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shhh —

After concorde, a long road back to supersonic air travel, supersonic flight without loud booms nasa is working on that..

Jacek Krywko - Mar 29, 2024 10:45 am UTC

When Chuck Yeager reached Mach 1 on October 14, 1947, the entire frame of his Bell X-1 aircraft suddenly started to shake, and the controls went. A crew observing the flight in a van on the ground reported hearing something like a distant, rolling thunder. They were probably the first people on Earth to hear a boom made by a supersonic aircraft.

The boom felt like an innocent curiosity at first but soon turned into a nightmare. In no time, supersonic jets—F-100 Super Sabers, F-101 Voodoos, and B-58 Hustlers—came to Air Force bases across the US, and with them came the booms. Proper, panes-flying-off-the windows supersonic booms. People filed over 40,000 complaints about nuisance and property damage caused by booming jets, which eventually ended up with the Federal Aviation Administration imposing a Mach 1 speed limit for flights over land in 1973.

Now, NASA wants this ban to go. It has started the Quesst mission to go fast over American cities once more. But this time, it wants to do it quietly.

Breaking the sound barrier

The reason Yeager’s X-1 was so difficult to control at Mach 1 was not an actual “sound barrier” the plane broke. The “barrier” aspect is purely metaphorical. While Yeager’s plane experienced turbulence and shaking, it was due to rising drag and aircraft design.

At subsonic speeds, the airflow around the wings, tail, and fuselage is smooth. But at supersonic speeds, the air going over irregular shapes— the nose, canopy, and wings—accelerates to above the speed of sound. Then, where the curvature of the wing or canopy becomes less pronounced, it starts to build up pressure and decelerate back below Mach 1, a phenomenon known as “adverse pressure.” This creates shockwaves, and those are what cause supersonic booms and change the way wings, flaps, and other control surfaces behave in an airplane. The X-1 started acting so wild at Mach 1 because its aerodynamics weren’t designed for supersonic flight.

How loud is the boom?

A supersonic jet boom sounds like a thunder strike hitting nearby—a product of the shockwaves generated mainly by the nose and tail of the aircraft. The boom usually falls between 100 and 110 on a perceived level decibel scale (PLdB), which is used to quantify how people experience sound. A car door slam 100 feet away is 60 PLdB; distant thunder, like the one the ground crew heard during Yeager’s first supersonic flight, is around 70 PLdB. A supersonic boom is on par with a nearby thunder strike, which falls at around 105–110 PLdB.

It’s really freaking loud. And you can easily make it even louder.

This 110 PLdB is estimated for an airplane in a steady, level flight at high altitude. These conditions create what’s known as a “carpet boom” that tracks the aircraft on the ground for the entire time it flies supersonic.

Transitions from subsonic to supersonic speeds and vice versa result in so-called “focus booms,” which can be up to three to four times louder than a carpet boom. This likely gave rise to the popular misconception that the boom is heard only when a plane breaks the sound barrier.

Focus booms are also caused by maneuvers like pitch and dive, where an aircraft gains altitude, levels, and flies back down; turns made with aggressive banking angles work as well. Unlike carpet booms, the booms made by transitions and maneuvers are singular events. The military even tested whether those amplified booms could be projected at chosen spots on the ground to weaponize them. As it turned out, you could do targeted booms, but they proved more scary than lethal.

But despite all the problems with booming, the allure of superior speed was irresistible. Supersonic airplanes could cut the time of transatlantic flights by half. So back in the mid-1950s, when the FAA’s Mach 1 speed limit was still many years away, British and French engineers got to the drawing board and conceived one of the most breathtaking airliners to ever pierce the sky: Concorde.

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The Effects of Climate Change

The effects of human-caused global warming are happening now, are irreversible for people alive today, and will worsen as long as humans add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

• We already see effects scientists predicted, such as the loss of sea ice, melting glaciers and ice sheets, sea level rise, and more intense heat waves.
• Scientists predict global temperature increases from human-made greenhouse gases will continue. Severe weather damage will also increase and intensify.

Earth Will Continue to Warm and the Effects Will Be Profound

Global climate change is not a future problem. Changes to Earth’s climate driven by increased human emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases are already having widespread effects on the environment: glaciers and ice sheets are shrinking, river and lake ice is breaking up earlier, plant and animal geographic ranges are shifting, and plants and trees are blooming sooner.

Effects that scientists had long predicted would result from global climate change are now occurring, such as sea ice loss, accelerated sea level rise, and longer, more intense heat waves.

