similar to the indirect argument, and the underlying mechanisms may well be the same—but the incentive argument bypasses the mediating benefits to the brain and goes right to metrics that, rightly or wrongly, our society values when measuring schools. These outcome measures also lend themselves to large-scale research studies in economics and public health, which we anticipate will be of growing interest.

The incentive argument is easy for administrators and educators to use to justify music in schools. Education policy in the United States has created strong incentives for teachers and administrators to care deeply about these outcomes—particularly standardized tests (notwithstanding the intrinsic problems with those tests themselves). Still, it’s a pity that such an abstract, far-removed, and imperfect metric must justify music education.

We think that some of the most profound neurodevelopmental benefits of music manifest in ways that are difficult to quantify in robust research studies, leading us to the intangible argument, which proposes that the deepest benefits of music education are challenging to reduce to a set of data points and parameters. Such benefits include the focus and discipline that come from years of regular practice, the social engagement and satisfaction that grow when making music in an ensemble, the friendship that results from staying twice a week after school for a rehearsal, and the confidence that develops from performing alone on a stage. For us, the intangible argument rings true as likely the most accurate description of how music education benefits children. What made Harmony Project an exciting opportunity is that it provided real-world music training, which is too complicated to reduce to discrete data points. Our view is that music education supports child development in its most holistic sense.

music articles education

Harmony Project began providing free music lessons to children from underserved Los Angeles neighborhoods in 2001 and has since expanded into a national program. After two or more years of participation, kids in the program have shown an increase in brain responses to sound and in language and listening skills. The authors think the benefits of music education go far beyond what can be measured.

Annie Tritt

At the same time, we realize the intangible argument is the most difficult one to make. We believe the tools of science are an imperfect aperture to address certain questions. Paradoxically, every layer of control added to experiments with music training can obscure the intangibles that make music music. But just because something cannot be measured doesn’t mean we should ignore it.

After evaluating the preponderance of the evidence, we are confident that music education should be part of every child’s curriculum. Music education manifestly supports child development in ways both easy and difficult to measure. Augmented sound processing in the brain makes young musicians better learners, which can generalize to benchmarks such as standardized tests and grades that society values in education.

If the goal of public education is to equip children to be productive members of society, then the intangible argument makes the most vital points about the importance of music education. As Leonard Bernstein once said, music “can name the unnameable and communicate the unknowable.”

Bibliography

  • Kraus, N., and T. White-Schwoch. 2016. Neurobiology of everyday communication: What have we learned from music? The Neuroscientist 23:287–298
  • Kraus, N., et al. 2014. Music enrichment programs improve the neural encoding of speech in at-risk children. Journal of Neuroscience 34:11913–11918.
  • Musacchia, G., M. Sams, E. Skoe, and N. Kraus. 2007. Musicians have enhanced subcortical auditory and audiovisual processing of speech and music. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 104:15894–15898.
  • Tierney, A. T., J. Krizman, and N. Kraus. 2015. Music training alters the course of adolescent auditory development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 112:10062–10067.
  • Wong, P. C. M., E. Skoe, N. M. Russo, T. Dees, and N. Kraus. 2007. Musical experience shapes human brainstem encoding of linguistic pitch patterns. Nature Neuroscience 10:420–422.

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Music and Learning: Does Music Make You Smarter?

music articles education

What is music and why do people think it is important for learning? Musical sounds fill our lives: from the music you share online to the songs playing in shops and restaurants, we are rarely far from music. Playing music gives the brain a multisensory “workout” that can strengthen memory, help us pay attention, and perhaps even improve reading ability. In this article, we highlight how various brain functions, including hearing, sight, movement, and social awareness, are impacted by music training. You do not have to be a Mozart to get the brain benefit of playing music, because music is so accessible and is more than just songs. Whenever you communicate without words (the way you say something instead of what you say) you are engaging in musical behavior. In this article, we explore research on learning and music to help us understand why music promotes brain development and how music can be a central part of our lives, in and out of the classroom.

Mind the Melody

What is music and why do people think it is important for learning? While people of every culture around the world make something that could be called music, not so many of them give it a name or think of it as separate from other activities, like dance or storytelling [ 1 ]. Because of this, we can only define music in a general way, as a form of communication through sound. Unlike speech, however, music is not generally considered semantic . This means that music does not use words to explain things. Think how difficult it would be to say something relatively simple like, “your left shoe is untied,” using only melody and rhythm . At the same time, music can convey profound emotions that would be difficult to describe in words. In addition to music being an art form, any form of communication is partly musical and can be said to have musicality . Think of the different ways that you might say “huh.” Each of those ways communicates something different. That is musicality. It is not a musical performance, but a musical aspect of communication. While not everyone is a master of the violin, everyone is a master of their own communication style.

At first, some scientists thought that the brain could benefit just by listening to music. They showed that people’s scores on IQ tests improved when they listened to classical music by Mozart [ 2 ]. This led people to believe that listening to music makes you smarter. But this was an oversimplification and an overstatement of the results. Subsequent studies showed that listening to music does not actually make you smarter, but rather raises your level of enjoyment and decreases your feelings of stress, which sometimes result in better focus and improved test scores. This means that, while music in your home or classroom would not automatically improve your performance, it could be useful to help you to focus on a new task or in situations when increased attention and decreased stress are necessary. Further, just listening to music may have a different, or perhaps smaller, effect than actually playing music. This is much the same as the way that playing sports will improve your physical condition more than simply watching sports. Therefore, the focusing power of music could be amplified by playing along.

Music for Brain Power

Just like your muscles, your brain gets stronger the more you exercise it. The process of changing the brain through our experiences is called neural plasticity , because the brain is easily shaped, like plastic. Scientists measure neural plasticity with special brain-imaging techniques, like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or electroencephalogram (EEG), to find out exactly how playing music changes the way our brains work. Research with these machines, as well as studying the brains of people who have died, shows that auditory (hearing), visual (sight), and motor (movement) areas of the brain are specialized in expert musicians [ 3 ]. The specialization includes not only increased size of each brain area, but also the way each area functions. The science tells us that music is so much more than just a source of entertainment; it is an important part of our lifetime of learning. Here are some of the important things that happen in the brain when we play music (for review, see Zatorre [ 4 ]):

Auditory : The auditory system processes sound more effectively after musical training. People can detect smaller differences in frequency (the number of sound waves per second), making both speech and music easier to hear [ 5 ].

Motor : Brain areas that control instrument-related muscles and body parts (such as the fingers, the mouth, etc.) grow in size. More neurons in the brain are devoted to fine-tuning muscle movement in these areas.

Reading : Studies show that better musical ability is related to higher reading scores, suggesting a link between how well we hear speech and how well we can map speech sounds to letters.

Socio-emotional awareness : Playing music together can enhance socio-emotional awareness, which is the ability identify, manage, and express emotions constructively. A good example of this is that very young children are more likely to interact positively with people they play music with.

Making the Musical Connection

How can music change anything other than what you hear? The reason music can reach so many parts of the brain is that the auditory system is highly interconnected with other sensory areas [ 6 ] ( Figure 1 ). Think of your earliest school days and you will probably remember singing songs. Many of us still sing the alphabet song when trying to remember the position of a given letter. If you do not believe us, what letter is four letters after “M”? Now tell us you did not hear the alphabet song in your mind as you looked for the answer! Songs, with repetitive melodies and rhythms, help us memorize lists, stories, and even processes.

Figure 1 - Other sensory areas of the brain provide input to the auditory (hearing, in blue) area.

  • Figure 1 - Other sensory areas of the brain provide input to the auditory (hearing, in blue) area.
  • Multisensory areas, such as the pre-frontal cortex (cognition), motor cortex (movement), and complex auditory cortex are shown in gray and contain small boxes colored to show the senses they interact with. Strong connections to and from auditory and visual areas are considered to be two-way highways, because sensory information is shared between brain areas in both directions (dashed orange lines). Similarly, somatosensory (touch) areas are shown in green and also have two-way connections that share information. Adapted from Musacchia and Schoreder [ 6 ].

Figure 1 shows the pattern of connections between the main auditory area in the brain and the other areas of sensation and perception. When we learn to play music, our senses actively interact, including sight, touch, hearing, balance, movement, and proprioception (body awareness). There are two things that make music fairly unique in this process. First, when you play music, you are using all of your senses. For example, you feel the instrument in your hands, hear the sounds you play and see the notes on the music sheet. Since each different type of sensory information reaches your brain at a different time, your brain must work to synchronize all of this information. Second, when playing music, things happen at different speeds and time scales and must line up precisely. For example, a guitarist must know where s/he is on a beat, in a rhythm, in a melody, in a song, and in a concert, precisely lining up all of these things. While our understanding of how the brain keeps track of all these things remains unclear, it is likely that there are different timekeeping mechanisms (“clocks”) for different timescales (speeds). Some of our research is based on the idea that synchronization between these brain “clocks” could help us analyze other sounds streams like speech.

A Lifetime of Music

Music is also a way that we express our identities: the music we play, or even listen to, can be a way of telling the world, our peers, our parents, and our friends something about who we are. In cultures that do not use writing, singers often hold an important place in society, because they memorize important things like history and family relationships. While musical expression of identity is usually positive, there have been times when one group of people found another group’s music threatening, or even dangerous [ 7 ]. For example, in the late 1980s rap music artists were arrested for performances that authorities thought were hostile and disrespectful.

While you might think of singing a song or playing an instrument as a special activity that you do only at certain times, you should also notice that music and musical sounds fill our lives. Music is played on speakers and sometimes played live, and we can hear music in most public places, on buses, in elevators, and in restaurants. Many of us listen to music through our phones or in our cars as well. Our lives are truly full of music, and so our relationship to music can have a big effect on a lifetime of learning.

Semantic : ↑ Relating to meaning in language or logic.

Melody : ↑ A sequence of single notes that is musically satisfying.

Rhythm : ↑ A strong, regular, repeated pattern of movement or sound.

Musicality : ↑ Musical talent or sensitivity.

IQ Test : ↑ Intelligence quotient, a standard measure of an individual’s intelligence level based on psychological tests.

Neural Plasticity : ↑ The capacity of the nervous system to modify itself in response to experience or deprivation.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank those who assisted in the translation of the articles in this Collection to make them more accessible to kids outside English-speaking countries, and for the Jacobs Foundation for providing the funds necessary to translate the articles. For this article, we would especially like to thank Nienke van Atteveldt and Sabine Peters for the Dutch translation.

[1] ↑ Merriam, A. P., and Merriam, V. 1964. The Anthropology of Music . Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.

[2] ↑ Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., and Ky, K. N. 1995. Listening to Mozart enhances spatial-temporal reasoning: towards a neurophysiological basis. Neurosci. Lett . 185:44–7

[3] ↑ Schlaug, G. 2009. “Music, musicians, and brain plasticity,” in Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology , eds S. Hallam, I. Cross and M. Thaut (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 197–207.

[4] ↑ Zatorre, R. J. 2003. Music and the brain. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci . 999:4–14. doi: 10.1196/annals.1284.001

[5] ↑ Musacchia, G., Sams, M., Skoe, E., and Kraus, N. 2007. Musicians have enhanced subcortical auditory and audiovisual processing of speech and music. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104:15894–8. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0701498104

[6] ↑ Musacchia, G., and Schroeder, C. E. 2009. Neuronal mechanisms, response dynamics and perceptual functions of multisensory interactions in auditory cortex. Hear Res . 258:72–9. doi: 10.1016/j.heares.2009.06.018

[7] ↑ Binder, A. 1993. Constructing racial rhetoric: media depictions of harm in heavy metal and rap music. Am. Sociol. Rev. 58:753–67.

Teenagers playing guitar and listening

Learning music the informal way some popular musicians do could inspire more school students

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Lecturer in Education (music specialist), Edge Hill University

Disclosure statement

Anna Mariguddi does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Edge Hill University provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

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Music is a school subject facing difficult times . In England, fewer students are taking the subject at GCSE , not enough people are training to become secondary music teachers , and the subject is suffering from a lack of funding .