The magnitude and rate of climate change and associated risks depend strongly on near-term mitigation and adaptation actions, and projected adverse impacts and related losses and damages escalate with every increment of global warming.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Some changes (such as droughts, wildfires, and extreme rainfall) are happening faster than scientists previously assessed. In fact, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) — the United Nations body established to assess the science related to climate change — modern humans have never before seen the observed changes in our global climate, and some of these changes are irreversible over the next hundreds to thousands of years.

Scientists have high confidence that global temperatures will continue to rise for many decades, mainly due to greenhouse gases produced by human activities.

The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment report, published in 2021, found that human emissions of heat-trapping gases have already warmed the climate by nearly 2 degrees Fahrenheit (1.1 degrees Celsius) since 1850-1900. 1 The global average temperature is expected to reach or exceed 1.5 degrees C (about 3 degrees F) within the next few decades. These changes will affect all regions of Earth.

The severity of effects caused by climate change will depend on the path of future human activities. More greenhouse gas emissions will lead to more climate extremes and widespread damaging effects across our planet. However, those future effects depend on the total amount of carbon dioxide we emit. So, if we can reduce emissions, we may avoid some of the worst effects.

The scientific evidence is unequivocal: climate change is a threat to human wellbeing and the health of the planet. Any further delay in concerted global action will miss the brief, rapidly closing window to secure a liveable future.

Here are some of the expected effects of global climate change on the United States, according to the Third and Fourth National Climate Assessment Reports:

Future effects of global climate change in the United States:

U.S. Sea Level Likely to Rise 1 to 6.6 Feet by 2100

Global sea level has risen about 8 inches (0.2 meters) since reliable record-keeping began in 1880. By 2100, scientists project that it will rise at least another foot (0.3 meters), but possibly as high as 6.6 feet (2 meters) in a high-emissions scenario. Sea level is rising because of added water from melting land ice and the expansion of seawater as it warms. Image credit: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0

Climate Changes Will Continue Through This Century and Beyond

Global climate is projected to continue warming over this century and beyond. Image credit: Khagani Hasanov, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Hurricanes Will Become Stronger and More Intense

Scientists project that hurricane-associated storm intensity and rainfall rates will increase as the climate continues to warm. Image credit: NASA

More Droughts and Heat Waves

Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves (periods of abnormally hot weather lasting days to weeks) are projected to become more intense, and cold waves less intense and less frequent. Image credit: NOAA

Longer Wildfire Season

Warming temperatures have extended and intensified wildfire season in the West, where long-term drought in the region has heightened the risk of fires. Scientists estimate that human-caused climate change has already doubled the area of forest burned in recent decades. By around 2050, the amount of land consumed by wildfires in Western states is projected to further increase by two to six times. Even in traditionally rainy regions like the Southeast, wildfires are projected to increase by about 30%.

Changes in Precipitation Patterns

Climate change is having an uneven effect on precipitation (rain and snow) in the United States, with some locations experiencing increased precipitation and flooding, while others suffer from drought. On average, more winter and spring precipitation is projected for the northern United States, and less for the Southwest, over this century. Image credit: Marvin Nauman/FEMA

Frost-Free Season (and Growing Season) will Lengthen

The length of the frost-free season, and the corresponding growing season, has been increasing since the 1980s, with the largest increases occurring in the western United States. Across the United States, the growing season is projected to continue to lengthen, which will affect ecosystems and agriculture.

Global Temperatures Will Continue to Rise

Summer of 2023 was Earth's hottest summer on record, 0.41 degrees Fahrenheit (F) (0.23 degrees Celsius (C)) warmer than any other summer in NASA’s record and 2.1 degrees F (1.2 C) warmer than the average summer between 1951 and 1980. Image credit: NASA

Arctic Is Very Likely to Become Ice-Free

Sea ice cover in the Arctic Ocean is expected to continue decreasing, and the Arctic Ocean will very likely become essentially ice-free in late summer if current projections hold. This change is expected to occur before mid-century.

U.S. Regional Effects

Climate change is bringing different types of challenges to each region of the country. Some of the current and future impacts are summarized below. These findings are from the Third 3 and Fourth 4 National Climate Assessment Reports, released by the U.S. Global Change Research Program .