One problem may be that the way music is taught in school has become increasingly formal. The current music national curriculum , introduced in 2014, includes using staff notation , learning music history, and listening to the music of “great composers and musicians”. This was a shift in comparison to the previous, more child-centred national curriculum.

Wider education policy on how future teachers should be trained places emphasis on teacher control and well-structured lessons – again, perpetuating more formal, traditional approaches.

But this isn’t how many popular musicians – the artists students may be listening to on their way into school – learn how to play music . Their approach is often more informal. Many learn to play by ear , hearing a piece of music and figuring it out on an instrument.

Bringing this approach into the classroom to a greater extent could help both students and the subject of music itself.

Freedom to play

Informal learning can look and sound haphazard at times, but has close ties with more natural ways of engaging with music. In one example of the approach, pioneered by the professor of music education Lucy Green, students begin “in at the deep end” – tasked with copying a song of their choice, by ear, working together in groups. They are required to work out the various parts of the song, often building up to a performance.

This kind of learning gives students more freedom and independence in the classroom, and a more equal power balance with the teacher is encouraged. The role of the teacher is to set the task, then let the students choose how they approach it and help only when needed. The students can decide on their own pace of learning and the level of difficulty of the part they play within their group.

This can lead to increased student confidence in the music classroom. Although the teacher is still in control by default, this approach can prompt them to trust in the musical activity their students are engaging in, resisting the temptation to step in too soon.

Informal learning is linked with increased numbers of students choosing the subject at GCSE . This suggests it has the potential to capture the interest of some students who might have previously become disengaged with music lessons.

Learn what you love

Students are motivated by being able to choose what music they will play with their friends – often selecting popular music. By welcoming student choice of music into the classroom, increased links are forged between in- and out-of-school music. Students are engaging in a learning practice that exists beyond the confines of the classroom, and which has relevance to their musical interests and passions.

Children singing together

Also, this does not mean that informal learning cannot extend beyond popular music. While students often choose to bring popular music into the classroom, the underpinning research shows once they are motivated and engaged, the teacher can move beyond this genre and draw upon aspects of the approach to introduce other types of music into the classroom in later stages.

The non-profit Musical Futures has contributed towards the development of informal learning and continues to advocate and promote its ethos . And although the approach is largely aimed at secondary school students, primary students can benefit from adapted versions of informal learning.

Facilitating informal learning might feel risky for some teachers. They face a variety of pressures and requirements, and may feel this kind of learning does not align with wider education policy and the expectations of their role.

Informal music learning is not always easy to assess, either. And embracing learning that is informal and “haphazard” might lead to a fear of judgment – that the teacher lacks control of pupil behaviour.

However, informal learning offers a way to challenge thinking about how music is taught, and to consider alternative possibilities to enable the subject to flourish in school.

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The Importance of Music Education

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What if there was one activity that could benefit every student in every school across the nation? An activity that could improve grades and scores on standardized testing? An activity that would allow students to form lasting friendships? An activity that would help students become more disciplined and confident?

Fortunately, there is such an activity. Unfortunately, many schools will not make it a part of their curriculum, due to issues of funding and scheduling. This activity is something that everyone is aware of, but not everyone has a chance to participate in. This activity is music.

For years, music classes have been the ugly ducklings of school curriculums—the last courses to be added, the first courses to be cut. They have always taken second place to traditional academic classes. Music, however, has proved itself to be extremely beneficial time and time again, from the undeniable improvement in grades regarding traditional academic classes to the glowing remarks from music students everywhere. In an ever-changing world, the addition of music education in schools needs to be next on the academic agenda.  Music education should be a required component in all schools due to the proven academic, social, and personal benefits that it provides.

According to the No Child Left Behind Act, the following are defined as, “core academic subjects”: English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, the arts [emphasis added], history, and geography ( Benefits of the Study 1). Although music, being a part of the arts, is supposedly on the same level as other academic subjects, it is not being treated as such.

Music education greatly enhances students’ understanding and achievement in non-musical subjects. For example, a ten-year study, which tracked over 25,000 middle and high school students, showed that students in music classes receive higher scores on standardized tests than students with little to no musical involvement. The musical students scored, on average, sixty-three points higher on the verbal section and forty-four points higher on the math sections of the SATs than non-music students (Judson). When applying to colleges, these points could be the difference between an acceptance letter and a rejection letter.

Furthermore, certain areas of musical training are tied to specific areas of academics; this concept is called transfer. According to Susan Hallam, “Transfer between tasks is a function of the degree to which the tasks share cognitive processes” (5-6). To put this simply, the more related two subjects are, the more transfer will ensue. This can be evidenced with the correlation between rhythm instruction and spatial-temporal reasoning, which is integral in the acquisition of important math skills. The transfer can be explained by the fact that rhythm training emphasizes proportions, patterns, fractions, and ratios, which are expressed as mathematical relations (Judson). Transfer can be seen in other academic subjects as well. For example, in a 2000 study of 162 sixth graders, Ron Butzlaff concluded that students with two or three years of instrumental music experience had significantly better results on the Stanford Achievement Test (a verbal and reading skills test) than their non-musical counterparts (qtd. in Judson). This experiment demonstrates that music can affect improvement in many different academic subjects. All in all, it can be shown that music education is a worthwhile investment for improving students’ understanding and achievement in academic subjects.

Related to academic achievement is success in the workforce. The Backstreet Boys state that, “Practicing music reinforces teamwork, communication skills, self-discipline, and creativity” ( Why Music? ). These qualities are all highly sought out in the workplace. Creativity, for example, is, “one of the top-five skills important for success in the workforce,” according to Lichtenberg, Woock, and Wright (Arts Education Partnership 5). Participation in music enhances a student’s creativeness. Willie Jolley, a world-class professional speaker, states that his experience with musical improvisation has benefited him greatly regarding business. Because situations do not always go as planned, one has to improvise, and come up with new strategies (Thiers, et. al). This type of situation can happen in any job; and when it does, creativity is key. Similarly, music strengthens a person’s perseverance and self-esteem—both qualities that are essential in having a successful career (Arts Education Partnership 5). Thus, music education can contribute to students’ future careers and occupational endeavors.

Participation in music also boasts social benefits for students. Music is a way to make friends. Dimitra Kokotsaki and Susan Hallam completed a study dealing with the perceived benefits of music; in their findings they wrote, “Participating in ensembles was also perceived as an opportunity to socialize with like-minded people, make new friends and meet interesting people, who without the musical engagement they would not have had the opportunity to meet” (11). Every time a student is involved in music, they have the chance to meet new people, and form lasting friendships.

Likewise, in a study by Columbia University, it was revealed that students who participate in the arts are often more cooperative with teachers and peers, have more self-confidence, and are better able to express themselves (Judson). Through one activity, a student can reap all of these benefits, as well as numerous others. Moreover, the social benefits of music education can continue throughout a student’s life in ways one would never suspect. An example of this would be that “students who participate in school band or orchestra have the lowest levels of current and lifelong use of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs among any other group in our society” (Judson). By just participating in a fun school activity, students can change their lives for the better. Music education can help students on their journey to success.

Chinese philosopher Confucius once stated, “Music produces a kind of pleasure which human nature cannot do without” (Arts Education Partnership 1). Music education provides personal benefits to students that enrich their lives. In the study of perceived benefits of music by Dimitra Kokotsaki and Susan Hallam, it was found that “participating in an ensemble enhanced feelings of self-achievement for the study’s participants, assisted individuals in overcoming challenges, built self-confidence, and raised determination to make more effort to meet group expectations regarding standards of playing” (12). In an ensemble, every member is equally important, from the first chair to the last chair. Thus every person must be able to play all of their music and be ready for anything. When one person does not practice their music and comes to rehearsal unprepared, it reflects upon the whole ensemble. Needless to say, no one wants to be that person. So students take it upon themselves to show that they want to be there and come prepared. This type of attitude continues throughout students’ lives.

Furthermore, group participation in music activities can assist in the development of leadership skills (Kokotsaki and Hallam 13). One participant in the perceived benefits of music study stated that, “I have gained confidence in my leadership skills through conducting the Concert Band” (Kokotsaki and Hallam 28). Conducting an ensemble is just one of the many leadership opportunities available to music students.

Music can also be a comforting activity to many students. High school senior and school band member Manna Varghese states that for her, music is a way to relieve stress. When she is angry or frustrated, she likes to play flute or piano to relax. For students, music classes are not necessarily something they participate in for a grade, or to put on a college application. Students participate in music classes because they enjoy them and want to be there.

Even though it has been proven that music education benefits students, many people argue that it still should not be required in schools. They state that with the increasing importance placed on standardized testing, there is not enough class time to include music classes (Abril and Gault 68). However, it has been shown that the time students spend in music classes does not hinder their academic success. A study by Hodges and O’Connell found that “being excused from non-musical classes to attend instrumental lessons does not adversely affect academic performance” (Hallam 14). Thus, in reality, having students enroll in music classes would not be detrimental to their academic performance, and the students would then be able to reap all of the benefits that come with music education. Furthermore, funding for music education is an issue at many schools. The people in charge of determining funding for schools often choose to fund traditional academic classes over arts programs. Paul Harvey states, “Presently, we are spending twenty-nine times more on science than on the arts, and the result so far is worldwide intellectual embarrassment” (Hale 8). Clearly, the current system for the allocation of funds for schools is not adequate. By transferring some of the funding from traditional academic classes to music classes, this embarrassment could be avoided. Evidently, although some may try to argue against it, music education should be required in all schools.

What would life be like without music? Imagine it for a moment. No listening to music on the radio on a long drive. No music to dance to. There would not be any soundtracks in movies, and concerts and musicals would be nonexistent. Eventually, no one would even remember what music is. Many people do not realize it, but music has a bigger effect on their lives than they may think, and they would definitely care if it was to disappear. Without music, life would never be the same. To keep music alive, students must be educated about it in schools. Students will not only get to experience and enjoy what music has to offer, but will reap the innumerable benefits that come with music. Ancient Greek philosopher and teacher Plato said it best: “Music gives a soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight to imagination, and life to everything.”

Works Consulted

Abril, Carlos A., and Brent M. Gault. “The State of Music in Secondary Schools: The Principal’s Perspective.” Journal of Research in Music Education 56.1 (2008): 68-81. JSTOR . Web. 19 Oct. 2013.

Arts Education Partnership, comp. Music Matters: How Music Education Helps Students Learn, Achieve, and Succeed . Washington D.C.: n.p., 2011. Print.

Hale, Donna Sizemore. “Stay Involved to Protect the Arts.” American String Teacher 63.3 (2013): 8. ProQuest . Web. 19 Oct. 2013.

Hallam, Susan. “The power of music: its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people.” International Journal of Music Education 28.3 (2010): 269-89. Print.

Judson, Ellen. “The Importance of Music.” Music Empowers Foundation . N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Oct. 2013.

Kokotsaki, Dimitra, and Susan Hallam. “Higher Education music students’ perceptions of the benefits of participative music making.” Music Education Research 9.1 (2007): n. pag. Google Scholar . Web. 26 Oct. 2013.

National Association for Music Education, comp. The Benefits of the Study of Music . N.p.: n.p., 2007. Print.

Thiers, Genevieve, et al. “Music Education and Success…From the Band Room to the Board Room.” Everything We Needed to Know About Business, We Learned Playing Music . By Craig M. Cortello. N.p.: n.p., n.d. NME.com . Web. 18 Oct. 2013.

Varghese, Manna. Personal interview. 24 Oct. 2013.

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Music Interventions and Child Development: A Critical Review and Further Directions

Elisabeth dumont.

1 Music in Education, Zuyd University of Applied Science, Maastricht, Netherlands

Elena V. Syurina

2 Health, Ethics and Society, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands

3 Faculty of Science, Athena Institute, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Frans J. M. Feron

4 Social Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands

Susan van Hooren

5 Healthcare, Zuyd University of Applied Science, Maastricht, Netherlands

Research on the impact of music interventions has indicated positive effects on a variety of skills. These findings suggest musical interventions may have further potential to support educational processes and development of children. This paper reviews the latest evidence on the effect of musical interventions on the development of primary school-aged children. Four electronic databases were searched from January 2010 through June 2016 using music, music instruction, music education, music lesson, music training, development, child, student , and pupil as key words for the search. Two reviewers independently evaluated the studies to determine whether they met the stated inclusion criteria. Studies were compared on study setup, methodological quality, intervention components, outcome variables, and efficacy. A review of these selected studies ( n = 46) suggestive beneficial effects of music intervention on development of children, although clear conclusions cannot be drawn. Possible influencing factors that might contribute to the outcome of intervention are reviewed and recommendations for further research are made.

Introduction

Music interventions are often said to have an influence on motor, language, social, cognitive, and academic abilities (Ho et al., 2003 ; Costa-Giomi, 2004 ; Schellenberg, 2004 ; Forgeard et al., 2008 ; Standley, 2008 ; Jentschke and Koelsch, 2009 ; Southgate and Roscigno, 2009 ; Yazejian and Peisner-Feinberg, 2009 ; Strait et al., 2010 ). Music may play an important role in meeting a child's educational needs as it provides a means of self-expression, giving the child an outlet for feelings and emotions. Music, aside from being a source of enjoyment, is also a means of communication with others (Suthers and Niland, 2007 ). Music may expose the child to challenges and multi-sensory experiences which enhance learning abilities and encourage cognitive development. In particular, music can also engage cognitive functions, such as planning, working memory, inhibition, and flexibility. These functions are known as executive functions (EF). Although there is no consensus on conceptualization, there is agreement on the complexity and the importance of EF for learning and development (Gioia et al., 2000 ). Music education may be a promising tool in improving EF as it activates multiple cortical and subcortical brain areas, including the prefrontal cortex, which is linked to EF (Särkämö et al., 2014 ).

Musical interventions may become an appealing approach for schools that are increasingly facing a challenge of supporting education processes and development of children with varied degrees of learning and behavioral difficulties. However, before an extended use can be introduced into practice, we need to have a clearer, more systematic understanding of the known effects musical interventions have.

The current study builds on the results of previous reviews of literature examining the impact of music training and education including, among others, those of Jaschke et al. ( 2013 ), Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2012 ), Besson et al. ( 2011 ), Maloy and Peterson ( 2014 ), and Miendlarzewska and Trost ( 2014 ). Jaschke et al. ( 2013 ) found mixed evidence of far transfer effects between music education and other cognitive skills. Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2012 ) aimed to review RCTs to investigate the effectiveness of music education on reading skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia but were unable to find such studies. In a meta-analysis, Maloy and Peterson ( 2014 ) concluded that there was a minimal effect of music as an intervention to increase task performance in children and adolescents with ADHD. Miendlarzewska and Trost ( 2014 ) found that musical training in childhood has a positive impact on many cognitive functions and is associated with neuroplastic changes in brain structure and function. The transfer of training from music to speech was evaluated by Besson et al. ( 2011 ), who pointed to positive transfer of training effects from musical expertise to speech processing. When interpreting the results, it is important to take into consideration that these reviews in general yielded mixed results and were limited in their focus: specific skills (Cogo-Moreira et al., 2012 ), a specific developmental domain (Miendlarzewska and Trost, 2014 ), specific designs and age groups (Cogo-Moreira et al., 2012 ; Jaschke et al., 2013 ), or a specific target group (Maloy and Peterson, 2014 ).

Bearing these in mind, the purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive summary of the existing research in the field by collecting and analyzing the latest evidence on the effect of music interventions across different domains of development of the primary school-aged children. It aims to report on the effectiveness of a broad range of music interventions, describe relevant contextual factors, to evaluate the general level and quality of evidence in the field and to provide implications for future research.

Due to a broad scope of this study, we decided to do a systematic search and a “critical review,” which aims to “extensively research the literature and critically evaluate its quality” (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). Several steps were taken in order to ensure high scientific quality of the work.

Search procedure

The search for relevant articles was conducted via three routes. First, PubMed, EMBASE (Ovid), PsycInfo, and EBESCO databases were systematically searched. The search covered 6 years (January 2010 to June 2016) and the following search terms were included: music, music education, music instruction, music lesson, music training, development, child * , student, pupil . The key-words were combined in various ways using Boolean terms AND and OR. Second, reference lists of the identified relevant systematic reviews and key articles (referenced by more than 1 paper) were examined in order to identify additional studies. The last route included a manual search of the tables of contents of relevant journals: International Journal of Music Education and British Journal of Music Education. A flowchart describing these processes is reported in Figure ​ Figure1 1 .

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Flow diagram of article identification and inclusion.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Identified studies were considered eligible for inclusion if they met the following a priori defined criteria. The studies had to (a) involve training, teaching, or providing intervention using music; (b) utilize outcome measures targeting child's development; (c) focus on the (pre)school-aged children up to 13 years without physical disabilities; (d) be published in a peer-reviewed journal between January 2010 and June 2016; (e) be written in English. We excluded studies that (a) examined use of music psychotherapy interventions; (b) focused only on imaging techniques, (c) had musical outcomes only; (d) were not based on empirical data: qualitative reviews, commentaries, case studies or studies without an accurate methodological description.

Screening and study selection

Upon removal of the duplicates, the literature search yielded 1,092 results. All identified studies were subjected to multilevel screening, executed independently by two co-authors (ED and EVS). First, the titles and abstracts of identified studies were screened. At this stage, the titles and abstracts that did not meet at least one inclusion criteria (non-English language, commentaries) were omitted. Based on this first screening, 126 potentially relevant articles were obtained as full texts. Next, these articles were further reviewed by ED and EVS independently to determine whether or not they met the stated inclusion criteria. All exclusion decisions were documented. Each reviewer made a selection list, which were then compared. In cases of disagreement, the articles in question were discussed by all co-authors and a consensus decision was made. Our final selection included 46 articles.

Data analysis

Studies that met at least one inclusion criteria, but did not meet any of the exclusion criteria, have been reported according to a list of five variables in order to extract data in a comparable way. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed using the guidelines of the Dutch Institute for Health Care Improvement (CBO). The following elements were evaluated: randomization, allocation concealment, baseline comparability, blinding of participants or providers, blinding of outcome assessors, reporting of attrition rate, the use of intent-to-treat analyses and the use of validated tools. The level of evidence of each study was determined according to the guidelines of Melnyk and Fineout-Overholt ( 2005 ).

The main results of selected studies are reported in Table ​ Table1. 1 . All studies involved participants of 4–13 years-old, but some were not limited to this range: two studies chose a broad age range of 6–25 years [35] and 6–59 years [32]. Sample sizes varied between 10 [1] and 352 [35]. In general, studies employed both genders. One study [40] and one sub-experiment of a study [42] included males only. Although the type of design was not explicitly mentioned in all studies, most studies implemented a(n) (quasi-) experimental, longitudinal, or correlational design. Only three of the 46 studies used a randomized control trial (RCT) [21] [29] [17].

Intervention details for included studies.

The reviewed articles have spawned a broad range of approaches to and considerable heterogeneity in music interventions. In general, music interventions consisted either of structured musical instruction/activities, i.e., use of instruments, singing, moving, listening, improvising, music notation, rhythm training, composing music, instrumental classes, or private instrumental training. Only in several studies, the music intervention was especially designed for the acquisition of specific non-musical skills [10] [11]. Length of the intervention varied across studies, ranging from seven and a half minutes [31] to 11 semesters [43]. Music interventions were mostly provided two or three times per week. In three studies, interventions were delivered on a daily basis [15] [16] [25]. All but two studies [32] [40] used live music as opposed to recorded music. Four studies used a specific pedagogical approach for music instruction: the Orff method, which refers to a way of teaching children about music that engages their mind and body through a mixture of singing, dancing, acting, and the use of percussion instruments or the Kodaly method, in which children are first introduced to concepts of music through experiences such as singing, listening or movement. Only after the child becomes familiar with the concept of music do they learn how to compose it [8] [15] [28] [45]. Interventions were either performed in (small) groups or individual (in case of instrumental training). The authors conducted studies either in the school/classroom environment, where music interventions would be regularly conducted; or used locations outside school i.e., music schools or specific center for music teaching. Information about the person who delivered the music intervention was mentioned in 30 studies. In most studies a professionally trained music teacher was employed. In two other studies, the intervention was delivered by parents/teachers [4] who received training or by trained research assistants [11]. In four studies, the intervention was either computer-based [16] [25] or delivered via CD/radio [32] [40].

The reviewed articles used varied outcome measures affected by music interventions. Outcome measures can be grouped in the following categories: motor skill development, social and emotional development, language, cognitive development, academic performance and other, non-musical, related skills.

Motor skill development

We identified no studies that focused particularly on the association between music training and gross motor skill development. Two studies explored, among others, the beneficial impact of music activity on specific motor skills. Using a non-randomized design, Brodsky and Sulkin ( 2011 ) [1] (which presented results of three experiments) focused on hand-clapping songs. In the first experiment, the association of performance quality of handclapping songs with academic achievement was evaluated among a class of 18 children (mean age 7 years). Two handclapping songs were taught by rote via live demonstration by the second author during a 3-week period and both performance quality and achievement of all 18 children were assessed. Results indicated that children who were more skillful in performing handclapping songs, were also more efficient learners. In a second experiment, the authors measured bimanual rhythmic patting and aural diction in 10 children aged 8–8.5 years, five children who self-reported engagement in handclapping songs activity, and five children from the same classroom who self-reported not to engage in handclapping songs were recruited. Self-reports were confirmed by the second author through observations. The authors found that children who spontaneously engaged in hand clapping songs had an advantage in aural diction and accuracy performance of eye-hand motor sequences. The third experiment took place over 8 weeks. Twenty-four children received classroom handclapping intervention (HCST) while another 27 received the music appreciation guided listening curriculum (MAGL). Children who received HCST were more effective in developing bimanual coupling, writing proficiencies and handwriting compared to children who received MAGL (Brodsky and Sulkin, 2011 [1]). Janzen et al. ( 2014 ) [2] investigated whether formal music training enhances precision in discrete and continuous movements. The study included 32 children enrolled in music classes who had at least 2 h of weekly musical activities. Twenty-five children who were not involved in any musical activity were also included. All were 10–14 years-old. Results showed that musically trained children had a significantly more accurate performance in the discrete movement task compared to controls. Findings suggest performance was positively associated with the number of years of formal music training. Musically trained children also tended to be more precise in the continuous movement task (Janzen et al., 2014 ).

Although reporting positive results, a limitation of above-mentioned, quasi-experimental studies was the lack of randomization. In a sub-experiment of one study only (sub experiment 3) [1], participants were matched socioeconomically and an active control group was included. In the second study of another sub-experiment, performance of the music group was compared to control groups who were not involved in music training [2] or who did not receive any additional activity (sub experiment 2) [1]. Therefore, caution should be used when making inferences about the observed effects of the music interventions on specific motor skills.

Social and emotional development

Social skills.

Four studies reported mixed evidence of the influence of music interventions on social skills. Using a quasi-experimental design, Ritblatt et al. ( 2013 ) [4] found that 55 children, aged 3–5, who received a music intervention program focused on socioemotional skills, demonstrated a positive change in these skills compared to a wait-list control group ( n = 47) who did not receive the music intervention. These changes occurred over the course of a 8-month period. It's important to note that these effects were reported by teachers and not parents. Schellenberg et al. ( 2015 ) [5] investigated whether social benefits were accrued from an existing group music training program that was designed with music pedagogy as its focus in 84 8–9 year-old children. Results showed that children in the music group ( n = 38), who attended schools that incorporated an enhanced group music program into the curriculum, had larger increases in sympathy and prosocial behavior compared to children in the control group ( n = 46), who attended schools without the enhanced music program, but this effect was limited to children who had poor prosocial skills before the lessons began. Evidence from a between-participants study of the effects of joint music making in 48 pairs of 4 year-old children [3] who were randomly assigned either to the music condition (i.e., episode of interactive play with joint music making) or the non-music condition (i.e., episode of interactive play without music), demonstrated an increase in willingness to help one another and to cooperate on a problem-solving task in children in the music condition compared to non-music condition (Kirschner and Tomasello, 2010 ) [3]. However, in an experimental study, Rickard et al. ( 2013 ) [8] assigned 195 5–8 year-old children to either a music education ( n = 122) or a control group ( n = 73) based on the school they were attending. Children receiving a music education received age-specific, specialized music programs on top of the preexisting, general school music program, while children in the control group did not receive these specialized music programs but continued with their regular school music program. The authors found no benefits of the specialized music program on children's social skills compared to children in the control group.