• Northeast. Heat waves, heavy downpours, and sea level rise pose increasing challenges to many aspects of life in the Northeast. Infrastructure, agriculture, fisheries, and ecosystems will be increasingly compromised. Farmers can explore new crop options, but these adaptations are not cost- or risk-free. Moreover, adaptive capacity , which varies throughout the region, could be overwhelmed by a changing climate. Many states and cities are beginning to incorporate climate change into their planning.
• Northwest. Changes in the timing of peak flows in rivers and streams are reducing water supplies and worsening competing demands for water. Sea level rise, erosion, flooding, risks to infrastructure, and increasing ocean acidity pose major threats. Increasing wildfire incidence and severity, heat waves, insect outbreaks, and tree diseases are causing widespread forest die-off.
• Southeast. Sea level rise poses widespread and continuing threats to the region’s economy and environment. Extreme heat will affect health, energy, agriculture, and more. Decreased water availability will have economic and environmental impacts.
• Midwest. Extreme heat, heavy downpours, and flooding will affect infrastructure, health, agriculture, forestry, transportation, air and water quality, and more. Climate change will also worsen a range of risks to the Great Lakes.
• Southwest. Climate change has caused increased heat, drought, and insect outbreaks. In turn, these changes have made wildfires more numerous and severe. The warming climate has also caused a decline in water supplies, reduced agricultural yields, and triggered heat-related health impacts in cities. In coastal areas, flooding and erosion are additional concerns.

1. IPCC 2021, Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis , the Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

2. IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

3. USGCRP 2014, Third Climate Assessment .

4. USGCRP 2017, Fourth Climate Assessment .

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Biomaterials Science

Fibrous capsule-resistant, controllably degradable and functionalizable zwitterion-albumin hybrid hydrogels †.

* Corresponding authors

a MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecule Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P. R. China E-mail: [email protected]

b International Research Center for X Polymers, International Campus, Zhejiang University, Haining, P. R. China

Foreign body response (FBR) represents an immune-mediated cascade reaction capable of inducing the rejection of foreign implants, thereby compromising their in vivo performance. Pure zwitterionic hydrogels have demonstrated the ability to resist long-term FBR, owing to their outstanding antifouling capabilities. However, achieving such a robust anti-FBR effect necessitates stringent requirements concerning the purity of zwitterionic materials, which constrains their broader functional applications. Herein, we present a biocompatible, controllably degradable, and functionalizable zwitterion-albumin hybrid hydrogel. The zwitterionic hydrogel crosslinked with serum albumin exhibits controllable degradation and excels in preventing the adsorption of various proteins and adhesion of cells and bacteria. Moreover, the hydrogel significantly alleviates the host's FBR compared with PEG hydrogels and particularly outperforms PEG-based cross-linker crosslinked zwitterionic hydrogels in reducing collagen encapsulation when subcutaneously implanted into mice. The zwitterion-albumin hybrid hydrogel shows potential as a functionalizable anti-FBR material in the context of implantable materials and biomedical devices.

• This article is part of the themed collection: Biomedical Polymer Materials

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Fibrous capsule-resistant, controllably degradable and functionalizable zwitterion-albumin hybrid hydrogels

Z. Liu, X. Zhou, Y. Chen, Y. Ni, Z. Zhu, W. Cao, K. Chen, Y. Yan, J. Ji and P. Zhang, Biomater. Sci. , 2024,  12 , 468 DOI: 10.1039/D3BM01783D

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March 27, 2024

Does Long-Term Benadryl Use Increase Dementia Risk?

Benadryl, which contains diphenhydramine, is a drugstore mainstay and just one medication out of many that could possibly damage brain health

By Hannah Seo

John Kuczala/Getty Images

In the past few months TikTok videos about the over-the-counter antihistamine Benadryl have gone viral because of research suggesting that long-term use of the popular drug is associated with an increased risk of developing dementia. And similar effects on memory and cognition have also been suggested for dozens of other common medications.

Benadryl is a brand-name medication that contains diphenhydramine, the active ingredient in many allergy, cold and anti-itch drugs. It can cause significant drowsiness and is also found in several sleep aids. Diphenhydramine has anticholinergic effects, meaning it blocks the action of a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine. Medical uses of anticholinergics go beyond allergy relief; drugs in this class have long been used as prescription tricyclic antidepressants and incontinence treatments, as well as over-the-counter sleep aids. But experts have been finding evidence that links anticholinergics to increased dementia risks. “That’s now clear, and we have plenty of data to back it up,” says Malaz Boustani, a geriatrician and neuroscientist at the Indiana University School of Medicine. He and other researchers are now trying to determine whether anticholinergics really are contributing to dementia development in any way—and if so, what exactly is happening in the brains of vulnerable adults.