In sum, three studies [3] [4] [5] reported partially positive results, whereas one study [8] reported no effects. One study reporting a beneficial impact of music [3] is of high quality$ i.c. incorporating random assignment to conditions, blinding the outcome assessors and incorporating an active, matched control program without music. The intervention lasted, however, for 20 min. The partially positive findings of Ritblatt et al. ( 2013 ) [4] and Schellenberg et al. ( 2015 ) [5] should be interpreted with caution due to the design used [5], the lack of randomization, the fact the sample may not be representative of the target population (i.c. higher SES and higher educational level) [4] and teacher/parent expectations which may have influenced the results [4]. In the experimental study [8] of Rickard et al. ( 2012 ) [8], reporting no effects of a specialized music program on top of the general school music program, randomization was absent. However, the relatively large sample size, the duration of the study and the inclusion of an active control group are strengths of this study.

Results of above mentioned studies are mixed and demonstrate the need for further research.

Emotional development

Two studies addressed the influence of music on emotional development and reported mixed results. A study of Schellenberg and Mankarious ( 2012 ) [7] assessed 60 children, ranging from 7 to 8 years-old, on a test of emotion comprehension (TEC). The musically trained group included 30 children who had at least 8 months of formal music lessons taken outside the school, whereas the untrained group consisted of 30 children who had no music training outside the school. Musically trained children demonstrated significantly higher TEC scores than the ones without music training. The effect remained even after accounting for demographic variables. However, the link appeared to be a consequence of high level cognitive functioning of the musically trained group. No group differences were present when IQ scores were accounted for. Using an experimental study, Rabinowitch et al. ( 2013 ) [6] tracked 52 children aged 8–11 after they were randomly assigned to either a musical group interaction program ( n = 23), a games group ( n = 8), receiving a similar program without the use of music or a control group ( n = 21), not receiving any special activity. Children in the music group showed an increase in empathy scores on two out of three measures compared to children in the games group and children in the control group.

While both studies reported positive results, the findings of the study of Schellenberg and Mankarious ( 2012 ) [7] turned out to be a related to the level of cognitive functioning of participants in the music group. The experimental study of Rabinowitch et al. ( 2013 ) [6] permits, at least to some extent, for causal inference. The authors used randomization to allocate participants to conditions, thereby reducing the risk of bias from confounding. The small sample size and the fact that the active and the passive control group were merged into one control group before comparison with the music group, should, however, be taken into consideration. Based on findings from both studies, no definitive conclusions can be drawn yet and more research is needed in this area to achieve conclusive results.

Academic self-concept, psychosocial wellbeing, and self-esteem

Three studies reported mixed effects of music on academic self-concept, which refers to the cognitive representation and appraisal of one's own abilities in academic performance (Degé et al., 2014 ), psychosocial wellbeing and self-esteem, which describes one's overall sense of self-worth. In a correlational study, Degé et al. ( 2014 ) [9] revealed that duration of music lessons was positively associated with academic self-concept in 92 12–14 year-old children, even after controlling for demographic variables and IQ. In a 3 year experimental study, Rickard et al. ( 2013 ) [8] showed that increase in school-based music lessons prevented a decline in global self-esteem measures experienced by the control group in both the younger and older cohorts across the first year of the study. However, effect sizes were generally modest in the second year. In another study, Rickard et al. ( 2012 ) [42] investigated the effect of increasing existing music education (study 1) and the effect of introducing a novel high-quality music education program (study two) on various psychosocial measures in 111 10–13 year-old children (all males). One hundred eleven 10–13 year-old children in study one were pseudo-randomly assigned to additional music classes ( n = 47), art classes ( n = 27), or drama classes ( n = 37). One hundred six children in study two (mean age 131.07 months) were randomly allocated to a music group ( n = 38), a drama group ( n = 37) or control group, receiving no program ( n = 31). No significant effects were found.

Degé et al. ( 2014 ) [9], using a correlational design, was the only one reporting positive results. However, these results do not allow for any conclusions to be drawn about causality. Two experimental studies of Rickard et al. ( 2012 ) [8] [42] found modest effects and no effects, respectively music interventions on top of the preexisting school music education. The (relatively) large sample sizes [8] [42] and the duration of one the studies [8] can be considered as strengths. Both studies, did not, however, randomize participants to the intervention or control groups. In one of the two experimental studies [42], active control groups were included, who continued their regular school music program. The other study [8] included both passive and active control groups, which better allowed for comparison of the increased music education.

In summary, although one study reported positive correlations, two studies suggest little or no beneficial effect. Further research is needed to clarify whether music can positively impact self-concept, self-esteem, and psychosocial wellbeing.

Studies that link music intervention to language acquisition can be clustered into two groups: (1) focus on phonological awareness and auditory processing and (2) reading.

Phonological awareness and auditory processing

Several studies assessed the influence of music on auditory and phonological skills with mixed findings. Some suggest that musical activities have a beneficial effect on these skills. Using a descriptive-comparative design, Escalda et al. ( 2011 ) [12] examined the relationship between musical experience, auditory processing abilities and phonological awareness skills of 56 five year-old children. Results showed that 26 children, with musical experience, performed significantly better on auditory processing and phonological awareness than 30 children without musical experience. In an exploratory study, Moritz et al. ( 2013 ) [15] investigated whether musical activity could enhance the acquisition of reading skill, potentially before formal reading instructions began in 30 children (mean age 5.6 years). Children in the music group ( n = 15) received daily 45 min music lessons whereas children in the control group ( n = 15) received weekly 35-min music lessons. Correlational results showed that rhythm ability was related to phonological segmentation skills at the beginning of kindergarten and that end-of-year phonological awareness skills of children who received daily music lessons were better than skills of children in the control group who received music lessons once a week. Using a pragmatic RCT, Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] included 235 participants with reading problems, aged 8–10 years, in 10 schools, to compare the effectiveness of music education for the improvement of among other, reading skills. Five schools were randomly chosen to incorporate music classes ( n = 114) and five schools, who were not encouraged to offer musical activities, served as controls ( n = 121). There was no improvement in phonological awareness when comparing the two groups. Flaugnacco et al. ( 2015 ) [17], also using an RCT, pseudo-randomly assigned 8–11 year-old dyslexic children to a music group ( n = 24) or a painting group ( n = 24). Both groups also received conventional rehabilitation program. After 7 months of training, the music group outperformed the painting group in tasks assessing rhythmic abilities and phonological awareness. Using a pretest/training/posttest design, Moreno et al. ( 2011b ) [16] focused on the effects of an intensive computerized training in music or visual arts on pre-literacy skills in 60 4–6 year-old children, who were pseudo-randomly assigned to the music or visual arts condition. They reported comparable improvements in both groups in rhyme awareness and in ability to map unfamiliar symbols to known words. However, when the two groups were statistically equated at pretest, the magnitude of improvement was found to be larger in the music group. Herrera et al. ( 2011 ) [13] on the other hand, used a 2 year pretest-posttest study in which 97 children (mean age 4.5 years) at two preschools were allocated following stratified randomization procedures into a group that received phonological training with music ( n = 32), a group that received phonological training with no music ( n = 34) and a control group who did not receive any specialized training ( n = 31). Phonological training was effective regardless of whether it included music and whether the children were foreign Spanish speakers or native speakers. Both experimental treatment groups outperformed the control group in the posttests on phonological awareness tasks and speed in naming objects. However, the phonological training with music group outperformed the phonological training without music group on phonological awareness of ending sounds. In general, the foreign Spanish speakers were significantly slower in the naming task than their Spanish counterparts, those who had participated in the training with musical activities outperformed their peers in the control group by the end of the treatment. Bhide et al. ( 2013 ) [10] compared the effects of a musical intervention for poor readers ( n = 10) with a software intervention of known beneficial effects based on rhyme training and phoneme-grapheme learning ( n = 9) in 6–7 year-old children, all of them identified by their class teachers as struggling readers. The authors found that both interventions were equally effective for literacy acquisition and phonological skills. Habib et al. ( 2016 ) [18] examined the effectiveness of a specially-designed Cognitivo-musical training (CMT) in two studies. In study one, 12 children with a diagnosis of severe dyslexia (mean age 10.7 years) received daily 6 h of CMT on 3 consecutive days while 22 reading-age matched normal-reading children (30 months younger on average) served as controls, receiving no CMT. The authors found that dyslexic children were impaired in the identification test of categorical perception, but their performance reached the level of control children after 3 days of CMT. Significant improvement in performance of dyslexic children was also noticed in the syllabic lengthening task. In study two, 12 dyslexic children, grouped according to the severity of their problems received CMT training sessions at school. The 3-h weekly sessions were provided over a period of 6 weeks. Results showed a positive influence of the CMT program on categorical perception and the temporal aspects of speech processing. Also, additional improvements in auditory attention, phonological awareness (syllable fusion) were found. Fonseca-Mora et al. ( 2015 ) [14], using a pre-post comparison design, tested the efficacy of a phonological training program aimed at improving early reading skills in 7–8 year-old Spanish children learning English as a foreign language in three groups: an experimental group with phonological non-musical intervention ( n = 22), an experimental group with musical intervention ( n = 18) and a control group receiving the traditional teaching program ( n = 23). The results clearly pointed to the beneficial effects of the phonological teaching approach, but the further impact of the music support was not demonstrated. In a longitudinal, experimental study, Degé and Schwarzer ( 2011 ) [11] investigated the effect of a music program on phonological awareness in preschoolers. Forty-one children (mean age 5.6 years) were randomly assigned to a music program ( n = 13), a phonological skills program ( n = 13), or a sport group ( n = 14). Results indicated that 26 children who followed either the music program or the phonological program significantly improved in phonological awareness of large phonological units (words) compared to the sport group who received no intervention. All three groups showed similar development in phonological awareness of small phonological units.

Of the two RCTs reviewed, one found beneficial effects of a music intervention on phonological awareness [17] while the other found no effects [21]. Two experimental studies [11] [13], using (stratified) randomization and including two active control groups [11] and an active and passive control group [13], respectively, reported no beneficial effects of music. Of the four studies that used a quasi-experimental design without randomization, two studies, including an active [10] or both an active and passive control group [14], also found no benefits of music interventions One out of these four studies, reporting positive results, used pseudo-random allocation, included an active control group and blinded outcome assessors [16]. Another study, also describing positive results, matched participants, but did include a passive control group only [18]. Positive results were also reported by two correlational studies [12] [15]. However, these results do not allow for any conclusions to be drawn about causality. Although findings suggest music can positively affect phonological awareness and auditory processing in some situations, clear conclusions cannot be drawn.

Eight studies addressed the association between music-related activities and a range of reading skills with inconsistent findings. The results of the study of Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] indicated no improvement in word accuracy, in-text accuracy and non-word accuracy of children in the music intervention schools compared to the children in control ones. In contrast, the RCT results of Flaugnacco et al. ( 2015 ) [17] showed better performance of the music group on reading skills in comparison to the control group. Using an experimental design, Bonacina et al. ( 2015 ) [20] randomly assigned 11–14 year-old children to a computer-assisted, rhythmic reading training (RRT) ( n = 14) or a control group ( n = 14), for which no specific activity addressed to improve reading skills was carried out. Results indicated that RRT had a positive effect on both reading speed and accuracy. The effect of RRT seemed to be specifically on reading skills, as no difference in rhythm perception between the two groups was found. Moritz et al. ( 2013 ) [15] found that kindergarteners' rhythm ability was significantly correlated to their phonological awareness and basic word identification skills in second grade. Using a longitudinal design, Slater et al. ( 2014 ) [22] compared reading ability of 42 low-income, Spanish-English bilingual children aged 6-to-9, pseudo-randomly assigned to a group music instruction program outside school or a waiting list control group. Twenty-three children in the music group maintained their age-normed performance on the composite reading measure after 1 year, whereas the performance of 19 children in the matched control group deteriorated over the same period of time, consistent with expected declines in this population. Rautenberg ( 2013 ) [23], in an experimental study, measured the correlations between musical skills and decoding skills and the effects of musical training on word-level reading abilities. One hundred fifty-nine seven year-old children were randomly allocated to a special music training program ( n = 33), a visual arts training program ( n = 41), or no training program for the period of the study ( n = 85). Results showed the special music training had a significant effect on reading accuracy in word reading. Additionally, positive correlations were found between rhythmical ability and decoding skills. Tonal skills were not correlated with reading skills. In a correlational study of Corrigall and Trainor ( 2011 ) [19], it was shown that duration of music training (i.e., the number of years of training on their primary instrument, plus the number of years of training on any additional instruments) was associated with reading comprehension, but not with word decoding among 46 6–9 year-olds. The findings are in contrast to a longitudinal study from Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35] which revealed that practicing a musical instrument was not associated with reading comprehension.

Of the eight studies measuring the effects on reading, two studies used an RCT design with pseudo randomization [17] [21] and blinded outcome assessors [17]. Their findings are contradictory; Flaugnacco et al. ( 2015 ) [17] found a positive influence of music, whereas the results of Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] indicated no effect. Results of two studies that used an experimental design with randomization [20] [23] illustrated potential benefits of a music training program. Of these two studies, one included a passive control group, offering no music training program [20] while the other included both a passive and active control group [23], allowing for a more comprehensive comparison. The results of the longitudinal study of Slater et al. ( 2015 ) [46] also point to beneficial effects. However, an active control group could not be included. (Partially) positive correlations were shown by two studies [15] [19]. However, correlational studies do not allow for causal inferences. In another longitudinal study [35], participants were compared to themselves. Attrition rate and practice effects might, however, have influenced the results.

As results of above-mentioned studies are both positive and negative, findings in this area are inconclusive.

Cognitive development

In this review, studies focusing on the effects of music on children's cognitive abilities were subdivided into three categories, reflecting different aspects of cognitive development: (1) intelligence, (2) memory, and (3) attention and other executive function skills.

Intelligence

Several studies have explored the effects of music intervention on intelligence. Results from these studies suggest little or no beneficial effects. In an experimental design, Kaviani et al. ( 2014 ) [28] randomly allocated 60 5–6 year-old children to two groups, the experimental group receiving Orff music lessons and the other (matched for age-, sex-, and mother's educational level) receiving no lessons The authors demonstrated that after participating in the Orff music program for 3 months, children had significantly higher scores on the visual abstract reasoning, verbal reasoning and short term memory subscales of the Stanford—Binet Intelligence Scale compared to children, who did not receive any musical lessons. Schellenberg ( 2011 ) [24] and Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35] also reported positive associations between, respectively, music training and IQ and music training and non-verbal reasoning. In a longitudinal study, Moreno et al. ( 2011a ) [25] used two subtests of the WPSI III (vocabulary and block design) to examine the influence of two interactive computerized training programs (music and visual arts) on, among other skills, verbal and spatial intelligence in 64 4–6 year-old children who were pseudo-randomly allocated to one of the two conditions. They found that children who participated in a computerized music training program showed enhanced performance on the measure of vocabulary knowledge. Not in line with above mentioned findings is the study of Mehr et al. ( 2013 ) [29]. They conducted an RCT to investigate the effects of parent-child music education on specific cognitive skills in preschool children. In experiment one, four-year-old children were randomly assigned to a music group ( n = 15) or a visual arts group ( n = 14). In experiment two, 23 children were randomly allocated to a music group and 22 children to a control group who did not receive music classes. Analyses with a combined music group ( n = 38), the visual arts group and the control group revealed no significant effects on spatial-navigational reasoning, visual form analysis, numerical discrimination, and receptive vocabulary. Rickard et al. ( 2012 ) [42] failed to find an effect of increased classroom based music education on various cognitive measures. Bugos and Jacobs ( 2012 ) [26] evaluated the effects of a composition program, Composers in Public Schools (CiPS), on cognitive skills among 28 sixth-graders who were assigned to an experimental group ( n = 15), receiving the CiPS program or a control group ( n = 13), not participating in any musical courses. Results showed enhanced performance in arithmetic scores of the WISC-IV for the experimental group compared to the control group. No effect was found for vocabulary performance. Due to a relatively large variation in scores, enhancements for digit coding and symbol search subtests were not significant.

Only one out of the seven studies measuring the effects of music on intelligence, employed an RCT design including an active as well as a passive control group [29], which permits causal inferences to be made. No significant effects were found in that particular study. The two experimental studies reviewed [28] [42] yielded mixed results. While both used randomization [28] [sub experiment 2, 42], only one study, reporting no effect, included an active control group [42]. The remaining four studies, employed a quasi-experimental (longitudinal) design [24] [25] [26] or longitudinal developmental design [35], showed positive or partially positive effects. However, only one out of these four studies used pseudo-randomized group assignment, blinded outcome assessors and included an active control group. Schellenberg ( 2011 ) [24] and Bugos and Jacobs ( 2012 ) [26] both included a passive control group. Neither study matched participants on baseline variables. Despite the large sample size and duration of the study, caution is needed in interpreting findings of Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35], due to attrition and the possible influence of practice effects.

A number of studies looked specifically at aspects of memory with mixed results. Degé et al. ( 2011 ) [31] demonstrated in a non-randomized, longitudinal design that after 2 years of extended music curriculum (ECM) training, short-term visual, and auditory memory scores for 16 9–11 year-old children, attending ECM training, had improved significantly, whereas no such increase was found in 25 children who did not attend ECM training. Roden et al. ( 2012 ) [33] conducted a quasi-experimental study where participants were allocated to a music program, a science program or a control group. Results showed that 25 children (mean age 7.73 years), who took part in a school-based music program, outperformed 25 children receiving extended natural science training and 23 children in a control group receiving no additional training, on verbal memory tasks. The authors failed to show a link between type of program and visual memory. Brodsky and Sulkin ( 2011 ) [1] reported positive effects of classroom handclapping intervention (HCST) on verbal memory. Results of a longitudinal study by Rickard et al. ( 2010 ) [30] showed significant enhancement of verbal learning and immediate verbal recall scores in 82 children (mean age 8.62 years) after ~1 year, but not 2 years after non-random allocation to an increased classroom-based instrumental music training, compared to 68 children (mean age 8.79 years), who did not receive training. In an experimental design, Martens et al. ( 2011 ) [32] focused on the effect of musical experience on verbal memory in 38 individuals with Williams syndrome, aged 6–59 years. Participants who had participated in formal music lessons scored significantly better on a verbal long-term memory task when the stimuli were sung than when they were spoken in comparison to those who did not have formal lessons, showing no benefit for either sung or spoken condition. Short-term memory did not appear to be affected by musical experience.

The five studies reviewed yielded mixed results. One experimental study [32] showed improved performance of participants who had participated in formal music lessons. However, generalizability of findings is low by including only participants with Williams syndrome, making the participants a non-representative sample. The remaining four studies, reporting positive or partially positive results, employed quasi-experimental (longitudinal) designs [1] [30] [31] [33]. However, in none of these four studies, participants were randomized or matched on potentially influencing variables, decreasing validity of findings. Blinded outcome assessors were used in one study [30]. Two out of the four studies included an active control group [1] or both an active and passive control group [33], allowing for a more detailed comparison. Although studies suggest potential benefits, the methodological limitations do not allow clear conclusions to be drawn about the effect of music and the part(s) of memory of which music can have an effect on.

Attention and other EF skills

The impact of music interventions on attention and several executive function skills was reported in seven studies with mixed evidence. One study of 102 7–12 year-olds Khalil et al. ( 2013 ) [37] found that, those, who were able to synchronize to a driving beat (in the context of a music class), were more attentive, showed less ADHD-like behaviors (rated by teachers) and performed better on an attention control task, in comparison to those who were less capable of synchronizing. Positive results have also been shown by Moreno et al. ( 2011a ) [25], who reported enhanced performance on accuracy on a go/no-go task. Using a cross-sectional design, Zuk et al. ( 2014 ) [38] assessed (among other participants) 27 children (mean age 10 years) on a range of EF tasks. Fifteen instrumentally trained children, who started training on average at 5 years and had been studying their instruments on average 5.2 years, demonstrated heightened performance on coding, cognitive flexibility and processing speed tasks in comparison with 12 children without musical training outside the requirements of the general music curriculum in school. In contrast, Roden et al. ( 2014 ) [27], using a quasi-experimental design, investigated, among other skills, the effects of music lessons on processing speed abilities and visual attention in 7–8 year-old children over a period of 18 months. In the study, 345 children were assigned to the music training group ( n = 192) or the natural science training group ( n = 153). Children in the music group showed significant increases in information processing speed from T2 to T3. However, the level of significance was only associated with a small effect size. Although both groups improved their visual attention scores over time, these increases were stronger from T1 to T2 and T2 to T3 in children with natural science training as compared to children with music training. In a quasi-experimental study, Schellenberg ( 2011 ) [24] found that, with the exception of digit span, music training was independent of performance on phonological fluency, inhibition, problem solving, and planning and mental flexibility and rule switching. Bugos and Jacobs ( 2012 ) [26] found no effect of participation in a 4-month composition program on verbal fluency. Using an intervention design, Janus et al. ( 2016 ) [39] pseudo-randomly assigned 57 4–6 year-old children (matched on age and cognitive scores) to a 20-day music training ( n = 28) or conversational French training program ( n = 29) to compare the effects on executive control abilities. The one training-specific outcome found was that children in the French group showed broader improvement in visual search than children in the music program. For verbal fluency, grammatical judgement and visual search, all children performed significantly better after training.

Several studies suggested music training may improve various aspects of working memory. In one quasi-experimental, longitudinal study (Roden et al., 2014 ) [34], examined working memory performance in 25 7–10 year-old children who participated in a classroom-based, extended instrumental music training program and 25 children who participated in an extended science training program. Results showed significant gains in two out of three components of working memory performance in children who followed the music program for one-and-a-half-years in comparison to children who took part in the science training group. Positive associations between musical practice and working memory were also reported by Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35] and Zuk et al. ( 2014 ) [38]. Portowitz et al. ( 2014 ) [36] reported a significant enhancement in working memory scores in 62 9–10 year-old children after a 4-month participation in the (computerized) In Harmony program compared to 22 controls who did not participate in this program. The results of the study of Janus et al. ( 2016 ) [39] showed no effect of a music training program on spatial working memory.

The seven studies reviewed yielded mixed results of the influence of music interventions on attention and other EF skills. Positive correlations were shown by one study [37]. However, correlational studies do not allow for causal inferences. The remaining six studies were quasi-experimental (longitudinal) without randomization [24] [25] [26] [27] [38] [39]. Two of these six studies, reporting positive results, used pseudo random allocation of participants to groups [25] or matched participants on potentially confounding variables [38] but only one included an active control group [25]. Two other studies reported mixed and modest results, respectively [27] [24]. The sample size and the inclusion of an active control group can be considered as strength of one of them [27]. Of the remaining two studies [26] [39], reporting no evidence of beneficial effects of music, only one used blinded outcome assessors, pseudo randomization, and included an active control group [39]. Regarding working memory, there seems to be a hint of a positive influence of music based on the results of five studies [34] [35] [36] [38] [39]. However, studies were quasi-experimental (longitudinal) without randomization [34] [36] [38] [39] or longitudinal developmental [35]. Only three out of the five used pseudo random allocation [39] or matched participants on potentially confounding variables [36] [38]. An active control group was included by two out these five studies [39] [34], reporting no effects and mixed effects, respectively. The three other studies, all reporting positive findings, included a passive control group [36] [38] or compared the participants to themselves [35].