Anticholinergics inhibit the parasympathetic nervous system , which regulates rest and stress responses. The drugs do this by binding to brain cell receptors and blocking acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that plays a part in many bodily systems, including heart regulation, muscle contractions, urination and digestion. Acetylcholine also affects attention and memory—and a lack of the neurotransmitter in the brain has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease . When bound to receptors, anticholinergics prevent acetylcholine from acting on the parasympathetic nervous system, often causing effects such as dry mouth. These medications can also make people groggy by blocking histamine receptors, which are involved in alertness as well as allergies. Side effects should fade once the drug is out of someone’s system (which in Benadryl’s case would be within a couple of days). But Boustani says less is known about the effects of regular or heavy use.

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A 2015 paper in JAMA Internal Medicine offered some striking insight into possible long-term effects. The hallmark study—which became the basis for the recent viral TikToks—observed adults 65 years or older who had been taking various kinds and amounts of anticholinergic drugs for 10 years. The group reporting the highest amount of such use had a 54 percent increased risk of developing dementia. Since the study, a steady stream of new research has corroborated this link.

The studies show an association between dementia risk and the quantity and frequency of anticholinergic use. One capsule of Benadryl to relieve an allergy every once in a while probably won’t affect someone all that much, but repeated doses of anticholinergic drugs over months or years pose a greater risk, Boustani says. Taking multiple anticholinergics for multiple conditions may also increase your exposure and could raise the risk further, he adds. Another consideration is that some of these drugs have more potent effects than others. Boustani’s team created the Anticholinergic Cognitive Burden (ACB) Scale , a list of drugs with scores based on their potential negative effects on the brain. The scale goes from 1 (possibly an anticholinergic burden) to 3 (definitely a strong anticholinergic burden), Boustani says. For example, someone taking three anticholinergic drugs, all with a score of 1, will have a total anticholinergic cognitive burden score of 3. Boustani says that person may see roughly the same cumulative effects as someone who just takes one anticholinergic with a score of 3. There are currently no protocols or recommendations for doctors and pharmacists to consider a person’s ACB score when prescribing drugs. But the American Geriatrics Society maintains a list of drugs older people should avoid, and it does include many anticholinergic medications.

Researchers are still digging into the specific brain mechanisms that may be involved in elevated dementia risk from these drugs, Boustani says. A leading hypothesis suggests this might be related to how the drugs interact with neurotransmitter receptors. Long-term anticholinergic use might leave acetylcholine receptors perpetually blocked, triggering a series of reactions that either leads to the production of beta-amyloid—a toxic protein thought to be a main cause of dementia—or prevents the brain from clearing this protein out. Researchers have suggested these drugs might affect inflammation and blood flow in the brain, which may result in memory loss and weakened cognition. But so far this research is inconclusive.

Some experts are skeptical that anticholinergics play a role in developing dementia; they suspect the drugs may instead worsen underlying cognitive issues. Ariel Gildengers, a psychiatrist at the University of Pittsburgh, led a 2023 study that did not show a link between anticholinergics and developing dementia. But it did show a link between the drugs and mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a condition in which people have worse cognitive function than expected at their age but do not meet the criteria for dementia. And MCI does have a noticeable chance of turning into dementia. About 10 to 15 percent of people living with MCI develop dementia each year, according to the Alzheimer’s Association . “If you are in the earliest stages of dementia, then anticholinergics may kind of make the dementia more apparent without actually causing the dementia,” Gildengers says.

Research in this area has several major caveats, says Shelly Gray, a pharmacy professor at the University of Washington, who was the first author of the 2015 JAMA paper. “We cannot determine that anticholinergics actually cause dementia” because the 2015 study and others on the relationship have been observational, she says. Clinical trials are needed to confirm causation. Most of these studies are also done in adults aged 65 and older, who are more likely to develop dementia than younger adults and more likely to face medical conditions such as insomnia, which are often treated with anticholinergics. Gray, Boustani and Gildengers say that they keep these possible confounding factors in mind when they design and analyze their studies.

Because research has focused mostly on older adults, there is less evidence on whether younger people who take anticholinergics have increased risk of dementia later in life. Gray says it’s generally a good idea to avoid anticholinergics, however, especially if you’re older. “A big reason why we're seeing anticholinergic medications used by older adults is because they are available over the counter,” Gray says. Many readily available medications have anticholinergic active ingredients, including Benadryl, as well as the antihistamine Dimetapp (which contains the drug brompheniramine), the motion sickness medication Dramamine (dimenhydrinate) and the sleep aid Unisom (doxylamine).