Although part of the evidence points to potential benefits, more research is needed to determine whether music can positively impact these skills.

Academic performance

Studies exploring the effect of music on academic performance were subdivide into four categories: (1) school readiness, (2) classroom behavior and academic skills and (3) language, and (4) mathematics.

School readiness

One study focused, among other skills, on preschool children's school-readiness skills. The results of a quasi-experimental study of Ritblatt et al. ( 2013 ) [4] showed that participation in a music program had a positive effect on promoting a positive approach to learning. No effect was found for promoting academic skills.

Methodological limitations of this study are the lack over control over assignments of participants to conditions and the fact the sample may not be representative of the population as whole (i.c. higher SES and higher educational level), creating threats to validity. Information about the blinding of outcome assessors was not provided. The intervention was provided by trained teachers and parents, whose expectations may have influenced outcomes. Taking the limitations into account and the fact that the findings are based on one study only, accuracy and direction of the results should be interpreted with caution.

Classroom behavior and academic skills

There is no evidence that music can affect classroom behavior and academic skills. Pelham et al. ( 2011 ) [40] followed up 41 boys with ADHD and 26 normal comparison boys, who had never been referred for treatment of behavior problems (mean age 9 years) to examine the effects of music and video on classroom behavior and performance. Three distractor conditions (music, video, no-distractor) were randomly introduced for 24 days, varying on a daily basis (8 days in each distractor condition). Neither boys with ADHD or the control group were significantly distracted by music. Within the ADHD group, there were, however, considerable differences in response to the music such that some were adversely affected and others benefited relative to no-distractor. This study included males only, thereby eliminating a potential source of variability. Except for gender, participants were, however, not matched on any other variable. Outcome assessors were not blinded and the distractor conditions and no-distractor conditions may have been not much different. The accuracy and direction of the results should be interpreted with caution as findings are based on one study only.

Several studies have explored the association between a music intervention or music training and performance on (specific) language skills respectively, with contradictory findings. With regard to first language skills, results of an RCT by Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] showed positive growing slopes in Portuguese language in the children who completed a 5-month music education program in comparison to the control children. Findings were in contrast to the results of Yang et al. ( 2014 ) [43] who, using a non-randomized, longitudinal design, examined the relation between long-term music training and, among other skills, academic development of Chinese language among 250 Chinese elementary school students (mean age 78 months). Children who took part in formal music training out of school around the beginning of semester three, were categorized as musician children ( n = 77) whereas the remaining children, who had not received formal music training throughout this study, were categorized as non-musician children ( n = 173). Music training was not related to the enhancement of performance on Chinese language.

Regarding second language abilities, Swaminathan and Gopinath ( 2013 ) [44] explored second-language abilities of musically trained children ( n = 37)(mean age 100.55 months), who reported at least 3 months of music training and speaking a language other than English at home, and untrained children ( n = 39)(mean age 98.89 months) and found that the musically trained children (mean length of training 17.63 months) performed significantly better on the tests of comprehension and vocabulary compared to their untrained counterparts. The advantage persisted even when the trained group only consisted of participants trained in Indian Classical music, indicating that the English L2 advantage was not merely because of an increased opportunity to learn new words from songs as Indian Classical music is written in Indian languages. Positive findings were also reported by Yang et al. ( 2014 ) [43], who found that musician children outperformed non-musician children on second language development.

Two studies [21] [43] reported contradictory results on the potential benefit of music on first language development. However, only findings from Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21], conducting an RCT, allow for conclusions to be drawn about causality. Although the duration and sample size of Yang et al. ( 2014 ) [43] can be considered as strengths, participants were not randomized and a passive control was included. Another two studies reported positive results on second language development [43] [44]. Both studies made a comparison of the music group with a control group, who had no previous musical training. However, only one study [44] controlled for several baseline variables and used blinded outcome assessors, thereby increasing the validity of their findings.

Mathematics

Four studies have explored the effects of music on mathematics. A longitudinal study of Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35] yielded a positive association between music training (i.e., the number of hours per week of practice on instruments played) and performance on mathematics. Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] also observed positive growing slopes in math grades. In Yang et al's ( 2014 ) [43] study, however, music training was not related to performance on mathematics. Courey et al. ( 2012 ) [41] examined the efficacy of a music intervention aimed to teach fractions to third graders using a quasi-experimental design. Sixty-seven 8–11 year-olds were assigned by class to either a 6-week academic music intervention, administered during regularly scheduled mathematics instruction, or continued their regular mathematics instruction with their classroom teacher. The experimental group outperformed the comparison group on music notation knowledge and the mathematical fraction completion test (i.e., not previously introduced and improper fractions). No significant group differences were found on the mathematical fraction concept test.

The four studies reviewed yielded mixed results. One RCT [21] reported positive results. The remaining three studies were (longitudinal) quasi-experimental without randomization [41] [43] and longitudinal developmental [35]. Of these three studies, one found a positive association [35], one found partial positive results [41], and one found no relation [43]. Only one of these three studies included an active control group [41]. The duration and sample sizes of two out of these three studies can be considered as strengths [43] [35]. Although possible causal relations could be tested more easily, caution is needed in interpreting findings of Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35], due to attrition and possible practice effects.

Other, non-musical, related skills

Two studies were identified that examined the effects of music on other, specific skills. Slater et al. ( 2015 ) [46] conducted a controlled, longitudinal study to investigate the effect of music training on speech in noise perception in 38 eight year-old children, randomly assigned to the music training program ( n = 19) or the wait-list control group ( n = 19). The authors reported a significant improvement of hearing in noise after 2 years of music training (Slater et al., 2015 ). Another longitudinal study of François et al. ( 2013 ) [45] tracked 24 eight year-old children after they were pseudo-randomly assigned to either a music training program or a painting program. They found that performance on both behavioral and electrophysiological measures of speech segmentation (i.e., the ability to extract meaningless words from a continuous flow of non-sense syllables) steadily increased across the testing sessions for the music group compared to the painting group.

Both studies, reporting positive results, employed a 2-year, longitudinal design and used valid (computer) measures to evaluate the performance of participants. Randomization, thereby reducing the risk of sampling bias, was used only in one study [46]. Information about the blinding of outcome assessors was not reported and only one out of the two studies employed an active control group [45]. Although sample sizes can be considered small, thereby limiting the external validity of findings, both studies propose an interesting direction for further research.

This review analyzed the evidence of 46 studies, dealing with five developmental domains, including the motor, social, cognitive, language, and academic domain.

With regard to the motor domain, the two studies identified suggested a positive influence of music interventions on specific motor skills (eye-hand motor sequences, discrete and continuous movements) [1] [2]. Due to the quasi-experimental design of the studies, the limited sample of participants and the inclusion of an active control group in one sub-experiment of one study only [1], clear conclusions cannot be drawn.

It cannot be concluded whether music interventions can positively influence social and emotional development as results of the nine studies reviewed [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [42] are inconclusive. The findings of two experimental studies [3] [6] suggest a beneficial impact of music interventions on empathy and spontaneous cooperative and helpful behavior. The merging of the active and passive control group into one control group and the small sample size in one of the two studies, should, however, be taken into consideration. Positive findings of another study [7] turned out to be related to the level of cognitive functioning of participants in the music group. Caution is needed in drawing conclusions from the partially positive findings of Ritblatt et al. ( 2013 ) [4] and Schellenberg et al. ( 2015 ) [5] due to the design used [5] and the representativeness of the sample [4]. Two other experimental studies [8] [42] found modest effects and no effects, respectively, on social skills and self-esteem.

Regarding the language domain, 15 studies evaluating the impact of music interventions on phonological awareness and auditory processing and reading skills [12] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [22] [23] [35], and no clear conclusions can be drawn in this area. The results of two randomized controlled trials are inconclusive. The results of four experimental studies with (stratified) randomization [13] [11] [20] [23] suggested beneficial effects of music interventions on reading skills [20] [23], however, not on phonological skills [11] [13]. Of these four studies, two included both an active and a passive control group [13] [23], allowing for a more comprehensive comparison. Of the remaining six studies, quasi-experimental (longitudinal) without randomization [10] [14] [16] [18] [22] and developmental longitudinal [35] in nature, three point to the beneficial effects of music [16] [18] [22]. The other three studies, including an active [10] or both an active and passive control group [14] or comparing participants to themselves [35], found no impact of music interventions.

With regard to the cognitive domain, seven studies reviewed provided insufficient information whether music can have a positive effect on intelligence. The results of an RCT [21] showed no effects and two experimental studies, only one of them including an active control group, yielded mixed results [30] [42]. Evidence of three quasi-experimental (longitudinal) studies [24] [25] [26] and longitudinal developmental study suggest a (partially) positive influence of music. However, an active control group was included in just one of these three studies [25]. Evidence of five (quasi-) experimental longitudinal studies seem to suggest potential benefits of music on memory. However, due to lowering generalizability of findings on one study [32], by including participants with Williams syndrome only, and methodological limitations of the other four studies (i.e., no randomization [1] [30] [31] [33] and/or no inclusion of an active control group [30] [31]), clear conclusions cannot be made. Among the six quasi-experimental studies exploring the potential influence of music on attention and EF skills, only two studies [25] [38] reported positive results. An additional five studies on working memory also seemed to suggest a positive influence. Whether or not an active control was included, the lack of randomization and the fact that working memory, attention and EF skills are difficult concepts to define, may have influenced the results obtained.

Regarding academic performance, research suggests some possible beneficial effects of music, although precise conclusions cannot be reached on the basis of reviewed studies. It cannot be concluded whether participation in a music program had a positive effect on promoting a positive approach due to the lack of randomization, the representativeness of the sample, the potential influence of parental and teacher expectations and the fact that the findings are based one study only [4]. The studies evaluating the impact of music interventions on first and second language development showed mixed findings. Regarding first language development, an RCT showed a positive effect, whereas a longitudinal study of Yang et al. ( 2014 ) reported no effects. Another two quasi-experimental studies showed improvement in second language performance [43] [44]. However, both studies included a passive control group. Of the four studies exploring the influence of music interventions on mathematics, one RCT reported positive effects [21]. Caution is needed in making causal inferences on the three remaining studies [41] [43] [35] due to the design used, the absence of randomization [41] [43] and, with regard to the study of Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35], attrition rate and possible practice effects. Evidence from the studies regarding the effectiveness of music on language and mathematics are reviewed separately. One can question whether there is a legitimate distinction between the two domains, as research suggest partial overlap between neural regions associated with language and arithmetic (Baldo and Dronkers, 2007 ; Cummine et al., 2014 ).

Five studies used a correlational design [9] [12] [15] [19] [37], reporting (partially) positive correlations between duration of music intervention and performance on reading and phonological awareness tasks, attention behavior, and self-esteem. Although correlational studies can provide an indication of a possible association between musical training and functioning domains, they do not allow for causal inferences.

The tool used for the methodological quality assessment allowed scoring between zero and five only. This makes a cut-off point difficult to determine. Although all domains included studies with lower quality scoring (two or less), these were more frequently found in the social and cognitive domain. This, however, does not mean that the results of these studies are invalid, but rather gives a direct for reading and interpreting them. The lower score of the study could often be explained by either unbalanced baseline characteristics, absence of randomization or missing information about blinding of outcome assessors or attrition rate. When analyzing the outcomes of the quality screening, one should take into consideration that it can be assessed with a broad range of tools. Upon applying the chosen tool, it was found that some of the items were difficult to relate to the studies at hand, but were more suitable for classical medical trials. Several criteria (including concealment of allocation and intention to treat) were negatively assessed in almost all studies, as they were not designed for the specifics of educational studies, where often it is impossible to ensure the rigid methodological quality: i.e., create double blind randomized trials.

When assessing the quality of the studied, there are several considerations regarding study design, music interventions, and the role of the teacher. In reporting on the participants, we found that little is mentioned about the intrinsic motivation of participants in the context of the intervention. As intrinsic motivation is associated with initiation and persistence of activities, level of effort and improved performance (Patall et al., 2008 ), gaining insight into the motivation of participants is important to be able to determine its impact on outcome measures. In some studies, interventions were partially provided by the authors themselves [1] [3] [6] [10] [22] [28] [36], or by parents and teachers [4]. As their expectations can have an effect on the performance of participants (the “Rosenthal effect”), one needs to be aware that observer bias rather than the intervention could cause the observed changes. Results of several studies might also have been affected by the “Hawthorne effect” i.e., a tendency of participants to alter their behavior because they are aware that they are studied. This effect cannot be ruled out or confirmed for diverse studies after screening.

Most of the study designs consisted of quasi-experimental and longitudinal designs and three studies were a RCTs. An RCT is considered as providing the strongest evidence of determining whether a cause-effect relationship exists between an intervention and outcomes (Sibbald and Roland, 1998 ) as assessment bias and confounding are minimalized. However, some research questions and settings don't permit random assignment of participants and questions may arise about the sample being representative enough of the population and the generalizability of findings to the field. As it is important to consider evidence from other methodologies as well to better understand the potential of music interventions in practice, only an RCT allows the observed effects to be causally attributed to differences between the intervention and the control group(s).

In reviewed studies, active and/or passive control groups were included in evaluating the effectiveness of a music intervention. Although showing whether participants benefit from an intervention compared to participants not receiving the intervention, passive control groups do not allow to test for intervention specific effects (Strobach and Karbach, 2016 ). Inclusion of an active control group, engaging participants in some training and activities during the intervention, can provide evidence as to whether an intervention is relatively more efficient than participating in another program (Karlsson and Bergmark, 2015 ), provided that the intervention and control group are matched on possible influencing factors and perform the same tasks.

Regarding the music interventions, studies were not uniform in their conceptualization of these music interventions. Some were very broadly defined and included listening, singing, instrumental playing, performing, movement, and musical creativity. While others, especially focused on the acquisition of non-musical skills, were more precisely defined and designed. Differences in musical content deserve attention in likely contributing to the outcomes of music interventions. Interventions in groups may have additional benefits of social interaction and motivation above the intervention itself compared to individual interventions which could have played a role in its final outcomes. In this review, the role of the teacher also emerged as a significant issue. 18 of the included studies employed (professional) music teachers and 16 reported at least partly positive outcomes. Teaching music requires many competencies. Strong teaching skills without musical skills and knowledge is not sufficient and vice versa. Research points not only to musical content knowledge, but also to pedagogical content knowledge and non-pedagogical professional knowledge (Ballantyne and Packer, 2004 ). By the way they teach, they play an important role in the teacher-child relationship which may have in turn implications for children's behavioral and academic adjustment (Furrer and Skinner, 2003 ). Therefore, teachers may also be an important factor in the context in which the effectiveness of music interventions is researched.

Another point of attention when describing the effects of music interventions on the development of children is the methodological accuracy and variety of different approaches the researchers took in their studies. Being the most powerful research design for evaluating interventions, further RCTs are needed to determine whether music interventions are effective in stimulating development in children. However, particularly in the domain of music interventions in schools, some requirements such as blinding, randomization, and controlling for potential sources of variability are often difficult if not impossible to achieve and RCTs may create an artificial situation in which findings may not always be applied to everyday practice. While we acknowledge the need for high-quality research methodology, it is important to find a balance between the externally imposed methodological standards and the drive to investigate a said phenomenon in its natural environment. As qualitative research can provide more insight into the characteristics of the intervention and can generate potential hypotheses for quantitative research, combining qualitative and quantitative research can give more comprehensive and integrated insights in potential effects of music interventions.

In conclusion, although the underlying mechanisms are not always clear, evidence of reviewed studies seems suggestive of some beneficial effects. Having a clearer view of effects and possible influencing factors may pave the way for further research on the influence of music on the developing child.

Author contributions

ED the main author and executor of the research and participated in data collection and analysis as well as article writing process. ES was a second reviewer of the selected articles, contributed to development of methodology, data extraction, and analyses as well as final comments on the article writing. FF and SvH contributed to the idea of the development of the article as well as development of the research methodology and provided feedback during the article writing stage.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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WEATHER ALERT

High winds increasing and snow showers on the way.

Marian Kale teaches a music class at Big High School in Missoula on Thursday, February. 15, 2024.

  • UM Photo by Ryan Brennecke
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UM Students, Alumni bang the drum for Music Education Program

  • Abigail Lauten-Scrivner, UM News Service
  • Feb 25, 2024
  • Feb 25, 2024 Updated 1 hr ago

The following is a news release from the University of Montana. 

MISSOULA  – Few degrees allow students to graduate with the expectation that a job in their field is a 100% guarantee if they want one.  The University of Montana’s music education program  is one of those exceptions.  

Demand is high for music educators in Montana and other states, particularly in rural school districts that sometimes struggle to fill positions.

“There are jobs that are unfilled in Montana every year,” said UM School of Music Director Dr. James Smart, who also serves as director of bands and teaches music classes. “We need to produce more music teachers.”

The School of Music works to attract students who will go on to become gainfully employed in those vacant jobs. That means preparing budding educators for what to expect as a teacher in Montana – both the challenges and unique opportunities. 

“Much of the reality of teaching in this state is working in rural areas,” said Dr. Michael Ruybalid, coordinator of music education and a UM assistant professor. “Students need to interact with those teachers.”

That interaction starts early with a 100-level Introduction to Music Education class taught by Ruybalid. The course gets students into working classrooms early, allowing them to observe music teachers at work and ask them questions. Ruybalid said he plans to Zoom students into more music classrooms in further, rural parts of the state.

Music education students embed in classrooms throughout their degree, culminating in a semester of student teaching that ensures undergraduates skillfully transition from pupil to teacher upon graduation, just as UM alumna Hailey Gilboe did. At UM, Gilboe learned to play and teach just about every instrument found in a public school classroom. Nothing prepared her more for her career than the mentorship and hands-on experience she gained student teaching at Lolo School District and Big Sky High School.

“I feel very satisfied in my career, and I feel like I know what I’m doing,” said Gilboe, a K-12 music and band teacher at  Lincoln  Public Schools. “Most of that confidence came from my student teaching.” 

Now in her second year of teaching in Lincoln, an unincorporated area of about 1,000 people, Gilboe said she loves making music with the school’s 100-plus students each day. 

Music class also was Gilboe’s favorite part of the day as a young student growing up in western Washington and  Anaconda , having played flute since fourth grade. When Gilboe chose to turn that passion into a career, a visit to UM where she met School of Music faculty sealed the deal for where to receive that education.

“The statistics for success in this degree looked good from this school,” Gilboe added. 

Come graduation, Gilboe said staying to teach in Montana just felt right, noting her hometown roots and the music education community she connected with as a UM student. 

“I’ve personally had a really positive experience,” Gilboe said of her teaching job. “I have great administration and coworkers who are very supportive.”

Teaching has shown Gilboe how crucial music education is to young students’ social and emotional development. She hopes her classroom is a place for kids to feel safe being themselves while they connect to peers and grow. 

“I don’t expect all my students to become professional musicians, but I want them to be well-balanced people who have healthy connections and feel good about themselves,” Gilboe said. “Music is a good pathway for that.”

Music education alum Paige Kerwin, who graduated last fall, aspires to have a similar impact. Teacher observation courses helped Kerwin hone their own teaching philosophy early before student teaching at Florence-Carlton School District. The one-building school hosts elementary through high school, allowing Kerwin to teach the entire semester there instead of splitting time between different elementary and high schools. 

In addition to becoming an effective educator, student teaching provided Kerwin insight into contracts, paperwork and other essentials that aren’t so easily taught in UM classrooms. 

“Student teaching is your opportunity to figure out what a classroom is really like and how it functions before you have to run your own,” Kerwin said. “It also provides a mentor to ask any questions you may not have learned through college.”

Spending all semester at the school allowed students to warm up to Kerwin. They noted how music educators often teach every grade at a school, uniquely positioning them to forge long-term relationships with students who otherwise get new teachers each year.

“It really allows a connection to be made,” Kerwin said, reflecting on their own experience as a young student who benefitted from music teacher mentors. “After you’re with the same teacher for three or four years, they know how you learn and how you grow.”

Kerwin is substitute teaching while finishing job applications that they hope will bring opportunities in Oregon or Washington, ideally at an elementary school.

Music education student Marian Kale of  Billings  is unsure about working in her home state or leaving to experience different parts of the country, but has time to decide. Kale is student teaching this semester and will take another year to finish a double major in performance and a history minor while applying to graduate schools.

Although she’s played violin since age 3 and has fully immersed herself in the professional music world, Kale nearly opted for a career in science – an idea that feels “completely ludicrous” to her now. But wariness of music teacher horror stories that are told to many prospective educators nearly kept her from following her passion.

Kale acknowledged that warnings about lack of teacher pay and appreciation stem from lived experiences of some music educators. But her time at UM showed her that while music education can be challenging, it’s not unachievable. Kale said warnings can be blown out of proportion and that the “teaching is only for the strong” narrative is true to the extent that educators must have strength, but not that every day in the classroom is a relentless battle.

“This has always been the thing that’s fulfilled me, and obviously lots of people have made a career out of it because that’s how I’m here, that’s why my colleagues are here, why all these students are here,” Kale said.

“I think some people that maybe would go into education aren’t because of all of these scary things they’re told,” she added. “I would say if music is something that students really enjoy, and they've found a passion for teaching, absolutely go for it. Everybody is going to have a unique experience.”

Student teaching five days a week at Big Sky High School and local elementary schools has reaffirmed Kale’s beliefs in her career path. Not only is she learning – she’s having fun.

“It feels like the zenith of the last three-and-a-half years in the music education program,” Kale said. “It’s really nice to just show up and do the thing that we’ve been training to do.”

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What you need to know about culture and arts education

arts education

Despite the obvious essential linkages between culture and education, they are still not sufficiently integrated into education policies and school curricula in many countries globally. These two fields are often considered as separate policy entities and trajectories. Culture and arts education, the result of the two complementary ecosystems, has the potential to bridge this gap.

UNESCO convened the World Conference on Culture and Arts Education in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates from 13 to 15 February 2024 where the first-ever global framework in this area was adopted. Here is what you need to know about this essential issue. 

Why is culture and arts education essential?

Learners engaged in culture and arts education have better academic and non-academic learning outcomes.  Engagement in various art forms , such as music, dance, and visual arts, can enhance academic achievements, reading skills, creative and critical thinking, agility and collaboration skills. Engagement in such education also correlates with improved attendance, stress reduction, resilience, perseverance, and classroom behaviours.

Culture and arts education expands the essence of learning and makes it fun by going beyond classrooms and traditional educational approaches from lifelong learning, to technical and vocational education and training (TVET).  The theatre stage can be a learning space, NFT art can be a promising career, and indigenous ways of knowing and being can, and should, find their way in the curriculum.

Culture and arts education makes learning meaningful by connecting rural with urban, local with global. It plays a crucial role in valorizing and preserving one’s own culture, heritage and traditions while at the same time reflecting on them in the modern world, in the digital era, understanding everyone’s contribution and uniqueness. 

What are the forms culture and arts education can take?

Culture and arts education encompasses learning about, in and through culture and the arts. Therefore, it can occur across subjects, at all levels of education and in various settings. For example, this process is no longer confined to classrooms: museums, art galleries, libraries and cultural heritage sites are considered equal places of learning, whereas artists, cultural professionals and practitioners play an essential role in transmitting knowledge. Culture and arts education engages learners with built and natural heritage, living expressions, and the cultural and creative industries, promoting intercultural dialogue and linguistic diversity, both online and offline.

By incorporating indigenous knowledge and practices, arts education validates and enlivens diverse cultural perspectives. In Indonesia, school students on Java Island can learn more about their heritage from arts education programmes that familiarize them with the traditional art of shadow puppet storytelling called  wayang kulit , from UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritage list. 