Many anticholinergics can be swapped with other options, Gray says. For example, studies show that cognitive behavioral therapy is often effective for insomnia. "Second-generation antihistamines,” such as those in Claritin and Zyrtec, along with steroid-based nasal sprays such as Flonase, will counteract allergy symptoms without targeting acetylcholine receptors—says Jyothi Tirumalasetty, a clinical assistant professor of medicine at Stanford University, who specializes in allergy and immunology.

The Food and Drug Administration first approved Benadryl as a prescription antihistamine in 1946 and for over-the-counter sales in 1980s. Given the research on potential risks, Tirumalasetty says the FDA might evaluate the drug’s safety differently today and may consider making it available only through prescription. The FDA did not respond to a request for comment by the time of publication . In an e-mail to Scientific American, Kenvue (formerly a division of Johnson & Johnson and Benadryl’s current proprietor) wrote, “We are not aware of any studies that show a causal link between labeled use of diphenhydramine, and an increased risk of developing dementia. Diphenhydramine is an ingredient which is generally recognized as safe and effective by the FDA for [over-the-counter] use.”

Researchers are continuing to investigate anticholinergics and their possible long-term effects on brain health, hoping to help with future clinical and regulation guidance. Boustani says many questions persist, such as how the timing of taking or discontinuing these drugs affects the development of future memory problems.

For now, Boustani is focused on empowering his patients, especially older adults, with the ability to understand their medications and any attendant risks. He says people taking or considering an anticholinergic at any age should ask themselves a few questions: “Are there any alternatives? What symptoms am I addressing, and is alleviating them worth this risk? What is the smallest dose and time period I can take this medication for?”

“The brain is a precious organ,” Boustani says. “There is no health without brain health.”

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A Lunar Eclipse Warms Up the Moon for April’s Solar Eclipse

The subtle event, known as a penumbral eclipse, can be observed by everyone on Earth’s nightside.

• Share full article

By Katrina Miller

Katrina Miller is part of a team of journalists reporting on April 8’s solar eclipse for The Times, the last time a total eclipse will be visible in most of North America for 20 years.

As the moon prepares to blot out the surface of our sun in two weeks, it’s warming up with a penumbral lunar eclipse on Sunday night or Monday morning, depending on your time zone.

In general, eclipses are the result of a delicate dance between the moon, the sun and the Earth. Lunar eclipses occur when the planet slides between the sun and the moon. That’s in contrast to a solar eclipse, which happens when the moon interjects between the other two bodies.

“It’s all about shadows,” said Noah Petro, a planetary geologist who works on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter for NASA. The sun beams light on Earth, casting a long shadow behind it.

“And every once in a while, the moon wanders into that shadow,” Dr. Petro said.

In the most dramatic version of the event, the darkest part of Earth’s shadow washes over the lunar surface, making it shine crimson. This is a total lunar eclipse, also known as a blood moon .

But you won’t see that happen overnight. At 12:53 a.m. Eastern time on Monday , the moon will start to pass through only the outermost part of Earth’s shadow, known as the penumbra. As a result, its full face will slightly dim.

Is that worth trying to see? Dr. Petro thinks so. But the change will be difficult to catch with the naked eye, so he encourages using binoculars or a telescope, and taking note of how the moon’s brightness changes through the night.

Lunar eclipses happen slowly over several hours, Dr. Petro said, so “if you only go out once to look at it, you may not even notice that it’s happening.”

Unlike their solar counterparts, lunar eclipses can be viewed by everyone on the nightside of Earth. According to Dr. Petro, the reason for this difference has to do with the varying sizes of the celestial bodies.

Because Earth is so much bigger than the moon, its shadow is large enough to envelop the entire lunar surface — an effect that tonight will be visible to people across much of the Americas. Skywatchers in the western half of Africa, and in eastern parts of Asia and Australia, might also see some of the eclipse.

The moon, on the other hand, is much smaller than our planet. So during a solar eclipse, it plunges only a narrow path on Earth’s surface into darkness.

Different though they are, the two celestial events are related. Both have to do with the alignment of the moon, Earth and sun, but in different orientations. Lunar and solar eclipses always occur in pairs, two weeks apart — the amount of time it takes for the moon to move from one side of Earth to the other.

“The moon is this dance partner that we’ve now had for four and a half billion years,” Dr. Petro said, adding that both kinds of eclipses should remind us of the importance of our cosmic companion .

“We are part of a system,” Dr. Petro said. “Eclipses are great reminders that we are not alone in space.”

Katrina Miller is a science reporting fellow for The Times. She recently earned her Ph.D. in particle physics from the University of Chicago. More about Katrina Miller