How can culture and arts education build skills for the future?

Culture and arts education opens up new employment opportunities.  50 million jobs are created by cultural and creative industries worldwide, and more young people are now employed in the sector than in any other economic activity. While not its primary focus,  culture and arts education cultivates skills such as observation, collaboration, and reflection that are conducive to creativity and adaptability, which are increasingly valued in the modern job market. 

It also builds vital socio-emotional skills to thrive in the world of tomorrow. Research shows that such education fosters compassion for others and empathy. It allows learners to introspect, take different perspectives and develop different ways of understanding the world. Participation in arts activities has also been linked to higher civic engagement, social tolerance, and respectful behaviours towards diversity. 

How can culture and arts education contribute to peace and sustainability?

By connecting local with global and fostering dialogue among generations and cultures, culture and arts education can contribute to peaceful, just, inclusive and sustainable societies. It also offers transformative avenues for reimagining ways of living harmoniously with the earth and preserving social cohesion, which is paramount during times of interrelated global challenges, such as social isolation or environmental crises. For example, freely accessible digitized archives of the leading museums helped learners in different parts of the world connect with other cultures and enrich their learning experiences.

How does arts education address socioeconomic disparities in education?

Integrating culture and arts education into education systems  can help bridge the achievement gap between higher and lower-income students. Research indicates that students from low socioeconomic backgrounds who engage in arts education demonstrate higher academic performance, graduation rates, and motivation to pursue further education.

Culture and arts education can unveil new opportunities and career paths for learners of all ages. For example, technical and vocational education and training in arts and crafts could be a critical social lift, opening new employment opportunities in the context of persisting social inequalities and crises. For example,  UNESCO’s Transcultura program me awards scholarships to young cultural professionals in 17 countries so that they can gain new skills and pursue careers in cultural and creative industries. 

What is the role of UNESCO?

Since its creation, UNESCO has been championing major forward-looking policy transformation processes in culture and education, reaffirming them as global public goods at the forefront of achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Some of the key highlights include the UNESCO  MONDIACULT Conference, initiatives within the  Transforming Education Summit and the revision of  the Recommendation on Education for Peace, Human Rights and Sustainable Development.

As a logical next step after the adoption of the 2006 Lisbon Road Map on Arts Education and the 2010 Seoul Agenda, UNESCO convened the  World Conference on Culture and Arts Education to mobilize political commitment around culture and arts education as a powerful lever to transform learning and shape critical skills for future generations. 

As a result of the Conference, UNESCO Member States adopted the new UNESCO Framework on Culture and Arts Education . This guidance document provides a set of principles all stakeholders can follow for shaping and further institutionalizing culture and arts education. It outlines specific goals such education should pursue and concrete dimensions where synergetic links between culture and education should be fostered for the benefit of all learners.

  • World Conference on Culture and Arts Education  
  • UNESCO’s work on  Culture and Education  

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Gibson Gives: Striking a Chord for Change in Music Education and Beyond

Julien's and Gibson Gives continue to raise funds and awareness about the importance of music education and community support.

February 24, 2024

In the vibrant world of music, few names resonate as profoundly as Gibson. Synonymous with quality craftsmanship and iconic sounds, Gibson has not only shaped the landscape of music through its instruments but also through its philanthropic arm, Gibson Gives. This organization is dedicated to making a tangible impact on music education, health and wellness initiatives, and community support, embodying the belief that music has the power to transform lives.

Established with a vision to create and support a universe where every person has access to music, Gibson Gives operates on the principle that music is a universal language capable of bridging divides, healing wounds, and uplifting spirits. The organization focuses on providing resources for music education programs, supporting health and wellness initiatives within the music community, and fostering inclusive environments that encourage participation and innovation.

One of Gibson Gives' most impactful strategies has been partnering with musicians, educators, and other organizations to amplify their reach and effectiveness. By donating guitars and music instruments to schools, community programs, and music therapy initiatives, Gibson Gives ensures that the joy and education of music are accessible to all, regardless of economic barriers.

For over 125 years Gibson has been shaping, contributing, and supporting sound through their guitars…across many generations and genres of music.In 2002 the Gibson Foundation was officially established (as a 501(c)3) and has since provided thousands of guitars and related value-in-kind and donations in excess of $46M.As we look to the future for both Gibson Brands and the Gibson Foundation, we have an opportunity and an obligation to re-build with an aligned approach going forward.

A notable aspect of Gibson Gives' success is its collaboration with Julien’s Auctions, which has significantly expanded its fundraising capabilities. Through auctions featuring guitars signed by some of the most exciting musicians of our time, including Lana Del Rey, Willie Nelson, Dwight Yoakam, and many others, Gibson Gives leverages the appeal of music memorabilia to fund its initiatives. These auctions not only raise funds but also awareness about the importance of music education and community support.

Gibson Gives stands as a beacon of hope and support in the music world, proving that companies can play a crucial role in fostering positive change. Through its dedication to music education, community support, and health and wellness initiatives, Gibson Gives illustrates the profound impact that music can have on individuals and society as a whole. As Gibson Gives continues to expand its reach and impact, it serves as a powerful example of how corporate philanthropy can harmonize with community needs to create a more inclusive and supportive music ecosystem.

In the ever-evolving narrative of music's role in society, Gibson Gives is writing a compelling chapter, one that underscores the transformative power of giving back through music.

You now have an opportunity to support Gibson and their mission by bidding on 22 featured guitars in our upcoming Music Icons sale taking place February 27th online . Be sure to register and bid today before it's too late.

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A 2019 Gibson Custom Shop '59 Les Paul Reissue electric guitar, serial number CME90218 in Dirty Lemon finish with gently-flamed maple top with accurate vintage appearance, in original hard case. Signed by Lana Del Rey on the guitar's top around the bridge and tailpiece area.

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  • Oscar-Nominated ‘The Last Repair Shop’ A Gift That Keeps Giving To L.A.: Latest Is $15M Capital Campaign

By Matthew Carey

Matthew Carey

Documentary Editor, Awards

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LAUSD students perform at a screening of 'The Last Repair Shop' at Hollywood High School

The LAUSD Education Foundation is embarking on a major capital campaign to benefit the musical instrument repair operation documented in the Oscar-nominated film The Last Repair Shop .

The $15 million campaign, revealed at an event at Hollywood High School Tuesday night, will invest in the repair workshop’s skilled craftspeople and support staff, and fund “a student apprenticeship program that will build the next generation of instrument technicians.”

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The Hollywood High School auditorium exterior with banners featuring the cast of 'The Last Repair Shop'

The documentary short, distributed by Searchlight Pictures and L.A. Times Studios, tells the moving life stories of four of the key professionals who maintain 80,000 musical instruments provided free of charge to any and all students of the L.A. Unified School District: Dana Atkinson, who repairs stringed instruments, Duane Michaels (woodwinds), Paty Moreno (brass), and Steve Bagmanyan, who rose from piano tuner to become supervisor of the shop. It also showcases the talents of young musicians who benefit from the LAUSD’s musical instrument program – kids on violin, piano, sousaphone, sax, and just about every other instrument imaginable. Almost the entire cast was on hand for Tuesday night’s event.

Young musicians featured in 'The Last Repair Shop' (L-R) Porché Brinker, Ismerai Calcaneo, and Amanda Nova, pose with co-directors Kris Bowers and Ben Proudfoot. 

Bowers, a gifted pianist and leading Hollywood composer (Ava DuVernay’s Origin , Green Book , Bob Marley: One Love , The Color Purple ) attended LAUSD schools and developed his talent on pianos maintained by Bagmanyan. “Bowers and Searchlight Pictures made the first gift of the campaign by giving restored 1913 Steinway & Sons K-52 upright piano to Third Street Elementary School, where Kris Bowers attended as a young man,” a release noted.

“Ben and I can’t think of a better impact for our film to make,” Bowers said of the capital campaign. “I came up learning piano on an LAUSD upright. I know firsthand what having access to a working instrument can mean for a young kid who yearns to express themselves through music. And we are so excited that the LAUSD Education Foundation and The Broad Foundation have been inspired by our film to launch this worthy campaign that will change the lives of young Angelenos for generations to come.”

Proudfoot and Bowers earned Oscar nominations in 2021 for their short documentary A Concerto Is a Conversation , which centered on Bowers’ grandfather, Horace Bowers Sr. Proudfoot won the Oscar in 2022 for his short The Queen of Basketball , about hoops star Lucy Harris.

The Last Repair Shop , winner of the Critics’ Choice Documentary Award for best short among other honors, can be seen for free on L.A. Times’ YouTube channel, as well as streaming platforms Disney+ and Hulu.

The Eli and Edythe Broad Foundation   has come on board as an early supporter of the capital campaign. Public donations to The Last Repair Shop Fund can be made at thelastrepairshop.com.

In the video below, Bowers on piano joins an all-city marching band to perform his composition “The Alumni,” with Vince Womack conducting.

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Construction work contines on Phillips Academy’s new music center being built behind the Robert S. Peabody Institute of Archaeology on Main Street in Andover. The new music hall is on Phillips Street.

  • TIM JEAN/Staff photo

Phillips Academy is building a new, $27 million music center.

Construction continues on Phillips Academy’s new music center.

Phillips Academy’s new music center is on Phillips Street.

  • TIM JEAN/Staff photos

Construction work continues.

Phillips Academy is building a new music center behind the Robert S. Peabody Institute of Archaeology on Main Street in Andover.

A rendering by Architectural Resources of Cambridge shows a planned performance hall, which is part of a $60 million music hall project.

  • Courtesy of Phillips Academy

Artist rendition of the new Phillips Academy music hall.

New PA music center to be complete by fall

ANDOVER — Music will soon have a new home at Phillips Academy.

Construction on the 30,000-square-foot Falls Music Center is set to be complete by the fall, according to Music Department chair Abbey Siegfried. Though she added once complete the building will have to be “tuned.”

The center will include three different performance spaces, including a 250-seat hall, three classrooms, 18 practice rooms and a library.

The project is being funded in part with $24 million from the school’s “Knowledge & Goodness” campaign. The campaign, which ran from 2017 to 2022, raised more than $400 million. While a specific cost estimate was not available from school officials, according to town of Andover building permits, the total cost of the project is at least $60 million.

The center is named in honor of Board of Trustees President and donor Amy Falls and her husband, Hartley Rogers. Siegfried praised Falls and her family, including her three daughters, one of whom was heavily involved in the school’s choral program.

“They just care so deeply about the school,” she said. “She (Amy Falls) is just an amazing woman.”

“Music has played a significant role in our family’s life,” said Falls in a 2023 Phillips Academy newsletter. “With this new building, we have a tremendous opportunity to promote music as essential to the performing arts and cultural diversity of our community — both are vital to the Andover experience.”

It’s rare for a building on campus to be named for a woman.

“It’s a big deal,” she said. “It’s not the norm on the PA campus.”

Falls was also the first woman to be named president of the Board of Trustees.

Siegfried said the project has been in the works for a decade, but that fundraising for the project took off during and after the pandemic.

“There just seems to be this renewed appreciation for music,” she said.

Siegfried said “tuning” the center will be accomplished with adjustments to acoustic panels in the building. This is done by changing the length and angle of the panels.

Siegfried took over as chair of the music department in 2020.

The center will replace Graves Hall, which was originally the science building for the academy, before being transitioned into the music building. It is unclear what is happening to Graves Hall.

Siegfried said the department is “hampered” by a lack of new technology and that students are very excited about the new recording studio.

The building will also include an atrium, which she said was part of an effort to make the building “more than a classroom.”

“We are always looking for spaces to gather,” she said.

She said the building blends the traditional red brick look of the campus with a more modern look. Siegfried said there was also an attempt to bring as much natural light into the center as possible.

“Being in those spaces with these big windows, being able to see the bell tower and see across campus, it’s amazing how much the beautiful natural surroundings are coming in,” she said.

Siegfried added that all Phillips Academy concerts are free and open to the public.

“The community is always welcome,” she said.

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